NOUNS I. KINDS OF NOUNS 1. Concrete Nouns are names of something or someone that we experience through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns. A. Common and Proper Nouns Common noun is a word that names people, places, things, or ideas. They are not the names of a single person, place or thing. A common noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. People:- man, girl, boy, mother, father, child, person, teacher, student Animals:- cat, dog, fish, ant, snake Things:- book, table, chair, phone Places:- school, city, building, shop Ideas:- love, hate, idea, pride Proper nouns ( also called proper names) are the words which name specific people, organisations or places. They always start with a capital letter. Each part of a person's name is a proper noun:- Lynne Hand - Elizabeth Helen Ruth Jones ... The names of companies, organisations or trade marks:- Microsoft - Rolls Royce - the Round Table - WWW Given or pet names of animals:- Lassie Trigger Sam The names of cities and countries and words derived from those proper nouns:- Paris - London - New York - England - English Geographical and Celestial Names:- the Red Sea - Alpha Centauri - Mars Monuments, buildings, meeting rooms:- The Taj Mahal - The Eiffel Tower - Room 222 Historical events, documents, laws, and periods:- the Civil War - the Industrial Revolution - World War I

B. Collective Nouns A collective noun is a noun that can be singular in form whilst referring to a group of people or things. Collective nouns are sometimes confused with mass nouns. Groups of people - army, audience, band, choir, class, committee, crew, family, gang, jury, orchestra, police, staff, team, trio Groups of animals - colony, flock, herd, pack, pod, school, swarm Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump, pair, set, stack The use of "of" We often say a group of things, such as a bunch of flowers, or a host of golden daffodils. Some collective nouns can stand alone, such as "Britain has an army", but if the collective noun "army" is used to mean something other than an organized military force, you can say things like "an army of women" or "an army of ants", and even "an army of one". Plural or singular? When a group is considered as a single unit, the collective noun is used with a singular verb and singular pronoun. For example - The committee has reached its decision. When the focus is on the individual parts of the group, British English sometimes uses a plural verb and plural pronouns. For example - "The committee have been arguing all morning." This is the same as saying "The people in the committe have been ...." However, if you are talking about more than one committee, then you use the plural form. For example - "Many committees have been formed over the years." A determiner in front of a singular collective noun is always singular: this committee , never these committee (but of course when the collective noun is pluralized, it takes a plural determiner: these committees ). C. Compound Nouns Compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns in English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives. For example: The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you join them together they form a new word - toothpaste. The word black is an adjective and board is a noun, but if you join them together they form a new word - blackboard. In both these example the first word modifies or describes the second word, telling us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. And the second part identifies the object or person in question. Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words:- Noun + Noun toothpaste Adjective + Noun monthly ticket Verb + Noun swimming pool Prepositio + Noun underground n Noun + Verb haircut Prepositio Noun + hanger on n Adjective + Verb dry-cleaning Prepositio + Verb output n The two parts may be written in a number of ways:- 1. Sometimes the two words are joined together. Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom 2. Sometimes they are joined using a hyphen. Example: check-in 3. Sometimes they appear as two separate words. Example: full moon D. Count and Mass Nouns Count nouns can be "counted", they have a singular and plural form. For example:  A book, two books, three books .....  An apple, two apples, three apples .... Uncountable Nouns or Mass nouns cannot be counted, they are not separate objects. This means you cannot make them plural by adding -s, because they only have a singular form. It also means that they do not take a/an or a number in front of them. For example:  Water  Work  Information  Coffee  Sand Count Nouns Mass Nouns (use a/an or a number in (there is no a/an or number with uncountable front of countable nouns) nouns) An Apple / 1 Apple Rice I eat an apple every day. I eat rice every day. (not I eat a rice every day.) Add (s) to make a countable There is no plural form for an uncountable noun plural noun apples rice I eat an apple every day. I eat rice every day. Rice is good for you. Apples are good for you. To make uncountable nouns countable add a A computer= Computers are counting word, such as a unit of measurement, or fun. the general word piece. We use the form "a ...... of ...... " An elephant=Elephants are Rice=a grain of rice large. Water=a glass of water Rain=a drop of rain Music=a piece of music You can use some and any You can use some and any with uncountable with countable nouns. nouns. Some dogs can be dangerous. I usually drink some wine with my meal. I don't use any computers at I don't usually drink any water with my wine. work. You only use many and few You only use much and little with uncountable with plural countable nouns. nouns. I don't usually drink much coffee. So many elephants have been Little wine is undrinkable though. hunted that they are an endangered species. There are few elephants in England. You can use a lot of and no You can use a lot of and no with uncountable with plural countable nouns. nouns. A lot of wine is drunk in France. No computers were bought last No wine is drunk in Iran. week. A lot of computers were reported broken the week before. Some mass nouns refer to groups of specific things. For example:- Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the mass noun furniture. Plates, saucers, cups and bowls are grouped under the mass noun crockery. Knives, forks, spoons etc. are grouped under the collective noun cutlery. When you are travelling suitcases, bags etc. are grouped under the mass noun luggage / baggage. Making uncountable nouns countable You can make most uncountable noun countable by putting a countable expression in front of the noun. For example:-  A piece of information.  2 glasses of water.  10 litres of coffee.  Three grains of sand.  A pane of glass. Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns The notion of countable and uncountable can be confusing. Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on their meaning. Usually a noun is uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning (when you don't think of it as a separate object) and countable when used in a particular meaning (when you can think of it as a separate object). For example:- glass - Two glasses of water. (Countable) | A window made of glass. (Uncountable) | glasses - I wear glasses. (Always plural) Some supposedly uncountable nouns can behave like countable nouns if we think of them as being in containers, or one of several types. This is because 'containers' and 'types' can be counted. Believe it or not each of these sentences is correct:- Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two coffees a day. (Here coffees refers to the number of cups of coffee) You could write; "Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two cups of coffee a day." The coffees I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian. (Here coffees refers to different types of coffee) You could write; "The types of coffee I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian." 2. Abstract Nouns abstract noun is a noun that you cannot sense, it is the name we give to an emotion, ideal or idea. They have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch, smell or taste them. The opposite of an abstract noun is a concrete noun. For example:- Justice; an idea, bravery and happiness are all abstract nouns. Here is an a-z list of some common abstract nouns:- adoration artistry belief bravery compassio calm charity childhood comfort n dexterity ego failure faith feelings friendship happiness hate honesty hope idea impression infatuation joy law liberty love loyalty maturity memory omen peace pride principle power redemptio romance n sadness sensitivity skill sleep success sympathy talent thrill truth wit

II. NUMBER OF NOUNS A noun is either singular or plural, that is, generally, a word which denotes one thing is singular and a word which denotes more than one is plural. 1. Most nouns form their plurals by adding an –s to the singular. Boy – boys book – books fence - fences Set – sets papaya – papayas statue – statues 2. Nouns ending in s, ch, sh, x or z form their plurals by adding an –es. Church – churches sash – sashes box – boxes 3. Proper nouns or formal names of people, places or things form their plural in the same manner as common nouns do. Add an- s or –es to the singular form. Joya- Joyas Reyes – Reyeses Julie –Julies 4. Usually, singular nouns ending in f or fe are pluralized by changing the f or fe into v and adding es. Wife –wives loaf-loaves elf – elves thief-thieves The following are some exceptions: Belief – beliefs relief – reliefs chief – chiefs proof – proofs 5. Nouns ending in y and preceded by a consonant form their plurals by changing the y into I and adding –es. Baby – babies city- cities lady – ladies mystery – mysteries If the y is preceded by a vowel, add an –s to the word. Attorney – attorneys key –keys alley-alleys 6. Some nouns ending in o and preceded by a consonant take the ending – es. Hero – heroes tomato – tomatoes potato – potatoes Some exceptions are: Piano – pianos solo – solos 7. A few singular nouns do not form their plural by adding an –s or –es. Some add –en to form the plural; some change the mid-vowel or vowels; some remain unchanged in the plural. Child – children ox – oxen woman-women deer-deer sheep-sheep Wood-wood mouse-mice goose-geese 8. Nouns of foreign origin retain their foreign plural Alumnus – alumni phenomenon-phenomena agendum-agenda Alumna – alumnae datum-data basis – bases 9. Some foreign nouns, however, also use the regular –s or –es ending. Memorandum – memorandums –memoranda index-indexes - indices Formula – formulas – formulae stimulus – stimuluses – stimuli 10. Compound nouns form their plurals in four different ways a. Add s to the endings of unhyphenated words headwaiter – headwaiters handful-handfuls teahouse-teahouses b. Add s or es to hyphenated words without a noun word in it. Break-up – break-ups smash-up - smash-ups c. Add s or es to the principal noun word in two or three word compound nouns. Runner-up – runner-ups chief-of-police – chiefs –of-polices editor-in-chief – editors-in-chief d. Add s or es to the noun being modified in compound nouns spelled as two words. High school – high schools notary public- notaries public 11. Numbers and letters form their plurals by adding apostrophe (‘) and s 1’s 10’s A’s a’s 12. Following are some nouns which are always plural in form and meaning. Scissors clothes shorts riches goods thanks eyeglasses 13. Following are some nouns which are always singular in form and meaning. Baggage news Chinese fish politics mathematics ethics PRONOUNS A word that replaces a noun in a sentence I. KINDS OF PRONOUNS 1. Personal Pronouns – They refer to persons speaking (first person), the persons spoken to (second person), and the persons spoken about (third person). Like nouns, they have singular and plural forms, cases and gender. PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL FIRST PERSON Nominative I We Objective Me Us Possessive My, mine Our, ours SECOND PERSON Nominative You You Objective You You Possessive Your, yours Your, yours THIRD PERSON Nominative Masculine He Feminine She They neuter It Objective Masculine Him Feminine Her Them Neuter It Possessive Masculine His Feminine Her. Hers Their, Theirs neuter Its Uses of Personal Pronouns a. Nominative Case: pronouns are used as a: * Subject : He is a genius. * As a subjective compliment : It was he who planned the Christmas party. b. Objective Case: are used as a: * Direct Object : Ryan loves her. * As Indirect Object : The class gave him a ticket. * As Object of Preposition : Marie told the whole truth to him. c. Possessive Case: denotes ownership or possession. His new car is a Corolla. This car is hers. 2. Indefinite Pronouns Using Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something Plural: both, few, many, others, several Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs or singular personal pronouns. Correct: Each of the members has one vote. (The subject, each, is singular. Use has.) Incorrect: One of the girls gave up their seat. Correct: One of the girls gave up her seat. (Her refers to one, which is singular.) Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs or plural personal pronouns. Correct: A few of the justices were voicing their opposition. (Few is plural, so are were and their.) For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the indefinite pronoun refers to. Correct: All of the people clapped their hands. (All refers to people, which is plural.) Correct: All of the newspaper was soaked. (Here all refers to newspaper, which is singular.) A Gender-Sensitive Case The pronouns ending with -body or -one such as anybody, somebody, no one, or anyone are singular. So are pronouns like each and every. Words like all or some may be singular. That means that a possessive pronoun referring to these singular words must also be singular. In standard written English the possessive pronoun his is used to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun unless the group referred to is known to be all female. Incorrect: Is everyone happy with their gift? Correct: Is everyone happy with his gift? (Is and everyone are singular. The possessive pronoun must be singular, too) Most languages, including English, observe the standard of using the masculine pronoun in situations like this. However, in some circles today the idea of choosing the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. If this usage bothers you, or if you think it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to work around this and still use standard English. 1. Use the phrase his or her. It is a little awkward, but OK. Correct: Is everyone happy with his or her gift? 2. Rewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. Plural personal pronouns in English no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine. Correct: Are all the people happy with their gifts?

3. Relative Pronouns A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that its relative clause modifies. Here is an example:  The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. In the above example, "who":  relates to "The person", which "who phoned me last night" modifies  introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night" There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that* Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for things and people only in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information)**. Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female. Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses:

example sentences notes S=subject, O=object, P=possessive defining - The person who phoned me relative last night is my teacher. That is preferable clauses - The person that phoned me last night is my teacher. S - The car which hit me was yellow. That is preferable - The car that hit me was yellow.

O - The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher. - The people who I phoned last Whom is correct but formal. night are my teachers. The relative pronoun is - The person that I phoned last optional. night is my teacher. - The person I phoned last night is my teacher.

- The car which I drive is old. That is preferable to which. - The car that I drive is old. The relative pronoun is - The car I drive is old. optional.

- The student whose phone just rang should stand up.

- Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra. P - The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked. Whose can be used with - The police are looking for the things. Of which is also car of which the driver was possible. masked.

- Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is

my teacher.

S - The car, which was a taxi, exploded.

- The cars, which were taxis, exploded.

- Mrs Pratt, whom I like very Whom is correct but formal. much, is my teacher. Who is common in spoken - Mrs Pratt, who I like very English and informal written much, is my teacher. English. O non- defining - The car, which I was driving relative at the time, suddenly caught clauses fire.

- My brother, whose phone

you just heard, is a doctor.

- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the P accident, was completely Whose can be used with destroyed. things. Of which is also - The car, the driver of which possible. jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.

*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun. **Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use "who/whom". There is no good reason for such a claim; there is a long history of "that" for people in defining relative clauses from Chaucer, Shakespeare and the Authorized Version of The Bible to Fowler's and Churchill.

4. Interrogative Pronouns We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about). There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).

subje objec

ct t

who person who m thing What person/thi which ng

(possessi person whose ve)

Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal, spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers would say (or even write): "Who did you see?" Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold. question answer

subje Who told you? John told me. ct

Whom did you tell? I told Mary. object

subje What's happened? An accident's happened. ct

What do you want? I want coffee. object

subje Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first. ct The doctor will see the patient Which will the doctor see first? object in blue first.

There's one car missing. Whose hasn't subje John's (car) hasn't arrived. arrived? ct

We've found everyone's keys. Whose I found John's (keys). object did you find?

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:  Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?  Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?  They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

5. Demonstrative Pronouns A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:  near in distance or time (this, these)  far in distance or time (that, those)

near far singul this that ar

the thos plural se e

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:  This tastes good.  Have you seen this?  These are bad times.  Do you like these?  That is beautiful.  Look at that!  Those were the days!  Can you see those?  This is heavier than that.  These are bigger than those. Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.  That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)  That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun) Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:  This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?  That sounds like John.

6. Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive and intensive pronouns are the words myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. These words are classified or grouped as reflexive depending on how they are used in sentences. In the examples below the reflexive and intensive pronouns are in italics.

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of a sentence:  I gave myself plenty of time to get to work.  You should let yourself into the house.  Jim bought himself a shirt.  Jill read to herself.  The dog scratched itself.  We treated ourselves to pizza.  You can make yourselves at home.  The children are able to dress themselves.

Intensive pronouns are the same words used to smphasize the subject of the sentence. Intensive pronouns usually appear right near the subject of the sentence.   I myself am sick of the heat.  You yourself are responsible for this mess!  The president himself appeared at the rally.  The actress herself wrote those lines.  The cat itself caught the mouse.  We ourselves made the meal.  You yourselves can win this game.  The troops themselves helped the people escape the burning building.

7. Reciprocal Pronouns We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say:  A and B are talking to each other. The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog. There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:  each other  one another When we use these reciprocal pronouns:  there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and  they must be doing the same thing Look at these examples:  John and Mary love each other.  Peter and David hate each other.  The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.  Both teams played hard against each other.  We gave each other gifts.  Why don't you believe each other?  They can't see each other.  The gangsters were fighting one another.

Rules on the Usage of Pronouns Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence. Example: ___ did the job. I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns. Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc. Examples: It is he. This is she speaking. It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize. NOTE In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English. Example: It could have been them. Technically correct: It could have been they. Example: It is just me at the door. Technically correct: It is just I at the door. Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun. Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am) Incorrect: It is I who is sorry. Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are) Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken. Rule 4. Object pronouns are used everywhere else beyond Rules 1 and 2 (direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves, etc. Examples: Jean saw him. Him is the direct object.

Give her the book. Her is the indirect object. The direct object is book. Are you talking to me? Me is the object of the preposition to. Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb. Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time. The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is. Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject: Example: He is one of those men who are always on time. The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are. In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one. Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of. Examples: Each of the girls sings well. Either of us is capable of doing the job. Neither of them is available to speak right now. Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up: Incorrect: The women each gave her approval. Correct: The women each gave their approval. Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel. Correct: The words are and there each end with a silent vowel. These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather an adjunct describing the true subject. Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence. Examples: Tranh is as smart as she/her. If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer.

Zoe is taller than I/me. Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.

Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me. We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me. OR Daniel would rather talk to her than I would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the pronoun you choose. Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's. Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error. Examples: It's been a cold morning. The thermometer reached its highest reading. He's the one who's always on time. He's the one whose wife is always on time. Keeping oneself ready is important. Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing. Example: Joe helped himself. If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun: Example: Joe bought it for himself. Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe. Correct: I worked myself to the bone. The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of working. Incorrect: My brother and myself did it. Correct: My brother and I did it. Don't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence. Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself. Correct: Please give it to John or me. Correct: You saw me being myself. Myself refers back to me in the act of being. A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself. In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first. Example: Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously. Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis. Example: He himself finished the whole job. Rule 11a. Avoid they and their with singular pronouns. Incorrect: Someone brought their lunch. Correct: Someone brought her lunch. OR Someone brought his lunch. If the gender is undetermined, you could say Someone brought his or her lunch (more on this option in Rule 11b). Rule 11b. Singular pronouns must stay singular throughout the sentence. Incorrect: Someone has to do it—and they have to do it well. The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy sentence, even if it is technically correct. Technically correct: Someone has to do it—and he or she has to do it well. Replacing an ungrammatical sentence with a poorly written correction is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite. Rewritten: Someone has to do it—and has to do it well. Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or her to make sentences grammatical. Incorrect: No one realizes when their time is up. Correct but awkward: No one realizes when his or her time is up. Rewritten: None realize when their time is up. Incorrect: If you see anyone on the trail, tell them to be careful. Correct but awkward: If you see anyone on the trail, tell him or her to be careful. Rewritten: Tell anyone you see on the trail to be careful. Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble. Incorrect: Her and her friend came over. If we remove and her friend, we're left with the ungrammatical Her came over. Correct: She and her friend came over. Incorrect: I invited he and his wife. If we remove and his wife, we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he. Correct: I invited him and his wife. Incorrect: Bill asked my sister and I. If we remove my sister and, we're left with the ungrammatical Bill asked I. Correct: Bill asked my sister and me.

ADJECTIVES Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are adjectives.  the tall professor  the lugubrious lieutenant  a solid commitment  a month's pay  a six-year-old child  the unhappiest, richest man I. POSITIONS OF ADJECTIVE Most adjectives can occur both before and after a noun: the blue sea ~ the sea is blue the old man ~ the man is old happy ~ the children are children happy  Attributive Adjective the blue sea Adjectives in the first position - before the noun.  Predicative Adjective the sea is blue Those in the second position - after the noun. Notice that predicative adjectives do not occur immediately after the noun. Instead, they follow a verb.  Postpositive Adjective Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun, especially in certain institutionalised expressions: the Governor General the Princess Royal times past

Postposition is obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun: something useful everyone present those responsible Postpositive adjectives are commonly found together with superlative, attributive adjectives: the shortest route possible the worst conditions imaginable the best hotel available

II. TYPES OF ADJECTIVE There are different types of adjectives based upon their effect on a noun and what do they tell about the noun. There are five categories of adjectives 1. Adjectives of Quality (Descriptive Adjectives) - These adjectives are used to describe the nature of a noun. They give an idea about the characteristics of the noun by answering the question ‘what kind’. Honest, Kind, Large, Bulky, Beautiful, Ugly etc. New Delhi is a large city with many historical monuments. Sheila is a beautiful woman. 2. Adjectives of Quantity - These adjectives help to show the amount or the approximate amount of the noun or pronoun. These adjectives do not provide exact numbers; rather they tell us the amount of the noun in relative or whole terms. All, Half, Many, Few, Little, No, Enough, Great etc. They have finished most of the rice. Many people came to visit the fair. 3. Adjectives of Number - These adjectives are used to show the number of nouns and their place in an order. There are three different sections within adjectives of number; they are - Definite Numeral Adjective - Those which clearly denote an exact number of nouns or the order of the noun. One, Two, Twenty, Thirty-Three etc. also known as Cardinals. First, Second, Third, Seventh etc. also known as Ordinals. Indefinite Numeral Adjective - Those adjectives that do not give an exact numerical amount but just give a general idea of the amount. Some, Many, Few, Any, Several, All etc. E.g.: There were many people present at the meeting. Distributive Numeral Adjective -Those adjectives that are used to refer to individual nouns within the whole amount. Either, Neither, Each, Another, Other etc. Taxes have to be paid by every employed citizen. 4. Demonstrative Adjectives - These adjectives are used to point out or indicate a particular noun or pronoun using the adjectives - This, That, These and Those. That bag belongs to Neil. Try using this paintbrush in art class. I really like those shoes. These flowers are lovely. 5. Interrogative Adjectives - These adjectives are used to ask questions about nouns or in relation to nouns, they are - Where, What, Which and Whose. Where did he say he was going? What assignment did I miss out on? Which is your favorite author? Whose pen is this? In some instances, we find that we need to use more than one adjective to describe a noun in a satisfactory manner. In these cases, commas are used to separate the adjectives but some series of adjectives do not require a comma. Therefore, we need to know the difference between Coordinate and Non-coordinate Adjectives - Coordinate Adjectives - Are those words which can be re-arranged in the series easily and are still grammatically sound. This kind of series makes use of commas. This series can also insert ‘and’ between them and still be correct. She was a kind, generous, loving human being. She was a generous, loving, kind human being. She was a loving, kind and generous human being. Here we can see that all three sentences are grammatically correct. In this case, the adjectives only need to be separated by commas. Non-coordinate Adjectives - These are those adjectives which cannot be rearranged in the series. These do not use commas to separate the adjectives. Also, this kind of series do not make sense if we insert ‘and’ between them. She has two energetic playful dogs. She has playful two energetic dogs. She has energetic and playful and two dogs. Here we see that only the first sentence makes sense and is grammatically correct. The second and third ones are incorrect. Hence, the sentence uses non-coordinate adjectives and does not need commas. Sequence of Adjectives There are certain rules regarding the placement of different kinds of adjectives in a sentence. The general order followed is - 1.Determiners – These are the various articles (the, a, an), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), possessives (my, mine, your, yours, -‘s), quantifiers (all, many etc.), numerals (one, twenty, thirty-seven etc.) and distributives (each, every, neither, either) 2.Observations/Quantity and Opinion - Then come the adjectives that give a quantity (also known as post-determiners) and subjective opinion to the noun, telling ‘how much’ and ‘how was’ the noun. Few, Most, One, Three/ Beautiful, Ugly, Difficult etc. The beautiful house. 3.Size - The position after Observations is for the adjectives that tell about the size of the noun, they can be used for an object as well as living thing. Huge, Little, Bulky, Thin, Vast, Tiny, Lean etc The beautiful little house. 4.Age -Then is the turn of the Adjectives that tell about the age of a noun either by itself or in relation to another noun. Young, Old, Teenage, Mature, Recent, Bygone etc. The beautiful little old house. 5.Shape - Next are the adjectives that tell about the shape or appearance of the noun. Circular, Crooked, Triangular, Oval, Wavy, Straights etc. The beautiful little old square house. 6.Colour - After that are the adjectives that tell the shade and hue of a noun. Pastel, Red, Blue, Metallic, Colourless, Translucent etc. The beautiful square blue coloured house. 7.Origin - Next are the adjectives that show the different geographical locations associated with a noun. Southern, Northern, Lunar, Mexican, French etc. The beautiful blue coloured Mexican house. 8. Material - Next are the adjectives that talk about the raw material or texture of the objects or the behaviour of the living nouns. Wooden, Plastic, Steely, Metallic, Cottony etc. The beautiful Mexican limestone house. 9.Qualifier – Lastly, the qualifier or the grammatical modifier comes, which is an additional word or phrase provided to change the meaning of the noun in a sentence. Pink + eye, Royal + treatment, Hot + fudge etc. The beautiful Mexican limestone doll house. ADVERBS Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: [1] Mary sings beautifully [2] David is extremely clever [3] This car goes incredibly fast In [1], the adverb beautifully tells us how Mary sings. In [2], extremely tells us the degree to which David is clever. Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the car goes.

Formal Characteristics of Adverbs From our examples above, you can see that many adverbs end in -ly. More precisely, they are formed by adding -ly to an adjective: Adject sudde gradua slow quick soft ive n l Adver slow quick soft sudde gradua b ly ly ly nly lly By no means all adverbs end in -ly. Note also that some adjectives also end in -ly, including costly, deadly, friendly, kindly, likely, lively, manly, and timely. Like adjectives, many adverbs are GRADABLE, that is, we can modify them using very or extremely: softly very softly very suddenly suddenly extremely slowly slowly Types and Positions of Adverbs in the Sentence Adverb of Manner (e.g.: slowly, carefully, awfully) These adverbs are put behind the direct object (or behind the verb if there's no direct object). subject verb(s) direct object adverb He drove the car carefully. He drove carefully. Adverbs of Place (e.g.: here, there, behind, above) Like adverbs of manner, these adverbs are put behind the direct object or the verb. subject verb(s) direct object adverb I didn't see him here. He stayed behind. Adverbs of Time (e.g.: recently, now, then, yesterday) Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence. subje verb( indirect direct time ct s) object object will tomorro I you the story tell w. If you don't want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the adverb of time at the beginning of the sentence.

subje verb( indirect direct time ct s) object object Tomorro will I you the story. w tell Adverbs of Frequency (e.g.: always, never, seldom, usually) Adverbs of frequency are put directly before the main verb. If 'be' is the main verb and there is no auxiliary verb, adverbs of frequency are put behind 'be'. Is there an auxiliary verb, however, adverbs of frequency are put before 'be'. subje auxiliary adve main object, place ct /be rb verb or time go I often in the evenings. swimming alway He doesn't play tennis. s usuall We are here in summer. y I have never been abroad.

Adverb Vs Adjectives Rule 1. Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb. Examples: She thinks quick/quickly. How does she think? Quickly.

She is a quick/quickly thinker. Quick is an adjective describing thinker, so no -ly is attached.

She thinks fast/fastly. Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has -ly attached to it.

We performed bad/badly. Badly describes how we performed, so -ly is added. Rule 2. Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems. It can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached. Avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbs, such as taste, smell, look, feel, etc., that pertain to the senses. Adverbs are often misplaced in such sentences, which require adjectives instead. Examples: Roses smell sweet/sweetly. Do the roses actively smell with noses? No; in this case, smell is a linking verb— which requires an adjective to modify roses—so no -ly.

The woman looked angry/angrily to us. Did the woman look with her eyes, or are we describing her appearance? We are describing her appearance (she appeared angry), so no -ly.

The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches. Here the woman actively looked (used her eyes), so the -ly is added.

She feels bad/badly about the news. She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly. Rule 3. The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well. Examples: You did a good job. Good describes the job.

You did the job well. Well answers how.

You smell good today. Good describes your fragrance, not how you smell with your nose, so using the adjective is correct.

You smell well for someone with a cold. You are actively smelling with your nose here, so use the adverb. Rule 4. The word well can be an adjective, too. When referring to health, we often use well rather than good. Examples: You do not look well today. I don't feel well, either. Rule 5. Adjectives come in three forms, also called degrees. An adjective in its normal or usual form is called a positive degree adjective. There are also the comparative and superlative degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the following examples: Positive Comparative Superlative sweet sweeter sweetest bad worse worst efficient more efficient most efficient A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form of comparison. To compare two things, always use a comparative adjective: Example: She is the cleverer of the two women (never cleverest) The word cleverest is what is called the superlative form of clever. Use it only when comparing three or more things: Example: She is the cleverest of them all. Incorrect: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like best? Correct: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like better? Rule 6. There are also three degrees of adverbs. In formal usage, do not drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparative form. Incorrect: She spoke quicker than he did. Correct: She spoke more quickly than he did. Incorrect: Talk quieter. Correct: Talk more quietly. Rule 7. When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns. Examples: This house is for sale. This is an adjective.

This is for sale. This is a pronoun.

PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs). Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the situation. There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips). The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English: Prepositions – Time English Usage Example  on  days of the week  on Monday  months / seasons  in August / in winter  time of day  in the morning  in  year  in 2006  after a certain period of  in an hour time (when?)  for night  at night  for weekend  at  at the weekend  a certain point of time  at half past nine (when?)  from a certain point of  since  since 1980 time (past till now)  over a certain period of  for  for 2 years time (past till now)  ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago  earlier than a certain  before  before 2004 point of time  to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)  past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)  marking the beginning  to / till / and end of a period of  from Monday to/till Friday until time English Usage Example  in the sense of how long  till /  He is on holiday until something is going to until Friday. last  I will be back by 6  in the sense of at the o’clock.  by latest  By 11 o'clock, I had read  up to a certain time five pages. Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction) English Usage Example  room, building, street,  in the kitchen, in London town, country  in the book  in  book, paper etc.  in the car, in a taxi  car, taxi  in the picture, in the  picture, world world  meaning next to, by an object  at the door, at the  for table station  for events  at the table  at  place where you are to  at a concert, at the party do something typical  at the cinema, at school, (watch a film, study, at work work)  attached  the picture on the wall  for a place with a river  London lies on the  being on a surface Thames.  for a certain side (left,  on the table  on right)  on the left  for a floor in a house  on the first floor  for public transport  on the bus, on a plane  for television, radio  on TV, on the radio  by, next  left or right of somebody  Jane is standing by / next to, beside or something to / beside the car.  on the ground, lower  the bag is under the  under than (or covered by) table something else  lower than something  the fish are below the  below else but above ground surface  covered by something  put a jacket over your else shirt  meaning more than  over  over 16 years of age  getting to the other side  walk over the bridge (also across)  climb over the wall  overcoming an obstacle  higher than something  above else, but not directly  a path above the lake over it  across  getting to the other side  walk across the bridge English Usage Example (also over)  swim across the lake  getting to the other side  something with limits on  through top, bottom and the  drive through the tunnel sides  movement to person or building  go to the cinema  to  movement to a place or  go to London / Ireland country  go to bed  for bed  go into the kitchen / the  into  enter a room / a building house  movement in the  go 5 steps towards the  towards direction of something house (but not directly to it)  movement to the top of  onto  jump onto the table something  in the sense of where  from  a flower from the garden from Other important Prepositions English Usage Example  from  who gave it  a present from Jane  who/what does it belong  a page of the book  of to  the picture of a palace  what does it show  by  who made it  a book by Mark Twain  walking or riding on horseback  on foot, on horseback  on  entering a public  get on the bus transport vehicle  in  entering a car / Taxi  get in the car  leaving a public transport  off  get off the train vehicle  out of  leaving a car / Taxi  get out of the taxi  rise or fall of something  prices have risen by 10  by  travelling (other than percent walking or horseriding)  by car, by bus  at  for age  she learned Russian at 45  for topics, meaning what  we were talking about  about about you A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object.

It is useful to locate prepositional phrases in sentences since any noun or pronoun within the prepositional phrase must be the preposition’s object and, therefore, cannot be misidentified as a verb’s direct object.

To the store is a prepositional phrase. Store is the object of the preposition to, not the direct object of the verb drove.

Car is the direct object of the verb drove. To the grocery store is a prepositional phrase.

NOTE: A word that looks like a preposition but is actually part of a verb is called a particle.

Held up is a verb meaning “to rob.” Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the object of a preposition. Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up.

To avoid confusing prepositions with particles, test by moving the word (up) and words following it to the front of the sentence: Up the bank four armed men held. If the resulting sentence does not make sense, then the word belongs with the verb and is a particle, not a preposition. Note the difference:

The resulting sentence makes sense. Therefore, up is a preposition.

The resulting sentence does not make sense. Therefore, up is a particle in this sentence.

The following examples illustrate the difference between prepositions and particles:

Some other examples of particles: give in turn in pull through wore out broke up go in for put in for bring up found out blow up look up make up look over

CONJUNCTIONS A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence. Coordinating Conjunctions The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the words to see specific descriptions of each one): Coordinating Conjunctions

and but or yet for nor so

(It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet- So. ) When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied by a comma:  Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements. When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:  Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet. The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:  Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension. When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not used:  Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma. A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:  This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember. In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.  Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars era.  Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of male identity.  It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of his day.  Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories. Beginning a Sentence with And or But

A frequently asked question about conjunctions is whether and or but can be used at the beginning of a sentence. This is what R.W. Burchfield has to say about this use of and: There is a persistent belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with And, but this prohibition has been cheerfully ignored by standard authors from Anglo-Saxon times onwards. An initial And is a useful aid to writers as the narrative continues. from The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. The same is true with the conjunction but. A sentence beginning with and or but will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers should examine such sentences with two questions in mind: (1) would the sentence and paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction? (2) should the sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use it.

The Case of Then and Than

In some parts of the United States, we are told, then and than not only look alike, they sound alike. Like a teacher with twins in her classroom, you need to be able to distinguish between these two words; otherwise, they'll become mischievous. They are often used and they should be used for the right purposes.

Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy would rather be rescued then stay on the island," we have employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made between Piggy's two choices; we need than instead. In the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin, Golding did not write another popular novel," the adverbial construction "other than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is perfectly acceptable in the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it (Burchfield). Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide whether the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then the word that follows it should be in the object form.  He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me.  Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play better than him. Most careful writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's as if part of the clause introduced by than has been left out:  He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am handsome].  You can play better than he [can play]. In formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and follow it with the subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is appropriate). Then is a conjunction, but it is not one of the little conjunctions listed at the top of this page. We can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to connect two independent clauses; usually, they will be accompanied (preceded) by a comma. Too many students think that then works the same way: "Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England." You can tell the difference between then and a coordinating conjunction by trying to move the word around in the sentence. We can write "he then turned his attention to England"; "he turned his attention, then, to England"; he turned his attention to England then." The word can move around within the clause. Try that with a conjunction, and you will quickly see that the conjunction cannot move around. "Caesar invaded Gaul, and then he turned his attention to England." The word and is stuck exactly there and cannot move like then, which is more like an adverbial conjunction (or conjunctive adverb — see below) than a coordinating conjunction. Our original sentence in this paragraph — "Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England" — is a comma splice, a faulty sentence construction in which a comma tries to hold together two independent clauses all by itself: the comma needs a coordinating conjunction to help out, and the word then simply doesn't work that way. Subordinating Conjunctions A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.  He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.  Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.  Unless we act now, all is lost. Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence. Common Subordinating Conjunctions after if though although if only till as in order that unless as if now that until as long as once when as though rather than whenever because since where before so that whereas even if than wherever even though that while

The Case of Like and As

Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my father"), but it should not be used to introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.  Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.  It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.  Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him. In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which similarities are being pointed out:  This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college. However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:  The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.

Omitting That

The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that." Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but the very fact of easy omission causes some editors to take out the red pen and strike out the conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences, we can happily omit the that (or keep it, depending on how the sentence sounds to us):  Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.  She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.  I hope [that] she doesn't blame me. Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that can be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:  The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.  Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here. As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely omit the that. Theodore Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the conjunction that:  When a time element intervenes between the verb and the clause: "The boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent." (Notice the position of "yesterday.")  When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter of last year were worse than previously thought." (Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb, "were.")  When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes the sentence clear.) Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples our own.

Beginning a Sentence with Because

Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with the subordinating conjunction because retains a mysterious grip on people's sense of writing proprieties. This might come about because a sentence that begins with because could well end up a fragment if one is not careful to follow up the "because clause" with an independent clause.  Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry. When the "because clause" is properly subordinated to another idea (regardless of the position of the clause in the sentence), there is absolutely nothing wrong with it:  Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry, the postal service would very much like to see it taxed in some manner. Correlative Conjunctions Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.  She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.  Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."  Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best. Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions. both . . . and neither . . . nor not only . . . but whether . . . or also as . . . as not . . . but either . . . or Conjunctive Adverbs The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas.

VERBS Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about the action or the state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the subject is doing or what is the state or situation of the subject. For example: He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject ‘he’ She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the auxiliary verb ‘is’ shows the state of the subject ‘she’ as being ‘creative’. Types and Classifications of Verbs 1. Action Verbs - talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence. To recognize them, you simply have to look for the word in the sentence that answers the question ‘What is the subject doing?’ e.g. - Rose is painting the kitchen walls. My dog is sleeping on the sofa.

2. Transitive Verbs - -have a definite object on which, or for which the action is being performed. That means that the action has a definite recipient or object. To identify them you can ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb-? Rose is painting the kitchen walls. If we form the question - what is Rose painting? The answer is- The kitchen walls. Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the action of painting was being done. Hannah gave him a big hug. Here we see that the action ‘gave’ is being performed by the subject Hannah. So the question is what did Hannah give? And the answer is - A big hug. Here, we also have a indirect object as ‘him’. This indirect object would be the answer to the question- Who did the subject (Hannah) - verb - (give) the object (hug) to?

3. Intransitive Verbs - -show an action but here there is no specific object on which the action is being done. To recognize these verbs, we ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb- ? If there is no answer present, then the verb in the sentence is an Intransitive Verb. Rose is painting right now. Here, if we ask the question what is Rose painting? There is no answer which means that in this sentence painting is an Intransitive Verb.It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no specific object for the action. Hannah sneezed repeatedly. Here, the verb is sneezed. If we ask the question what did Hannah sneeze? There is no answer present for it making sneezed a intransitive verb.

4. Dynamic and Stative Verbs -deals with the verb words themselves; and whether they indicate an action or a state of the subject. This category is not concerned with the object in particular. Dynamic Verbs - denote an actual action or expression or process done by the subject. They mean an action which can be seen or physically felt or the result of which is seen or physically felt by the object or an indirect object. She buys new clothes every week. Here the verb is buys which is an action done by the subject ‘she’, hence it is a dynamic verb. He is swimming at the beach. Here again we have the definite action swimming done by the subject ‘he’, making ‘swimming’ a dynamic verb in this sentence. Stative Verbs -refer to the state of the subject or the situation of the subject. Stative Verbs tell us about the state of mind of the subject, or the relation between the subject and the object. She prefers strawberry jam. Here the Stative Verb is ‘prefers’ which shows the thinking of the subject ‘She’ towards the object, which is ‘jam’. The cupboard requires a new coat of paint. Here the subject is ‘cupboard’ and the stative verb is ‘requires’ which is telling about the relation between the subject ‘cupboard’ and the object ‘paint’.

5. Linking Verbs - connect the subject to a noun or adjective that helps in describing or providing additional information about the subject. Those nouns or adjectives are called the subject complements. Lisa is fussy about food. Here we see the subject is Lisa and the linking verb is ‘is’ which is connecting Lisa to the subject complement ‘fussy about food’ which is giving additional information about Lisa’s preferences. They are stubborn children. Here the linking verb is ‘are’ which is combining the subject They to the subject complement of ‘stubborn’ which is an adjective.

The best to recognize linking words in a sentence is to see whether the verb can be replaced by ‘is, am or are’. If the sentence still sounds logical you know you have a linking verb. The students felt relieved. - The students are relieved. Every student felt the relief. - Every student is/am/are the relief.

6. Regular and Irregular Verbs The distinction between regular verbs and irregular verbs is a very simple one: Regular Verbs Those verbs that form their past participle with ‘d’ or ‘ed’ are regular verbs. These verbs do not undergo substantial changes while changing forms between tenses. 1. If the verb ends with a vowel, only ‘d’ is added. For example: PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE Share Shared Scare Scared Dare Dared 2. If the verb ends with a consonant, ‘ed’ is added. For example: PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE Want Wanted Shout Shouted Kill Killed Irregular Verbs Those verbs that undergo substantial changes when changing forms between tenses are irregular verbs. The changed forms of these verbs are often unrecognisably different from the originals. For example: PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE Go Went Run Ran Think Thought

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs - These are verbs which can be either the main verb of a sentence or just one that is used as an adjective or noun as well. Finite Verbs - are those verbs that have a definite relation with the subject or noun. These verbs are usually the main verb of a clause or sentence and can be changed according to the noun. They are used only in present and past tense. They can be indicative of passive or active voice and also of number (singular or plural). She walks home. Here we see that the finite verb is walks and the pronoun is 'she'. She walked home. Here we can see how the verb changed/modified to change the tense of the sentence. Non-Finite Verbs - These verbs cannot be the main verb of a clause or sentence as they do not talk about the action that is being performed by the subject or noun. They do not indicate any tense, mood or gender. They are used as nouns, adverbs and adjectives. They are also used to form non-finite clauses which are simply dependent clauses that use non-finite verbs. He loves camping in the woods. Here the non-finite verb is camping and it is used as a noun. These kind of non-finite verbs are called Gerunds. I need to go to sleep. Here the non- finite verb phrase is to sleep, it is acting as a noun. Non-finite verbs that use ‘to’ before them are called Infinitives. The sleeping dog caused a delay. The nonfinite verbs that have ‘-ing’ or ‘-ed’ as suffixes and cause the verb to come an adjective are called Participles.

Modal Verbs - These verbs tell us whether something is probable or about the skills of a noun etc. There are 10 modal verbs in total and each have an important part in sentence formation.  Can  Could  May  Might  Will  Would  Must  Shall  Should  Ought to Uses of Modal Verbs: 1. To indicate that something is probable or possible, or not so. For example:  It is sunny today; it must be warm outside. = It is sunny today; it is probably warm outside.  His mobile is not reachable; he may/might/could be travelling by metro. = His mobile is not reachable; it is possible that he is travelling by metro.  This can’t be our bill. = It is not possible that this is our bill. 2. ‘Can’ and ‘could’ are used to refer to skills and abilities. For example:  He can cover a hundred metres in under ten seconds.  My father could see perfectly before the age of fifty.  I can’t ride a horse. 3. ‘Must’ is used to indicate that something is necessary or of extreme importance, and ‘should’ is used to suggest that something is advisable. For example:  You must do your homework.  You mustn’t skip school.  You should say sorry.  You shouldn’t smoke. 4. ‘Can’, ‘could’ and ‘may’ are used to ask for, give and withhold permission. For example:  Can I try my hand at it?  Could we disperse early today?  You may not enter the premises. 5. ‘Will’ and ‘would’ are used to refer to habits and inclinations.  When I was a child, I would often climb trees.  I will never refuse you anything.  He would never do such a thing.