The Adoption of Form Characteristics of the Internet by the Older Media Master Thesis

Supervisor: G.M. Welling Communication and Information Sciences, University of Groningen

June 24, 2009

D.M. Wiegers S1541749 [email protected] Abstract The underlying thought of this research is that media have a communicative influence on each other. From that perspective the kickback process, the older media adopting visual characteristics from the Internet and as a result looking more Internet-like, is analysed. Some authors call this process the internetisation of the older media. Both a quantitative analysis comparing pre-Internet and post- Internet media and a qualitative analysis interviewing professionals and users were carried out. It turns out the kickback effect takes place and already manifests itself in different ways, though the reverse process of the Internet taking over the characteristics of the older media is likely to be even stronger.

Keywords: remediation; kickback; internetisation; Internet; influence; media; television; newspapers; books.

ii Contents 1. Introduction ...... 1 2. Theory ...... 4 2.1 The Introduction of a New Medium ...... 4 2.2 The Introduction of the Internet ...... 5 2.3 Form Characteristics Possibly Adopted by Older Media ...... 7 2.4 Examples ...... 18 2.5 Why the Kickback Effect? ...... 23 3. Methodology ...... 25 3.1 Quantitative Analysis ...... 25 3.2 Qualitative Analysis ...... 30 4. Results ...... 33 4.1 Quantitative Analysis ...... 33 4.2 Qualitative Analysis ...... 34 5. Conclusion and Discussion ...... 38 5.1 Conclusion ...... 38 5.2 Discussion ...... 40 5.3 Final Remarks and Suggestions for Future Research ...... 41 References ...... 42 Appendix I: Quantitative Results ...... 45 I.I. Sans Serifs ...... 45 I.II Bullet Type ...... 63 I.III Emoticons ...... 72 Appendix II: Qualitative Interviews ...... 73 II.I Editors and Designers of Traditional Media ...... 73 II.II People Using Emoticons in Handwritten Messages ...... 79

iii 1. Introduction We live in a time of the Internet being almost the most important communicative medium, not only because of its capabilities to include in itself almost all other media. The present paper describes the taking over of Internet characteristics by the older media: the kickback effect. The research focus is based on the view of new media theorists like the Americans Bolter & Grusin (1999) and Manovich (2001), that media constantly influence each other. Media are means for the handing over and the dissemination of knowledge and information. Media include assets universally identified as media like the television or the radio, but also simple things like verbal face-to-face communication or entities now considered art forms like paintings. Media continually follow each other up, co-exist and interplay with each other. McLuhan‟s media theory confirmed that a medium cannot easily be purified to a transparent identity, because media redefine each other. Visual similarities are therefore not random happenstance, instead, they emerge from a dynamic media environment that is shaped by technological, social, and cultural forces (Cooke, 2005: 23). In other words, there exists a relationship between print, television, the internet, paintings, photography and so forth. A degree of mutual influence between media technologies is inevitable because people make use of various means of communication in everyday life. Like the other media, the Internet will have an influence on its predecessors and successors. Italian feminist and theorist Fortunati (2005) in her contribution speaks of the mediatisation of the net and the internetisation of the mass media. According to the Dutch media theorist Van Driel (2001: 30) the introduction of a new medium always passes of according to what he named the ARIA model. He based the model on other theorists‟ views, like McLuhan‟s, and named it the ARIA model. Van Driel‟s model consists of four phases: - Amazement: to a vanguard group of people the new medium is amazing and they admire it. - Resistance: the majority of the people resists the new medium, they do not think it necessary. - Imitation: the new medium copies the characteristics of the old medium. - Authenticity: the new medium develops unique characteristics. The present research focuses on the Internet. In the case of Internet, first there was imitation of the old media: physical written texts (Gómez Camacho, 2007: 158). The web pages were filled with large amounts of text written in Times New Roman. The tradition to which web designers looked for inspiration was graphic design for print and consequently the principles of web page design became similar to those for laying out magazine articles, advertisements, and title pages (Bolter, 1999: 198). After that web pages and e-mail developed their own form characteristics: authenticity. It could be that as a next step the old media (written texts, television programs…) adopt the form characteristics of the new medium (Internet) (Verschraegen, 2002b: 309; Verschraegen, 2002a:128). In other words: traditional media may take on some Internet features. An example is the adoption of Internet- like layouts for television news programs (Van der Wurff, 2005: 109, 118; Fortunati, 2005: 28). Like CNN Headlines News: the modular layout of CNN Headlines News gives television the look and feel of the web (Cooke, 2005: 41). Or young people reporting that they actually use Internet acronyms like LOL in real life instead of laughing (Lønsmann, 2009). This next step could be called kickback (Loviscach & Oswald, 2009: 7). Kickback is the older medium adopting characteristics of the new medium. This kickback phase happened many times before in history, as will be explained in the next chapter. The kickback, the visual internetisation of the older media, is the scope of the present research. The research question reads: Do the old media adopt the form characteristics of the

1 Internet? As regards the taking over of the characteristics from the web, this research is limited to visual characteristics passing from the new medium to the old. There would be many other interesting topics related to remediation, like the embedding of one medium in the other (a television show broadcasted online) but this is a different field of interest. The older media is a vague concept and therefore will be defined. The older media include, but are not limited to: - Verbal face-to-face communication: the act of speaking, the capacity to inform others of one‟s thoughts and perceptions by audible sings, with the communicators being physically close enough to each other to be able to perceive each other. - Handwriting: the transmitting of written messages on paper or another material written in pen, pencil or by another writing tool. - Book: entity of a number of printed or written pages of paper, or another material, containing a text about some subject, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. - Newspaper: publication containing news, information and advertising, most often published on a daily or weekly basis. - Radio: the transmission of audible signals. Be it by modulation of electromagnetic waves or digitally. Radio does not contain visible signs. - Television: transmitting and receiving moving images, usually accompanied by sound. Be it by radio waves or digital signals. - Teletext: system by which one can make texts (subtitles, sports results, news reports) appear on the television screen. Exploring if and how the old media adopt the form characteristics of the Internet could be meaningful to gain insight into the design development of media and the influence of the Internet on communication. The communicative influence extends to our daily interactions and to the broader media environment. In anticipation of the next chapter, were the literature more specific for the present paper will be summarised, here a short overview of the general views of media theorists will be given. In Germany authors of the Frankfurter Schule, founded by Theodor Adorno (1903- 1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), developed a critical theory of the media that fits in with the theories that consider the media as almighty. The insights of the Frankfurter Schule have never been much followed in communication sciences, but in culture studies they have. The Schule, that originally was Marxist, after the war let go of its critical theory. The Canadian Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) believed in a big influence of the media on society, but in a complete different way than the followers of the hypodermic needle theory that reads that the media are almighty and might easily inject the public with their ideas. McLuhan considers the media not so much as influencers of opinions and attitudes, but more fundamentally, of the senses, feelings and emotions (McLuhan & Fiore, 1967). McLuhan encloses within the concept medium also the wheel, the writing or the car. A medium has so much influence on humans, that it can change for example the use of language, senses or limbs. A car, which he also looks at as a medium, robs the driver‟s mate of his legs but also gives him new dimensions. Characteristic of McLuhan, who in certain intellectual circles is known as a guru, is his use of catching slogans, like “we live in a message”, “the medium is the message”, “the content of a new medium is an old medium (imitation phase of the ARIA model)” and “the global village”. In Great Britain Richard Hoggart (1918-) together with another British academic, Raymond Williams (1921-1988), changed the academic attitude towards the media (which were regarded as a group) and towards their role in the cotemporary society. Williams was a productive writer and represented the Marxism of new left in the most analytical way.

2 Brian Winston, in his book Media Technology and Society, draws a detailed overview of media history from the telegraph to the Internet and he poses that the so called “law of the suppression of radical potential” is the most important phenomenon in the development of new media. Technologies of new media that at first sight seem to provoke a revolution, later are nevertheless fitted in the existing social processes (Winston, 1998). Jürgen Habermas‟ (1929-) theory is mainly important because of his vision on the media as a system (including newspapers, coffee houses, clubs and drawing rooms) in which the various elements work together. He writes of the structural transformation of this system in the late eighteen century in England and France, its non-instrumentality (in other words, it being free of manipulation) and its contribution to the rise of rational and critical attitudes. In the next chapter the theoretical background this research builds upon is summarised. In chapter three the methodology used in this research is explained, then the results are given and finally the conclusion is drawn and the research is discussed.

3 2. Theory In this chapter the theory behind the research will be given. It is said that when a new medium emerges it first adopts the form characteristics of the old medium, because with a new technology there is not a new form of expression on hand immediately. Later the new medium develops its own form characteristics (Van Driel, 2001: 30). This is a now accepted truism. Not yet well-known, but certainly interesting, is the hypothesis that as a next step the old medium takes over some of the newly developed form characteristics of the new medium (Verschraegen, 2002b: 309; Verschraegen, 2002a:128). This last matter was treated in the present research, taking up „the Internet‟ as the new medium, and as the old media the media that emerged before the Internet era: books, posters, letters, et cetera. This process is complicated by the hybrid media forms now flourishing, like listening radio in a web browser.

2.1 The Introduction of a New Medium What happens when a new medium is introduced? Van Driel (2001: 30) claims that the introduction of a new medium passes of according to what he named the ARIA model. Other authors have also treated parts of the ARIA model, like McLuhan has done with the imitation phase which he describes as “the content of a new medium is an old medium.” The ARIA model consists of four phases: - Amazement: to a vanguard group of people the new medium is amazing and they admire it. - Resistance: the majority of the people resist the new medium, they do not think it necessary. - Imitation: the new medium copies the characteristics of the old medium. - Authenticity: the new medium develops unique characteristics. With Verschraegen (2002a); Verschraegen (2002b); Van der Wurff (2005); Fortunati, (2005); Cooke (2005); Lønsmann (2009) and Loviscach & Oswald (2009) the present paper wants to add a fifth phase, calling it kickback, and remoulding the ARIA model into the ARIAK model, unfortunately not such a melodious word. The ARIAK model adds the kickback phase to the ARIA model, the kickback phase being: - Kickback: the old medium copies some characteristics of the new medium. The old medium can only copy some characteristics, mostly the design characteristics. Paper books may be wanting to use real hyperlinks, allowing the reader to put his finger on an underlined word on the sheet and then automatically being redirected to the appropriate page, but they are not able to do that. At least not yet, because no one knows where technology will lead us. Examples of the ARIAK model can be found everywhere in history. When the early silent films came up some people were amazed by its novelty (amazement), like the Russian writer Gorki (1868-1936):

If one could only convey the strangeness of this world. A world without colour and sound. Everything here – the earth, water and air, the trees, the people – everything is made of a monotone grey. Grey rays of sunlight in a grey sky, grey eyes in a grey face, leaves as grey as cinder. Not life, but the shadow of life. Not life's movement, but a sort of mute spectre... It is terrible to see, this movement of shadows, nothing but shadows, the spectres, these phantoms. (Gorki, 1988: 22-23)

Gorki stared his eyes out. And to not be regarded as fool, he hurried to explain his viewing experience (Van Driel, 2001: 35). But the majority of the people found the theatre, the forerunner of the film, was more refined (resistance). The early films tried to imitate the theatre. The acting in the first films consisted of sonorous gestures and exaggerated facial expressions. Actors whore masses of make-up, like they were used to in the theatre (imitation). Why was this custom in the theatre? The people in the back row had to be able to

4 see the actors clearly too, and therefore the actors had to act more excessive, and their faces had to be made more visible with make-up. Another reason for the actors in the first films to gesticulate a lot was that the films were silent, and they had to compensate the loss of sound. In 1929 the first films with sound appeared, but the gestures remained majestic for more than ten years after that. Gradually the acting in the films turned more natural (authenticity), though it took a long time. The acting in films only really became more natural with the film noir in the nineteen forties. Nowadays on stage we see natural acting too (kickback). The actors are not that dressed up anymore. The modern actors appear to have just run out of the house and gone to the stage with whatever clothes they had on, that is the modern drama. With photography we saw the same. First amazement about the self creating images (amazement), but there were also many people opposed to the new technology (resistance). The first practitioners of photography were painters, maybe fearing to be jobless after the emergence of photography. The pioneers of photography worked in a studio; they made their clients pose, practised classic genres like the still life, the nude or the historical piece (imitation) (Verschraegen, 2002a: 127). Not only because they were used to do so in their old profession of painter, but also because the exposure times were so long that movement was impossible to capture. Gradually photography developed its own language (authenticity) (Verschraegen, 2002a: 128). After that some painters took over the new form characteristics of photography. Gerhard Richter for example paints in black-and-white and out of focus (Verschraegen, 2002a: 128-129). Before the introduction of photography nobody would have thought of that (kickback). Another example is the book. Pleased as some people were by it (amazement), Plato in his dialogue the Phaedrus gave to understand that he was totally against the now so culturally correct book (resistance). A book only offered dry information, he found. Real knowledge one obtains in a dialog with an inspiring teacher (Blanken & Deuze, 2003: 100). The first books were speeches written down on paper, and written stories which were read in the familiar way, thus out loud, by the few who were acquainted with this cultural skill (imitation) (Van Driel, 2001: 30). Poetry is an art, but it is also partly an imitation of verbal communication. In verbal communication one needed rhyme to memorise all the stories. Without rhyme it was infeasible. When time passed books developed their own characteristics: numbered chapters, reading from left to right… (authenticity). Speech then adopted the characteristics of the book (kickback): nowadays few of us master poetic skills and if we tell a story, for example when we deliver a lecture, we do not do it in rhyme. Bolter (1999: 15) in his perspective maintains that what is new about new media comes from the particular ways in which they refashion older media and the ways in which older media refashion themselves to answer the challenges of new media. New digital media are not external agents that come to disrupt an unsuspecting culture. They emerge from within cultural contexts, and they refashion other media, which are embedded in the same or similar contexts. This research focuses on visual kickback, layout and other visual forms passing from the newer medium to the old. But there are also other forms of kickback, like economical kickback or technological kickback (Winston, 1999: 62). Economical kickback occurs if the owner of a website becomes the owner of for example a television station. Technological kickback occurs if radio would start using Internet technology, from which a sort of hybrid medium would arise.

2.2 The Introduction of the Internet The Internet became available for the mass public in 1994, with the introduction of Netscape‟s browser, then called Mosaic (Venkataraman, 2003: 156). Part of the people, computer geeks and some young people were wildly enthusiastic (amazement). But there was

5 also a lot of antagonism (resistance) sometimes from parents being afraid that their offspring would get confronted with inappropriate material, that they would get bullied online and we saw messages in the media about young people arranging suicides via the Internet (The New York Times, 2006). Although the last example is a fairly extreme one. The young Internet imitated the older media, for example physical written texts (Gómez Camacho, 2007: 158): the web pages were filled with large amounts of text written in Times New Roman. The tradition to which web designers looked for inspiration was graphic design for print, and the principles of web page design became similar to those for laying out magazine articles, advertisements, and title pages (imitation) (Bolter, 1999: 198). Gradually the Internet developed its own characteristics (authenticity). Websites were equipped with a modular layout, web designers started to use typefaces for screen, the Internet turned more interactive (sometimes denoted as Web 2.0) and texts became shorter and are now crawling with links. Now we see something else happening. As Cooke (2005: 23) puts it: we need only to tune into CNN Headline News, pick up a copy of USA Today to see that the Internet is invading the older media (kickback). This can also be seen in young people reporting that they actually say LOL in real life instead of laughing (Lønsmann, 2009), people using emoticons in handwritten messages and digital teletext looking like websites and employing hyperlink-like menus. Van Driel (2003, 140) lists as the most important characteristics of the internet the interactivity, actuality, that it is tailor-made, and the fading away of the boundary between private and public. These characteristics are not exclusive of the Internet, but together they are characteristic of this medium, Van Driel says. The imitation phase of a new medium often applies to the first generation of people using it. They apply the form characteristics of the previous medium, because they are used to them. The new generation, not having witnessed the introduction of the new medium but having grown up with it, often triggers the authenticity phase (Verschraegen, 2002a). Like now with the Internet, chiefly the current generation of teenagers and people in their early twenties use emoticons when communicating online, and also when communicating offline. The introduction of a new medium gives the older medium a different function and meaning. McLuhan wrote that when a new medium takes the place of the old one, this medium always returns as an art form (McLuhan, 1964: 55). That is because the new media focus our attention on the materiality of the last medium. Exactly because for example we are used to the digital neutrality of the CD, we suddenly notice the specific sound patterns of vinyl. And were newspapers first qualified as:

Heaps of dirt taking the place of the pure forests which are wasted for material for the newspapers. (Herwig Hensen, alias of Florent Constant Albert Mielants, Belgian poet (1917-1989).

Nowadays teachers and the government try with all sorts of school projects to get our youth to read the newspapers, much better than all the pulp they can find on the Internet. It is striking that modern web designers seem to have followed Tufte‟s recommendations. Tufte (1983), described by The New York Times as the Da Vinci of Data (Shaply, 1998: 8), shows how data can be presented as user-friendly, non-confusing and best as possible. - Use full words (not abbreviations), do not use complex codes - Brief explanations for clarification - Labels placed on the graphic - Clear typeface - Lines are thin and contrasts are used only to emphasise changes in data measures - Graphics should be fifty per cent wider than they are tall (Martin & Thompson, 2000: 104).

6 The only rule the Internet violates with its love for abbreviations (BRB, LOL, ROFL) is the one to use full words. The other rules it seems to follows rather strictly.

2.3 Form Characteristics Possibly Adopted by Older Media What form characteristics of the Internet might be adopted by older media? Not all these characteristics viewed apart are exclusive of the Internet, but together they are characteristic of this medium. A medium often does not have unique design characteristics, but it is the combination of them by which a medium is recognisable as such.

2.3.1 Typefaces for Screen Typefaces for screen are faces that are more legible on screen, like Verdana, Tahoma and Nina (Van der Put, 2006: 241). Typefaces for screen are found on a range of screen-based media, including computers, video-games, mobile phones, iPods, cinema screens, subtitles on televisions and cash dispensers. They have a large x-height, simple curves and more open forms (Lupton, 2004: 55), but the most important characteristic of these typefaces is that they are sans serif, as a serif becomes blurred as screens have a lower resolution than the real world. So typefaces for screen are designed to be as simple as possible, and therefore are sans serif. For web pages sans serif typefaces are universally advised (Van der Put, 2006: 239). Many sites now employ sans serif typefaces, particularly Arial (Van Schaik & Ling, 2005: 311). It is not true that all sans serif typefaces are designed for web pages: sans serif typefaces – like Egyptian (Tam, 2002: 11) - were born out of the Industrial Revolution to reflect a more modern aesthetic (Evans, 2004: 29). But almost all websites – even the ones of traditional institutions like Harvard University - use sans serifs for body copy (Van Schaik & Ling, 2005: 311). It could be that because of the Internet typefaces for screen, or just sans serifs meant for print, start appearing more in the older media. Even if most researchers agree that printed texts are often better readable with serif faces, because the eye can more easily find the beginning of the next line. On screen this effect is annulled by the blurredness the low resolution brings about.

2.3.2 Disc Bullets Lists can be equipped with numbers or bullets. Or a list can be just a list with the items put underneath each other, like the 1977 cookery book in figure 1 shows. Here the list of ingredients does not contain any bullets or numbers. For adding bullets to an enumeration different types of bullets can be used (q.v. figure 2). Disc bullets are round black dots.

Figure 1: Wakefiel, R. G. (1977). Toll House Tried and True Recipes. New York: Dover Publications.

 Abc  Def  Ghi Disc bullets

. Jkl . Mno . Pqr Square bullets

o Stu o Vwx o Yz Circle bullets

Figure 2: Different types of bullets

In HTML (and XHTML and XML), when a list of bullets is created (

2.3.3 Emoticons Emoticons are also sometimes called smileys. They are used to express sentimental values with punctuation marks, if 90 degrees turned ;) (Van Driel, 2001: 99). Except for the Japanese ones because they are upright. On 19 September 1982 emoticons were invented by Scott Fahlman of Carnegie Mellon University to make communicating by e- mail easier (Barrett, 2002: 34). The limitation to the ASCII set of characters required to display these smileys rotated by 90°. Nowadays, many messaging programs like Windows Live Messenger (formerly MSN), AOL Instant Messenger or Yahoo! Messenger contain built-in defaults that turn users‟ typed emoticons into the company‟s proprietary icons, so that :) is automatically rendered as a graphical smiling face unless a user deliberately overrides the decision (Jones, 2002: 177-178). This is mainly to make the messaging program look more modern, graphical and fashionable, so as to attract more costumers. In e-mails people use emoticons and also in online chatting and text messages (Crystal, 2001: 39). When chatting online the typed-in emoticons are often rendered graphically. In e-mails the user has to select the graphical emoticon manually, and therefore sticks with the old fashioned ASCII one. Today we often see these signs in hand written messages – without rotating them back to their natural orientation (Loviscach & Oswald, 2009: 9; Gómez Camacho, 2007: 158). Mark: this is relegated to personal writings. Hardly anybody would use emoticons in formal letters (Gómez Camacho, 2007: 158).

2.3.4 Web Banners Not meant in this context is the traditional meaning of banners as newspaper headlines covering the whole width of the page or the even more traditional one of flags. A web banner is a hypertext link on a website, normally shaped like a horizontal strip containing text and graphics (Van Dale 2008; Amiri & Menon, 2003: 335). When banners became more frequently used, the need for standardisation increased. When banner sizes and shapes would be standard, if someone would want to put a banner on someone else‟s website, he would not have to ask first about what size it had to be, because he already knew. The IAB (2008) therefore now defines different shapes and sizes for banners (q.v. table 1) with the full banner and the half banner - 468x60 and 234x60 (q.v. figures 3 and 4) - being standard (Klijnstra & De Zwart, 2002: 98).

9 Table 1: Banner sizes defined by the IAB.

Recommended Recommended Maximum Animation Initial Length Download (Seconds) File weight 468 x 60 IMU - (Full Banner) 40k :15 234 x 60 IMU - (Half Banner) 30k :15 88 x 31 IMU - (Micro Bar) 10k :15 120 x 90 IMU - (Button 1) 20k :15 120 x 60 IMU - (Button 2) 20k :15 120 x 240 IMU - (Vertical Banner) 30k :15 125 x 125 IMU - (Square Button) 30k :15 728 x 90 IMU - (Leaderboard) 40k :15

Figure 3: 468x60 full standard banner.

Figure 4: 234x60 half standard banner.

The full and the half banner are not the only sizes being used, but they are a good representation of the range of common banners available (Amiri & Menon, 2003: 335). Banners are used as advertisements, hyperlinking to companies‟ websites, but also as hyperlinks to parts of one‟s own website. It is called a banner because the original ones where always in the shape of a banner, usually placed at the top of the page (Jansen, 2002: 29). On the Internet banners are now omnipresent. The banners linking to parts within the website are handy when surfing, but the blinking advertisement banners most users find distracting, particularly when they accidentally click on them and get redirected to a website they did not want to go to. A few examples of banners can be found in figures 5 – 8. Figure 5 shows a banner on the University of Groningen website (www.rug.nl) hyperlinking to the portal for international students. Figure 6 is a banner on the website of The Times (www.timesonline.co.uk) hyperlinking to an article on the recession, and in figure 7 we see an ad banner on the website of Elle magazine (www.elle.com) hyperlinking to the website of a new hair care line.

Figure 5: Banner on the University of Groningen website (www.rug.nl) hyperlinking to the portal for international students.

Figure 6: Banner on the website of The Times (www.timesonline.co.uk) hyperlinking to an article on the recession.

Figure 7: Ad banner on the website of Elle magazine (www.elle.com) hyperlinking too the website of a new hair care line.

Nowadays printed newspapers have banner-like objects on their covers, with „hyperlinks‟ to other pages within the same paper. They have the shape and size of Internet banners, employ a picture, text, and the hyperlink-like feature, in this case not clickable, but with the page numbers the reader can thumb to, q.v. figure 8. They are not like traditional newspaper advertisements, in that they are not advertisements, just hyperlinks to other articles. They are neither like a traditional newspaper content page, in that they look differently, just like Internet banners. What is more: they are often in sans serifs very similar to Internet type faces. Could figure 9 be mistaken for a banner of a web page? It looks very much like an internet banner, it has the rectangular shape and size, a picture, text, a typeface that looks like an Internet typeface, and the „hyperlink‟, even underlined like real hyperlinks are. It is just that one cannot put his finger on it and surf to the appropriate web page. Is this a just a jesting wink to the Internet? No, this kind of banner is a long running attribute of the widely-read, fairly upmarket print edition of the Dutch newspaper NRC Handelsblad. A reason for this graphic handling of content could emanate from the Apple Mac world. Practically all designers work with Macs and that is where the graphical trend started.

Figure 8: The cover of the fairly up-market Dutch newspaper, NRC Handelsblad (2006). The rectangle indicates the „banners‟.

Figure 9: A banner from the front page of NRC Handelsblad, May 6, 2009.

2.3.5 Menus with Hyperlinks A book has a table of contents, and a web page has a menu bar. Hyperlinks are texts or images on a web page that a user can click on in order to access or connect to another document (Jansen, 2002: 240). Text hyperlinks are often highlighted and underlined (Jones, 2002; 227). Menu bars are a table-like feature containing buttons with hyperlinks. All modern websites have menu bars containing buttons with hyperlinks. They can often be found at the left of the screen, vertically, or at the top, horizontally. The hyperlink feature is taken over by digital teletext, for instance the Belgian Digitext, in which the pages have a virtually identical look and navigation to Internet pages (Van Bemmel, 1998: 3). Where traditional teletext utilises numbers for navigation that can be keyed in on the remote control (q.v. figure 10), digital teletext has a navigation method that has the look and feel of hyperlinks (q.v. figure 11a) (Peng, 2002: 16). Digital teletext comes across so much like web pages and is so interactive (opinion polling, games) that one can hardly see it is not the Internet. Traditional teletext is a callable information source through the television. The teletext signal is send along with the normal television broadcast in the video lines that fall outside the normal image. With badly functioning television sets it can sometimes be seen as always changing little black and white dots at the top or bottom of the screen. This signal is filtered out of the reception signal by the build-in decoder, whereupon the user can search for the desired information using the remote control. For digital teletext the user has to have digital television. Digital teletext has totally different standards, despite the previous teletext standard's digital nature, such as MHEG-5 and Multimedia Home

12 Platform. But standard teletext still remains very popular, some countries do have digital television but do not have digital teletext.

Figure 10: Analogue teletext

Figure 11a: Digital teletext

2.3.6 Three-panel Layout The three-panel layout, as illustrated on the website in figure 12, divides the screen in three main panels. Figure 12a is the original website and in figure 12b the panels are indicated with lines to make it clearer. In this case there is a top identifier panel, a left navigation panel and a right content panel. In the case of the website in figure 13 (a and b) a top identifier panel, beneath that a navigation panel and beneath that the content panel (Cooke, 2005: 37). The three-panel layout is based on the grid theory, which is based on the divine proportion. For more about this read Beaird (2008). Many websites use the three-panel layout. Traditional websites often like figure 12, and modern ones more like figure 13. The modular presentation style crossed media boundaries to television news programs. A 2001 screen shot from the now defunct CNBC financial news program, MarketWrap (q.v. figure 14 a and b) for instance, demonstrates this structure (Cooke, 2005: 39). Similar to the ways in which information has been departmentalised on news websites home pages, the television screen has been divided into three primary segments: the bottom scrolling ticker tape panel; the right Dow, NASDAQ, and S&P updates panel; and the remaining content panel which, in this case, features the anchor and a composite graphic (Cooke, 2005: 39). Digital teletext demonstrates this structure in the same way. Figure 11a from above displays a top identifier panel, beneath that a navigation panel and beneath that the content panel. In figure 11b on page 16 the panels are indicated with lines.

Figure 12a: Three-panel layout of this 2009 website of Jefferson University Hospitals.

Figure 12b: The panels indicated with lines.

Figure 13a: Three-panel layout on the 2009 website of Manhattan College.

Figure 13b: The panels indicated with lines.

Figure 14a: CNBC, Market Wrap, 2 Figure 14b: The panels indicated with October 2001. From Cooke, 2005: 40. lines.

Figure 11b: The panels indicated with lines

2.3.7 Chatroom Abbreviations The term chatroom is primarily used to describe any form of synchronous online conferencing, occasionally even asynchronous online conferencing. Chatroom users have created an abbreviation vocabulary to increase communication speed. Abbreviations such as BTW (By the way), TTFN (Ta-ta for now), and LOL (Laughing out loud) are common in chatroom conversations, text messaging, and instant messaging. These shorthand abbreviations use characters and character sequences to abbreviate words and phrases (Huber, Hanson, Cha, & Tappert, 2005: 2). In e-mail it is not very necessary to use abbreviations, because in theory the user has the time to formulate the message (Schras, 2005: 2). In instant messaging it is though, because the user has to type fast in order to keep the pace of the conversation. Computer users that spend a lot of time chatting online, become very skilful with these abbreviations. People that use instant messaging a lot, may start to use shortenings in their analogue writing too. Twenty-nine per cent of the Hong Kong teachers interviewed by Bodomo (2004: 21) said they had often (once every 2 or 3 assignment) seen chatroom shortenings in students‟ writing. Some people report that they actually say LOL in real life instead of laughing (Lønsmann, 2009). Although using chatroom abbreviations out of the chatroom context does not seem to be a very widespread activity. It is mainly the younger people and those who communicate online a lot that use them in real life.

2.3.8 ASCII Art ASCII art is text created with ASCII, a protocol established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), which is America‟s representative to the International Organisation for Standardisation (IOS). It uses ASCII text characters to produce images. ASCII is the accepted standard for information exchange. The elemental unit in computer communication is the byte, which can represent 256 values. So correspondingly there are 256 ASCII characters, also known as 8-bit ASCII, as opposed to 7-bit ASCII which has just 128 values. ASCII is used to map a value to a character. ASCII art uses the 256 characters to produce images. ASCII art was actually invented on typewriters, although it was not called ASCII art then. But it became popular with the emergence of the Internet. On the early Internet people wanted to use pictures. The communicative reason for that was that pictures can express concepts more easily. But the Internet users could not use pictures, because the Internet was originally a text-medium. Therefore ASCII art thrived (Jones, 2002: 16). The ASCII art in figure 15 is from around 1987-1994.

Figure 15: ASCII art

Now ASCII art is sometimes used on printed posters, like figure 16 reflects. This is not a common practice, but in this case more like a joke. This poster promotes science studies, and jestingly uses ASCII to look more science-like.

Figure 16: This 2008 poster (University of Groningen 2008) shows ASCII art in print.

2.3.9 Front Pages with Just Hyperlinks Blanken & Deuze (2003: 199) argue that the front page of news websites acts as a table of contents. Complete articles are rarely found. The front page gives entry to the deeper structure of the site by presenting as many subjects as possible. This occurs in the form of titles of articles, sometimes fitted with a few lines of text, and sections. On the Internet we often see that the front page does not contain real information, but contains as many as possible links on the front page, so the audience can see that there is a lot of different information available. The Dutch newspaper nrc.next, on the market since 2006 and meant for a young and high educated audience, employs the same front page design for its print edition newspaper. In figure 17 it is clear that nrc.next has no complete articles on its front page. There are titles of articles, a few lines of text and „hyperlinks‟ to the deeper structure of the newspaper.

Figure 17: Nrc.next of may 4, 2006

Before the Internet, it was also customary for newspapers to put smaller articles on their front page, with a reference to another page within the paper, but the difference with nrc.next is that in the nrc.next there is not a complete article at all on the front page. This front page acts as a table of contents and gives entry to the deeper structure of the newspaper. For comparison see figure 8 on page 12. The cover of Nrc.next‟s older brother NRC Handelsblad does have entire articles on the front page, it looks more traditional.

2.4 Examples Just to make things more clear here a few examples of what could be happening follow. In these examples the focus is on the last three phases of the ARIAK model: imitation, authenticity and kickback. The first image of the examples shows the old medium with the old characteristic, the second the new medium with the old characteristic, the fourth the new medium with the new characteristic and the last the old medium with the new characteristic, schematised: 1. OM – OC 2. NM – OC 3. NM – NC 4. OM – NC The O stands for old, the N for new, the M for medium and the C for characteristic.

2.4.1 Sans serif The first example treats sans serifs. The book in figure 18 is from 1989. It has a serif typeface. The Harvard website in figure 19 is from 1997, you can clearly see that it is an early website; just take a look on www.harvard.edu to see how it has evolved. The 1997 website, like a book, has a serif typeface (imitation). Figure 20 shows us the website of the Museum of London in the year 2009. This website has a typeface for screen, its most important characteristic: it is sans serif (authenticity). Then the last figure, figure 21, shows a book from 2004. It has a sans serif typeface, and also looks a bit website-like (kickback). But, note that probably web pages will not keep using sans serif typefaces. Ever improving screen resolutions could make it unnecessary to use sans serif. Also note that sans serif faces were

18 invented before the Internet, and before screens and computers (Evans, 2004: 29). So sans serif types were used before the Internet, but it could be that they are used more now after the emergence of the Internet. It could be argued that sans serifs are just modern, and that they would have been used anyway, with or without the Internet. But since they already came up in the Industrial Revolution, starting in the eighteenth century, it would be a very long-lasting fashion if sans serif faces were an upward trend from then on. If there proved to be a sudden increase in sans serif types after the rise of the Internet, it might be an indication that the Internet might have caused it.

Figure 18: OM-OC. Heskett, J. (1989). Industriële vormgeving. Amsterdam: Boom.

Figure 19: NM-OC. The Harvard website on May, 1997.

Figure 20: NM-NC. The website of the Museum of London on February 28, 2009.

Figure 21: OM-NC. Aimone, S. (2004). Design! A Lively Guide To Design Basics for Artists & Craftspeople. Asheville: Lark Books.

2.4.2 Emoticons Here an example of what happened with emoticons will be given. In figure 22 we see a love letter from 1866. People expressed their feelings in sentences. It says: “Dear Minnie, Will you oblige me by mailing the enclosed letter as soon as it is convenient and keeping the circumstance strictly secret? If so, and things turn out as I anticipate, it will be the greatest favor you have ever done me- and I shall consider myself under everlasting obligations. It is not expedient for me to explain matters now, but I will do so in the future. I have received your precious letter. I have not time to answer tonight, but you will hear from me again in a few days. Good bye Darling. Believe me to be, the same. Loving, B…J”. Passing on to figure 23, there is an e-mail from 1994. Feelings are still expressed through sentences (imitation). In figure 24 an e-mail from 2007. Now emoticons are used (authenticity). Then the last figure, figure 25, is a blackboard in a Dutch students‟ house bathroom in 2009. Here an emoticon is written in chalk, turned sideways (kickback), while it could have easily been drawn the right way round.

Figure 22: OM-OC. Palmetto Pathos (2008). Intrigue and subterfuge… Palmetto Pathos. http://palmettopathos.com/?p=146 (downloaded February 28, 2008).

Figure 23: NM-OC. Wheeler, D.D. (1995). KIDHYPERLINK: patterns of growth. Internet Research, 5(1), 71-79.

Figure 24: NM-NC. An e-mail from 2007.

Figure 25: OM-NC. A blackboard in a Dutch students‟ house bathroom in 2009.

2.5 Why the Kickback Effect? A complementary question is why the established media would use the internet lay-out, what significance does this operation assume? Does it happen unconsciously, as a result of the designers being so influenced by the web that they unintentionally use the form characteristics of it? Or is the design used deliberately? According to Fortunati (2005: 39) the communicative reason for the managers and designers of the older media for using the layout of internet site presentation, is that using the web layout means selling an idea of modernisation. So the older media, afraid that the trendy people will run away, try to appear more like the modern Internet in layout and form to be more appealing to the readers. The internet, the latest and most powerful meta-medium, has

23 become the means by which to „propose oneself‟ in the collective imagination to the public in an innovative way. According to Fortunati it is strange that the older media try to look more like the Internet, because the Internet is still immature and television keeps having a firm grasp on the greatest share of the market. The stance that the Internet is immature and that the internetisation of the traditional media is not so strong is shared by other authors (Van der Wurff, 2005; Salaverría, 2005). They find the older media will stay dominant and that the Internet is only in its infancy. Van der Wurff (2005: 109) argues that another reason for the older media to take over Internet design is that online editors operate in the same political-economic environment and face at least the same problems and time constraints as their offline counterparts. So a visual convergence is almost inevitable, because designers experience the same things as they live in the same world. A third reason for the older media to adapt to the Internet might be that it just happens unconsciously. When designers and editors of older media spend much time on the Internet, like everybody else does, they will be influenced by it. Maybe then they implement its forms and characteristics in their medium, without deliberately wanting to do so. Finally it might be caused by XML, because XML makes it possible to use the same content for several media, like personal computers, PDAs and wall displays (Harold, 2003: 247). When the designer can easily use the same content for various media, it is tempting for him to also use the same layout for the various media. Without considering the capabilities and restrictions different display types entail.

24 3. Methodology The kickback effect is difficult to analyse, because of three reasons. It is an intangible process, as it can not easily be quantified. Moreover the process is taking place this moment so the long-term effects cannot yet be measured. And thirdly the kickback phase came so fast after the imitation and the authenticity phase that now it is hard to know which came first, the chicken or the egg? Newspapers nowadays have smaller columns, but is that derived from the Internet, or did the Internet copy it from the newspapers? Do school books now have smaller chunks of texts and many little frames because of the Internet or did the Internet copy it from books? However, dropping the research because it is a difficult one to perform would be a pity, so a case study was performed to test the bigger concept that is the kickback effect. The following method was used. In paragraph 2.3 the form characteristics of the Internet that might be adopted by older media are enumerated. In short these were: - Typefaces for screen by: books, advertisements - Disc Bullets by: books, advertisements, newspapers, television news programs - Emoticons by: hand written messages - Web banners by: newspapers - Menus with hyperlinks by: digital teletext - Thr ee-panel layout by: digital teletext, television news programs - Chatroom abbreviations by: face-to-face communication - ASCII art by: advertisements, other art forms - Front pages with just hyperlinks by: newspapers Some of them are not suited for quantitative analysis. Web banners are not, because the concept is a little to vague, it is unclear when it is a banner and when just a reference to another page. Menus with hyperlinks are not, because there are too few providers of digital teletext to have a real population. For the three-panel layout the same goes. Chatroom abbreviations are not, because it is unclear what are chatroom abbreviations and which abbreviations already existed before the Internet, the chicken and the egg again. ASCII art is not, because it is used just now and then, just sometimes on flyers, posters or paintings. Front pages with just hyperlinks are not, because only some newspapers arrange their front page like that. Remaining are the typefaces for screen, the disc bullets and the emoticons. The only problem with typefaces for screen is that the difference between a screen sans serif and a normal sans serif cannot be made with the naked eye, because for the non-professional they are to much alike. Therefore instead of separating the typefaces for print from the typefaces for screen, perforce the serif typefaces will be separated from the sans serif ones. This is not sheer arbitrary, because the most important characteristic of typefaces for screen is that they are sans serif. After the quantitative analysis a qualitative one was done, for the other characteristics. Editors of newspapers, books and designers of advertisements where questioned about the internetisation of their medium. Also people using emoticons in handwritten messages were questioned to find out more about why they do that and were the phenomenon comes from. The qualitative analysis was not meant as an averment, but as a supplement to the quantitative analysis. It was carried out to make sense of what the numbers say. Also the value of the quantitative analysis will rise when the results are confirmed in the qualitative analysis.

3.1 Quantitative Analysis

3.1.1 Procedure Three of the characteristics passing over to the older media are fit for a quantitative analysis. These include typefaces for screen, disc bullets and emoticons. In order

25 to see if the rise of the Internet evoked the use of more sans serif typefaces in print, a comparison was made between advertisements from before and after the introduction of the Internet. Since 1994 is regarded as the year of the Internet revolution - which originated from the introduction of Netscape‟s browser (Venkataraman, 2003: 156) - advertisements from before 1994 were considered as pre-Internet advertisements. Publications from after 1994 are regarded post-Internet. Since it is problematic to see if a sans serif face is a typeface for screen, or a sans serif meant for printing, this analysis was limited to separating serifs and sans serifs. Again: not all sans serifs are designed for screen use, but sans serifs are very much associated with it. Advertisements like figures 26 and 27 were examined. These clearly show that the older advertisement has a serif typeface while the new one does not. For this research a hundred advertisements (fifty old ones and fifty new ones) have been compared, to form a big enough sample, as will be explained in paragraph 3.1.5.

Figure 26: Dutch advertisement Coca-Cola Figure 27: Dutch advertisement from 1977 Coca-Cola from 2000

Furthermore two hundred books were compared. A hundred from before 1994, and a hundred from after 1994. To compare the pre- and post-Internet bullet types a hundred books were compared (fifty before and fifty after). Not two hundred books in this case, because not all books – like novels - employ bulleting. Only the bullet type inside the book was examined, not the type on the cover or the back flap, because these can be regarded rather as little advertisements recommending the book and they often employ a different layout and bullet type. To see if after the Internet breakthrough people started using emoticons in handwriting, a questionnaire was handed out. The participants were asked if they use emoticons in handwriting, and if they do: do they draw them ninety degrees turned, or upright? It would be nice to gather a corpus of paper texts containing emoticons. However, this is nearly impossible as emoticons are almost always used in private correspondence, like in little notes that say „back at 5 :)‟. It would be difficult to gather these notes.

26 3.1.2 Sub Questions The sub questions for the quantitative analyses are: does the Internet influence the use of serifs in books and advertisements? Does the Internet influence the bullet type in books? How many people use emoticons in handwritten messages, and how do they use them?

3.1.3 Research Design For the serif and bulleting questions a content analysis was conducted, comparing pre- and post-Internet texts. The emoticon question was analysed with a survey research.

3.1.4 Variables For the sans serif sub question the independent variable is the Internet and the dependent variable is the serif. For the bullet type sub question the independent variable again is the Internet, and the dependent one the bullet type.

3.1.5 Material The material consisted of a hundred advertisements, fifty from before 1994 and fifty from after 1994. In addition two hundred books were compared for their type face, and a hundred books for there bullet type. As a probability sampling method involves the selection of a random sample from a list containing all the books and advertisements in the world, and as such a list is not available, nonprobability sampling was used. For the sample of books purposive sampling, also called judgmental sampling, was used. In this case the books were collected by just picking books out of library cabinets and people‟s private books collections. Also Google Books (books.google.com) was used. The list of books was checked to represent the whole population of books as good as possible, and rechecked by two other communication students. The advertisements were sampled by convenience sampling. As old advertisements were hard to find, all the advertisements available were used. To compensate the loss of internal validity that is caused by convenience sampling, the advertisements from before 1994 were of the same brands as those from after 1994, and from the same country. They were collected using the magazines AllerHande, the Netherlands; Quest, the Netherlands; Viva, the Netherlands; Men‟s Health, the Netherlands; Libelle, the Netherlands, Vanity Fair, USA; Elsevier, the Netherlands; Revista La Nación, Argentina; Revu, the Netherlands. Also www.reclamearsenaal.nl was used, a website with an advertisements archive. The advertisements were mainly Dutch, for practical reasons, as this paper was written in the Netherlands.

3.1.6 Participants To see if people use emoticons in handwriting, 103 participants were questioned, from different countries. These participants were collected sending out a message using Hyves (www.hyves.nl) and Facebook (www.facebook.com), both of these are networking websites. Also the database with potential participants of ThesisTools (www.thesistools.com) was used. The participants were, on the whole, not too much in touch with the Internet like computer science students or online gamers would be. The questioned were, in short, normal people with all sorts of studies and careers being in touch with the Internet only because they live in modern times and are therefore compelled to be so. The respondents‟ ages ranged from 16 to 64, with 73 per cent of the participants in the age group 20-24 (q.v. figure 28). So most participants were young people, but not teenagers. This age group was chosen because young people are the ones using emoticons in handwriting. The older generations are not very much inclined to do so. The very young were left out because they were thought to be more impressionable by the trend of the moment, and therefore not a stable target group. Attendant to this is that the results are not applicable to the whole (Dutch and international) population, but only to the young part of society.

27 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Number of respondents Ages 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

Figure 28: Ages of the respondents

28 The greater part of the respondents was Dutch (q.v. figure 29). 22 per cent of the respondents was from another country.

Number of respondents Belgium Argentina Canada 3% USA 9% 1% Argentina Estonia 3% Belgium UK 1% 2% France Canada 1% Estonia Ireland France 1% Ireland Israel Israel 1% Netherlands UK Netherlands USA 78%

Figure 29: Countries were the respondents live

From the Dutch participants 54 per cent consisted of students from the city of Groningen in the province of Groningen (q.v. figure 30) in the North of the Netherlands, a university town.

Number of respondents

Drenthe Flevoland 1% 1% Friesland Zuid Holland Drenthe 2% 2% Flevoland Gelderland Utrecht 2% Friesland 6% Gelderland Overijssel Groningen 25% Noord Holland Groningen Overijssel Noord Holland 56% 5% Utrecht Zuid Holland

Figure 30: Provinces were the Dutch respondents lived

3.1.7 Operation First the sans serif question was explored. To see if the number of serifs from the pre-Internet advertisements and books differs significantly from the post-Internet ones, the chi square test for cross tables was used with an alpha of 0,05. Secondly books were run over to note the bullet type, the chi square test was used again. Thirdly the emoticons were investigated. The following questionnaire was handed out to the participants:

1. Age 2. Place of residence 3. Country 4. Do you ever use emoticons when you communicate through the Internet (chat, e-mail, forum...)?

An emoticon is a symbol used to refer to emotions, like :-) signifying happiness and :-( signifying sadness. a. Yes b. No 5. Do you ever use emoticons in text messages? a. Yes b. No 6. Do you ever use emoticons in handwriting? For example in a letter, in your agenda, when you leave a note that you will be back at 5... a. Yes b. No

7. If you ever use emoticons in handwriting, do you draw them 90 degrees turned, or upright? Above you see two examples. The first one is 90 degrees turned, the second one is upright. a. 90 degrees turned b. Upright c. Both d. I never use emoticons in handwriting

There was a Dutch, a Spanish and an English version available.

3.2 Qualitative Analysis

3.2.1 Procedure After the quantitative analysis several qualitative interviews were carried out. Designers of newspapers, advertisements and books were questioned if they believed their design was influenced by the Internet, if this influence happened subconsciously or deliberately and why they thought their media were influenced (or not influenced at all) by the Internet. Then people who used emoticons in their handwritten messages were questioned about why they use them, in what way and since when. The qualitative analysis was meant to make it easier to distillate the communicative implications from the quantitative analysis.

3.2.2. Research Group and Data Acquisition As personal interviews with editors in chief and designers of international newspapers, publishing houses, digital teletext companies and so on were not easy to arrange, e-mails were send out to different companies in various countries. The e-mails were set up as semi-structured interviews with descriptive questions (Baxter & Babbie, 2004: 329,332) and contained the following four questions:

30 - Do you think […] looks like a web page? If so, is that coincidence? - Is the layout deliberately adapted to web pages? If so, why? - If it is not deliberately, do you think there are similarities and how do you explain them? - If it is deliberately, which form characteristics that come from the internet are adopted in […]? One independent designer, G. van der Aa, was interviewed in her office. This interview was also a semi-structured one with descriptive questions. Four of the e-mails to newspapers were responded, by the respondents: Robert van Brandwijk: Editor in Chief Metro Holland; Jan Paul van der Wijk: Design Manager NRC Media; Menno Pelser: Graphic designer de Volkskrant and Ernesto Kraiselburd; Editor in chief El Día. The free newspaper Metro was introduced in The Netherlands in 1999 by Metro International from Sweden. The paper was modelled on a successful Swedish example founded in 1995 in Stockholm. By now rather more than seventy editions in eighteen different countries are published. The papers are distributed among travellers in the public transport but also in supermarkets, store chains, restaurants, cafés, on the street, in universities and multi- storey‟s. The stress falls on short news without to many background articles. Metro is especially read by young readers (aged 13 to 35) (Bakker & Scholten, 2007: 11). NRC Handelsblad, a Dutch newspaper emanated from a fusion in 1970, is usually typified as a quality paper. That is to say: relatively much (political) information and little entertainment. Among the readers of NRC Handelsblad the higher income and education categories are considerably overrepresented. Nrc.next was introduced in 2006, a cheaper tabloid aiming at a younger audience, available only on weekdays (Bakker & Scholten, 2007: 4,6-7). De Volkskrant, also Dutch, is originally a catholic paper founded in 1919. Like NRC, it is perceived as a quality newspaper read by the higher income groups (Bakker & Scholten, 2007: 5-7,14). El Día is an Argentinean daily founded in 1884 in La Plata as the capital of the Province of Buenos Aires. It still has a provincial circulation and a centrist political allegiance (Cafferata, 2008). Of the e-mails to book designers two got responded. The first one by Heleen Silvis, an independent book designer from Feerwerd in the province of Groningen, The Netherlands. The second one by Wouter van Nieuwland, creative director of the communication agency De Heeren van Vonder in the Netherlands. The e-mails to advertising agencies got a response from another four people, all of them Dutch. The first one was Kirsten Andres, managing partner of the advertising agency Nieuw. The second one was Marco Mok, owner of the advertising agency DM Creatieve Communicatie, winner of the TREF-award. The third one was Yael Goudsmit, project manager of the advertising agency Roorda. The last one was Auke Zeijlstra, owner of the advertising agency Kantoor260. Then there was also the interview with the independent designer Gemma van der Aa. For the emoticons in handwritten messages five people were questioned. Four from the Netherlands, and one from the USA. Two of the Dutch participants were encountered in the canteen of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Groningen. One Dutch participant was a friend of a friend of the interviewer. The participant from the USA was a cousin of a friend of the interviewer. The participants from the Netherlands were questioned face-to-face, the participant from the USA using voice chat. The participants were aged twenty to twenty- two, as this age group was also used in the quantitative research. All of them were students. Two participants were men, and two were women. The emoticon interviews were unstructured interviews. The questions were created during the interview and changed to meet

31 the different situations and participants. The participants in this part of the analysis are not referred to by name, but are numbered. With the professionals it can be important to know the names, to know who is who. But with the young emoticon users it is not very important who they are, they are just representatives of a group. For privacy reasons their names are omitted. All participants were collected by convenience sampling.

3.2.3 Operation The e-mails to the professionals were sent out, the responses received, the interviews conducted and the responses were translated. The interviews with the participants about emoticons in handwritten messages were performed, noted down and if necessary translated. In the next chapter the results will be summarised.

32 4. Results

4.1 Quantitative Analysis

4.1.1 Sans serif 1 Of the advertisements before the Internet breakthrough (q.v. table 2 and 3 starting on page 45), 27 out of 50 have a serif. Of the newer advertisements, there are 2 out of 50 with a serif. The chi square test for cross tables proves that the asymptotic significance is 0,000, so the difference in the number of serifs in advertisements is significant. The conclusion that older advertisements use far less sans serifs is supported by Moriarty (1982: 291) in her 1982 research, stating that then sans serif typefaces were being used in only 42% of the time for body copy in advertisements. Of the earlier books, 91 out of 100 have a serif (q.v. table 4 and 5 starting on page 48). The newer books include 78 out of 100 with a serif. The chi square test for cross tables proves that the asymptotic significance is 0,011, so the difference in the number of serifs is significant. Clearly there is an increase in sans serif texts in books. However, not all genres use it. Novels do not, and scientific books neither. Books that are printed in sans serif after the Internet revolution include two cookery books (nr. 7 and 9), a practical book on the Internet (nr. 11), two city guides (nr. 25 and 47), three children‟s books (nr. 36, 76 and 85), a target groups report (nr. 98), a treatise about ICT (nr. 39), two books on sports (nr. 33 and 97), books on the history of design (nr. 17), secondary schools (nr. 46), scrapbooking (nr. 49), mathematics (nr. 50), monster trucks (nr. 52) art (nr. 56), plants (nr. 59), IPods (nr. 80), football (nr. 86), pigs (nr. 91) and cultural policy, cultural property, and the law (nr. 93). These books have in common that they either contain many pictures and smaller chunks of text or are children‟s‟ books. The books that contain many pictures, as a result have small chunks of texts. For smaller chunks of texts a serif is not that important because they are readable even without a serif (although the chunks in some books are still very big, and maybe better readable with a serif) (Mombaerts & Vossen, 2004: 55). Children‟s books are traditionally associated with sans serifs (Middendorp 2004: 303). In this enumeration the four books out of place are nr. 11, 39, 46 and 93. Nr. 11 has no pictures, it is just plain text. Nr. 39 is the Incommunicado Reader. It is a scientific treatise, written by a professor, on ICT. It has no pictures. Nr. 46 - Samen leren in Dalton en vmbo. Negen portretten - contains very little pictures. Nr. 93, Who Owns the Past? Cultural Policy, Cultural Property, and the Law, is scientific too, and has few pictures. It could be argued that these books are just sans serif because they either contain small amounts of text, are children‟s books, books on design, or books about „cool‟, young, digital things, like IPods. That the difference is not in pre-Internet/post-Internet but in popular/unpopular. But are there more books from before 1994 discussing „serious‟ matters? To discover this, a column was added to the tables, with the title popular. A plus indicates that the work is popular (or about design or computers) and a minus indicates that it is not. This is highly ambiguous, off the cuff, and popular is not a good label because it also includes design, art and computer books, but it is the best way possible. Here again, two communication students were asked to run over the list to check if the plusses and minuses were added correctly. The table with the older books counts 64 minuses and the table with the newer books also, so there is not any difference. Let‟s take a look at two very similar books as an example. The first one is nr. 41 from the pre-Internet table: Harley-Davidson. The American Motorcycle. It has pictures of motor-cycles and texts to go with it and it has a serif.

1 In Appendices I and II on all the results can be found. A summery is given in this chapter.

33 The second one, nr. 52, is the post-Internet book Monster Trucks: Ground-Pounding Monster Trucks in High-Flying Action. This book has pictures of monster trucks, and texts to go with it and it is laid out in sans serif. So the two books are very comparable in reference to the content and the reader in view, but the modern one has a more Internet-like typeface.

4.1.2 Disc Bullets Among the before-Internet-books there are 20 books containing disc bullets, 4 books with mixed disc bulleting (disc and something else) and 26 books with another bulleting type (q.v. table 6 and 7 starting on page 63). The after-Internet-books contain 27 books with disc bullets, 8 books with mixed disc bulleting and 15 with another bulleting type. The chi square test for cross tables proves that the asymptotic significance is 0,025 so the difference in the number of disc bullets is significant. Again, the division is made between popular books and serious ones. The result: in this sample, before the internet there were 15 serious books and 35 popular ones, after the internet there were 26 serious books and 24 popular ones.

4.1.3 Emoticons What follows is a summery of the answers the participants gave to the emoticons questionnaire. Almost everybody uses emoticons in chat (96 per cent) and text messages (86 per cent). 63 per cent reports having ever used emoticons in handwriting, of which 15 per cent draws them ninety degrees turned like this :). 33 per cent draws them upright, and 16 per cent draws them sometimes upright, and sometimes turned (q.v. page 72). Concluding, there are many participants in this sample (73 per cent of the participants being in the age group 20-24) that use emoticons in handwriting, from which a large part that draws them ninety degrees turned. When drawing emoticons with pen or pencil this is not fundamentally logical, because they could easily be drawn upright. So this implies that the Internet has caused it.

4.2 Qualitative Analysis

4.2.1 Newspapers The complete answers of the editors and designers can be found in appendix II starting on page 73. Here a summery and analysis will be given. The vision of the newspaper editors and designers range from our paper is not at all influenced by the Internet, we only influence the Internet (Metro) to we deliberately try too make our paper look like a web page and adopt its characteristics (NRC Handelsblad/nrc.next). The middle ground is taken by de Volkskrant and El Día. The graphic designer from de Volkskrant states the layout of the paper is not totally adapted to the web, but within the framework of the recognisability (and to make the site more widely known) more and more elements that were designed specifically for the site are smuggled into the newspaper. The editor of El Día says his paper does not really look like a web page, but because of the fact that everybody nowadays uses the internet, and we are so familiar with it, El Día‟s staff uses the Internet style in the paper. All interviewees agree that the Internet also took many characteristics from the papers. This is in accordance with what Van Driel (2001: 30) calls the imitation phase in his ARIA model: the new medium copies the characteristics of the old medium. This is indeed what happened with the Internet when it was so new it did not posses characteristics of its own and had to adopt them from older media. After that came the phase of authenticity (Van Driel, 2001: 30): the Internet developed unique characteristics. It is only logical that the reverse process, the newspapers adopting Internet features is scarcely out of the egg. As the graphic designer of de Volkskrant puts it: “I think that the site is mainly build to the design of the paper and only to a limited degree visa versa.”

34 So which characteristics do the papers adopt from the Internet? The design manager of NRC media says that his newspapers contain eye-catchers, references and hyperlinks to the Internet and hyperlinks within the newspaper, in the present paper referred to as „banners‟ q.v. paragraph 2.3.4 on page 9. He also mentions that page 3 of nrc.next has a way of news presentation similar to a web page. All articles look approximately equally important, so that the readers can make their own choice. And why do newspapers, which have existed long before the coming on of the Internet, adopt the characteristics of the newer media? What is the communicative significance? NRC Media‟s Jan Paul van der Wijk states that it has to do with the habituation of the readers to certain ways of reading. Readers apparently spent so much time on the Internet that they more easily read articles constructed like Internet articles. Both the graphic designer of the Volkskrant and of NRC Media state that having the site look like the paper and the paper like the site, improves the recognisability. People reading the paper will associate it with the site, and the other way around. The editor of El Día says more or less the same: because everybody is accustomed to the Internet, its design is used in the paper. NRC Media‟s design manager also adds that the articles in the paper are generally longer than the ones on the website, because it is easier to read on paper. The editor of El Día puts forward that „banners‟ in newspapers have always existed, in the form of advertisements. He argues that the banners and advertisements are more or less the same. But this is another kind of „banner‟. In this research advertisements are not considered, but banners on the front page of a newspaper are meant, usually horizontal rectangles, with a picture and text pointing to another page in the paper. All interviewees agree that the Internet and newspapers influence each other, be it the paper influencing the Internet or the other way around.

4.2.2 Books The first book designer interviewed, Heleen Silvis, says books are absolutely not influenced in any way possible way by the Internet, because book designers are very strongly against the Internet and the way web pages are designed. The second book designer, Wouter van Nieuwland, says he does not know. Silvis says there is a shift from serif towards sans serif, but that trend started in the seventies. A friend of her whose opinion she asked said that nowadays there is a more careless way in the use of typefaces, but that has nothing to do with websites, that has to do with the computer. Van Nieuwland says that books might copy typefaces from websites. Silvis says that also the changes in the layout of books started in the seventies. She claims that the Internet cannot have an influence on books, but it can have an influence on the advertisements world. She says that the link between the advertisements and websites is many times stronger than between books and websites. Van Nieuwland finds that certainly not all books look like web pages. But if they do, it is not coincidence. The layout of books always happens consciously, he says. If books start looking more like web pages it is to be more appealing to the target group. This statement of Van Nieuwland is important to note, because of its communicative implications. According to him, the form characteristics originating from the internet and applied to books could include typefaces, graphics and frames (the modular layout mentioned in paragraph 2.3.6).

4.2.3 Advertisements Kirsten Andres said she only sees the connection between advertisements and the Internet in the similarities in communication. Both the Internet and advertisements, she says, want to attract costumers‟ attention in a short time, and they want to keep that attention. Internet tries to attract costumers by being very visual, and without large amounts of text, and so do advertisement. That is the same point Marco Mok makes. He says that David Ovylge thirty years ago propagated the art of omitting, but that costumers always

35 wanted to put too much text on an advertisement. The short texts on websites finally made everybody realise that there should not be too large amounts of texts on print neither. Mok says that because of the rise of the Internet advertisement designers started realising that the reader does not read anymore, he just scans the information. But, Andres says, other than the short texts we do not consider the Internet in designing our advertisements. Goudsmit also says that she does not use the Internet layout deliberately in her designs. Andres adds that the Internet is used in a very functional way, just looking for the information one needs. An advertisement can and may radiate much more brand feeling. Mok on the other hand puts forward that in his agency the layout of advertisements is adapted consciously to web pages, with clear steering and important messages on the best places, that gives the best response. He says modern advertisements have shorter texts and often have bullets, that is because of the Internet. Yael Goudsmit says that it could be that „out of the box‟ designing of some web pages, is taken over by the traditional media. As Gemma van der Aa states, the influence of the Internet can be seen in button-like features on brochures and advertisements. She uses those in folders now, and she says she maybe would not have done that before the Internet-era. However, she adds, it is difficult to really tell that it came from the Internet. She also says that now she sees many more sans serif typefaces in texts all around her, and maybe they are used more because we see them all the time on the Internet. But that is not sure, because it is also just a modern looking thing to use sans serifs. Mok adds that the other way round the influence of traditional media on the Internet is also huge, and the other designers all agree with that. Goudsmit writes that we use the Internet so much these days, that it can influence designers unconsciously, and the others think so too. As Auke Zeijlstra puts it: “web design is an important medium with which has to be reckoned in the designing process. Self-evidently all the design looks like web design and the other way round.” Van der Aa says she uses sans serifs a lot. Mainly DTL Argo and Universe which are not sans serifs made for screen but for print. The number one website font Arial she does not use in print. For websites she does use it. In print she does not do so because she thinks it is not a pretty typeface. She finds it too normal, and it does not have many variation possibilities. For lists she uses only disc bullets, no dashes or another bulleting type, because disc bullets are more elegant, she says. The designers that do think the older media are, at least partly, influenced by the Internet are Van der Aa, Mok, Goudsmit and Zeijlstra. Andres thinks there is no influence of the Internet at all.

4.2.4 Emoticons on paper The first participant of the emoticon interview says he uses emoticons in hand written messages if what he has to say is meant as a joke and to add feelings to the text. With emoticons, he says, one can make his point easier, with fewer words. That feeling is shared by the other participants. They use emoticons to express their feelings, which else they would have to express in words. And that, they find, is more difficult than just adding an emoticon. Also it is just faster to draw an emoticon than to have to write text. It is a form of paralanguage when real paralanguage is lost because the „speaker‟ and „listener‟ are physically apart. Participant three says that when she leaves a note with a joke she puts a winking emoticon behind it, so the receiver of the message knows it is a joke. “Because sometimes I say blunt things, so they have to know it‟s not serious.” She also finds that emoticons look cute when added to a written message. Participants one, two and four think they use emoticons in handwriting because they (used to) chat online a lot, the Dutch participants using Windows Live Messenger (formerly MSN). They talk about online chatting as MSN-ing, because in the Netherlands it is the most

36 frequently used chat application. Participant two also mentions text messages as a reason for now using emoticons in handwriting. She says she also uses them a lot in text messages. When asked if she thinks she accidently uses them in handwriting, because of using them so much online and in text messages, she says it is not accidently, but deliberately. In contrast with participant four, who says he uses them automatically. Participant three says she uses them in her house book, but also when she leaves a note or in pieces for a 21-dinner. Dutch student houses sometimes have a house book, often on the toilet. The residents write their thoughts and feelings in it and arrange house dinners and parties using the house book. In Dutch student unions, in some ways comparable with the fraternities or sororities in the USA, a member has a dinner on his twenty-first birthday and his friends give him a book with memories. The participant says she uses emoticons in handwriting since she was about twelve. Participant four also says he has used them since a long time, but he does not remember since when. He adds that sometimes he has to stop himself from using too many emoticons, because it starts looking overdone.

37 5. Conclusion and Discussion

5.1 Conclusion This conclusion starts with a recapitulation of the research. According to new media theorists like Bolter & Grusin (1999) and Manovich (2001) media constantly influence each other. Van Driel (2001: 30) says that the introduction of a new medium passes of according to the ARIA model, with first the amazement about the new medium, then the resistance against it. The fresh medium imitates the old one, but later develops its own characteristics. It could be that after that phase the older media start taking over characteristics of the new medium to improve successful communication. If this is true, it should also apply to the Internet, as was the idea of the present research. The research question was: Do the old media adopt the form characteristics of the Internet? Exploring if and how the old media adopt the form characteristics of the Internet could be meaningful to gain insight into the design development of media and the influence of the Internet. The process of the adoption of visual Internet characteristics by the older media was named kickback. Adding the kickback phase to the ARIA model produces the ARIAK model. Examples of the ARIAK model in the media can be found in media history. Various characteristics were indicated that could be migrating from the Internet to the older media. These were typefaces for screen, disc bullets, emoticons, web banners, menus with hyperlinks, the three-panel layout, chatroom abbreviations, ASCII art and front pages with just hyperlinks. Why would the established media take over Internet characteristics? Maybe to look more modern, or because Internet and the older media exist in the same world, and thus have to look like each other. Or maybe because designers of the older media unconsciously take over Internet characteristics. To map the kickback effect, a quantitative analysis was carried out, followed by a qualitative one. Three migrating characteristics were fit for a quantitative analysis. These include typefaces for screen, disc bullets and emoticons. Books and advertisements from before and after the Internet era were compared, to see if the numbers of sans serif typefaces and disc bullets increased over time. This proved to be so using the Chi square test. A questionnaire was handed out to see how many people use emoticons in hand written messages, and how they use them. The questionnaire showed that 63 per cent of the mainly young and Dutch respondents reported having ever used emoticons in handwriting, of which 15 per cent draws them ninety degrees turned like this :). 33 per cent draws them upright, and 16 per cent draws them sometimes upright, and sometimes turned. After the quantitative research a qualitative one was performed, interviewing editors and designers of newspapers, books and advertisements. Some said the Internet has a big influence on their product, some said the Internet has a small influence on their product and some said the Internet does not have any influence whatsoever on their product. Also (young) people who use emoticons in handwritten notes were questioned about why they do it, since when and in what way they use them. So is the kickback effect really happening? It is hard to say, because it is not easy to know what is the chicken and what is the egg. As the imitation process and the kickback process intertwine with each other, it is difficult to say who took some characteristic from whom. Did some design or other pass from the television to the Internet or the other way around? The present research shows that nowadays significantly more sans serif typefaces are used than before, and also many more disc bullets. But it is not a hundred per cent sure that this is because of the Internet. For emoticons now appearing in hand written messages on the contrary there is a lot of evidence that the phenomenon is derived from the Internet. Before the Internet era, emoticons were just not there, apart from the negligible one or two in the typewriter era. Also note the people reporting that they draw the emoticon ninety degrees turned. It makes absolutely no sense to do that in pen writing, as there are few human beings who have their head placed horizontally on their torso. As emoticons are so linked to the

38 Internet, and almost did not exist before, they must have come from the Internet. For newspapers and designers saying that they deliberately use the Internet‟s layout, to appeal to the readers, it is sure that the kickback effect is there. The Dutch newspaper nrc.next for example, is designed to the Internet. When the newspaper was put on the market in 2006, it was designed to take over as many web page layout characteristics as possible. Furthermore it is not just the sans serif question, or the three-panel layout, or any other of the form characteristics, but it is the whole range of characteristics that make the Internet look like the Internet. It is not that one characteristic individually is exclusive of the Internet. Subtitles on television are made up in sans serifs too, but it is the whole range of characteristics making web pages look like web pages. What evidence is there against the kickback effect? There is a lot to argue against the hypothesis that the current overload of sans serif typefaces is derived from the Internet. Sans serifs are not only used on websites but also in another mighty medium, namely in the subtitles of television programs. But so much television we do not watch anymore (as we are to busy surfing), and most programs are not subtitled, plus many countries dub their foreign language television shows. Sans serifs are also frequently used for people with reading disabilities (Middendorp, 2004: 303). However, not that many people suffer from reading disabilities. Sans serifs were invented in the Industrial Revolution, they were fashionable in the sixties (Frank, 1998: 105), and now they are again. If that is because of the Internet is not sure. One interviewee argued that it is not the Internet influencing the use of typefaces, but that it is the computer. That might be true, but the influence of the computer on the older media is a different field of interest then the influence of the Internet on the older media, though the two are very much connected as the computer is an inseparable part of the Internet as a medium, for without a computer, there is no Internet. The computer in this sense does not necessarily have to be a personal computer but might also be a mobile phone containing a computer. The Internet therefore is a much broader medium, including the computer. The characteristics given in this paper as Internet characteristics are not lasting. As any medium, the Internet will change, as it already has during its short history. Therefore the form characteristics pointed out in this research as possibly migrating to the older media, are not durable neither. Maybe in ten years there will be other characteristics. So the Internet‟s visual characteristics are not permanent, but the kickback effect, if it exists, is. If the kickback effect exists, it is valuable to know why the owners of the established media would bother to look like the last-arrived medium. It is interesting to know what their communicative strategy is. One reason in the literature was that the older media use the Internet to look more modern; they put on a façade of modernisation to compete with the Internet. In other words, an important part of the audience is used to the style of the Internet, so the older media try to look more like it. Another reason put forward was that the Internet and the older media exist in the same world, and thus have to look like each other, as the designs available are limited to a certain degree. Or maybe because designers of the older media unconsciously take over Internet characteristics, as they see them so much in everyday live. These three reasons are also the reasons most given by the interviewees, both professionals and people using emoticons in text messages. NRC Media‟s Jan Paul van der Wijk mentions another reason. It also has to do with the readers starting to get used to certain ways of reading. Readers apparently spent so much time on the Internet that they more easily read articles constructed like Internet articles. A fifth reason is put forward by both the graphic designer of the Volkskrant and of NRC Media. They state that having their corporate website look like the paper and the paper like the website, improves the recognisability. People reading the paper will associate it with the site, and the other way around. A last reason for the kickback effect might be the use of XML, which makes it easier to use the same

39 content, and many times the same layout, for various media. But the interviewees did not mention this. Newspapers on the whole seem more inclined to look webpage-like than books or advertisements. Maybe newspapers are more up for changes because of the dropping circulation that strikes the paid papers since a few years (Bakker & Scholten (2007: 4). The book sales figures do not seem to be that bad in comparison (Kunstredactie, 2008: 1). The advertising industry neither has anything to fear. Fortunati, in her contribution, argues that the „internetisation‟ of newspapers is complemented and counteracted by the mediatisation of the internet. Available evidence suggests that the latter process is developing with more force and speed. Although mediatisation is a peculiar word, for it implicitly declares the Internet not a medium, her conclusion is underpinned by the present research. Most professionals interviewed in the present research said that however it is true that their product takes over Internet characteristics, the reverse process is stronger. That is only logical, because before the kickback process can begin the imitation process takes place. Moreover, a new medium always contains an old one. The radio contained speech, television contained radio and the Internet contains all prior media. The surprising thing is that there already appears to be a kickback effect to some degree, given the short history of the new medium. The process of media succeeding one another appears to accelerate. Writing began around four thousand BC, the first telegraph, the Victorian Internet, was installed in 1841 and then the new media kept coming faster and faster. Maybe this means that the imitation, authenticity and kickback phases come faster too, which might be an explanation for emoticons already passing over to the old medium. A reverse reaction on the Internet is also a possibility, as the independent book designer Heleen Silvis shows. She has much animadversion to the Internet and her communicative target is to design her books to be very different from it. Now, what consequences does this all have for communication and the branches of science engaged in communication? What does this research contribute to the insight of communication? Firstly it provides an overview of visual form features the Internet employs, and the ways it employs them. It also adds the kickback effect to the ARIA model and explains how characteristics can migrate from one medium to another, at every turn adapting to the technical restrictions the medium enforces, which causes a sort of co-production and spread of information at a trans-medial level. Insight is provided into the ways professionals and laymen perceive the new medium, how they use it and how they make sense of it in dialogue with the older media. This paper hopes to show that the complete impact of the Internet on the preceding media can be understood only if the ongoing circular process between the traditional media and the Internet is observed.

5.2 Discussion The differences in the visual fingerprints between the older media and the newer media analysed in the quantitative analysis, proved to be statistically significant. But it is not a hundred per cent sure, as explained in the conclusion, that these characteristics are derived from the Internet. The difficulty with the qualitative analysis is that the interviewees only provide their insights and opinions, and that they cannot, as we all cannot, have full understanding of themselves or their products. Although the present research tries to make use of as many international sources as possible, the interviewees and products of the older media were for a great part Dutch, as a result of which the conclusions cannot be necessarily applied to other nations.

40 5.3 Final Remarks and Suggestions for Future Research The contribution to communication research of this article hopes to lie in the development of a new theoretical perspective, and the elaboration thereof. Though it does not find evidence for the omnipresent influence of the kickback effect in all media, there are certainly various interesting outcomes. This case study was just a small one, only analysing the kickback effect from the Internet, but there is a bigger perspective. To really give the research significance, more research is needed so that the kickback effect can be really mapped out. Future research could aim at performing the same kind of research again after some years from now. In that way the influence of the Internet could be measured again to see how the imitation, authenticity and kickback processes have developed over time. As the Internet is so young, maybe the processes have taken a different or more radical direction by then and the outcomes of such a research may be very different. Another field of interest could be the spreading of news and other discourses in the communicative environment and how they change from medium to medium. Such a research would focus on the trans-medial capacity of the news, stories and advertisements themselves, which are adaptable to the specific means of communication, instead of the trans-medial capacity of the visual characteristics. It would also be interesting to examine the reciprocal process of imitation: the transaction of characteristics from the old media to the Internet. A process that is still very strong, and must provide abundant topics for future communication research. But there is many more to be thought of, like exploring if there is a stronger visual convergence between media than before, and what that would mean for future design trends in print, television, and the Internet. Or investigating if the move toward scannable design actually increased the rate at which people can access information of personal interest. The question if the adoption of the form characteristics of the Internet by the older media is an established fact does not have a simple answer, but that applies on many things in life and especially on research investigating the development of certain particulars throughout history.

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44 Appendix I: Quantitative Results

I.I. Sans Serifs I.I.I Advertisements When an advertisement or book has a mixed type the most occurring one is tallied.

Table 2: Sans serifs in advertisements before the Internet breakthrough

Brand Country Product Year Serif 1. Albert Heijn The Netherlands Supermarket 1987-1994 No 2. Alka-Seltzer USA Antacid and 1958 Yes pain relief medicine 3. Andrélon The Netherlands Shampoo 1986 No 4. Blue Band The Netherlands Margarine 1970-1994 Yes 5. Bruynzeel The Netherlands Coloured 1975 Yes pencils 6. Camel The Netherlands Camel 1978 Yes 7. Calvé The Netherlands Salad 1950 No dressing 8. Chocomel The Netherlands Drinking 1985 No chocolate 9. Coca-Cola The Netherlands Soft drink 1977 Yes 10. De Ruijter The Netherlands Sandwich 1984 Yes filling 11. De Telegraaf The Netherlands Newspaper 1987-1994 No 12. Douwe Egberts The Netherlands Coffee 1984 Yes 13. Esso The Netherlands Filling 1968 Yes station 14. Friesche Vlag The Netherlands Dairy 1983 No products 15. Garnier The Netherlands Shampoo 1975 Yes 16. Grolsch The Netherlands Beer Exact date Yes unknown 17. Hak The Netherlands Canned 1969 No vegetables 18. Heinz The Netherlands Sandwich 1961 No spread 19. Hema The Netherlands Department 1987-1994 Yes store 20. Hero The Netherlands Fruit juice 1968 Yes 21. Honda The Netherlands Car 1983 Yes 22. Honig The Netherlands Beef cubes 1950-1975 No 23. Ikea The Netherlands Home 1981 Yes furnishing shop 24. KLM The Netherlands Aeroplane 1986 Yes flight 25. Knorr The Netherlands Soup 1986 No

45 26. LEGO The Netherlands Lego 1984 No 27. Maggi The Netherlands Beef cubes 1981 Yes 28. Max Factor The Netherlands Lipstick 1955 No 29. Mentos The Netherlands Peppermints 1965 No 30. Mercedes Benz The Netherlands Car 1987-1994 No 31. Nivea The Netherlands Sunscreen 1966 No 32. Nokia The Netherlands Computer 1987-1994 No 33. Oreo USA Chocolate 1962 Yes cookie sandwich 34. Peijnenburg The Netherlands Ginger cake 1993 Yes 35. Philips The Netherlands Electric 1986 No shaver 36. Pickwick The Netherlands Thee 1980-1999 Yes 37. Politie The Netherlands A job at the 1982 Yes police force 38. Quaker The Netherlands Puffed rice 1950 No 39. Randstad The Netherlands Temporary 1981 Yes job 40. Ravensburger The Netherlands Puzzle 1993 Yes 41. Schiphol The Netherlands Airport 1983 Yes 42. Sedal Argentina Shampoo 1993 Yes 43. Siemens The Netherlands Music 1980 No centre 44. Stimorol The Netherlands Chewing 1980 No gum 45. Telegraaf The Netherlands Newspaper 1983 Yes 46. Unox The Netherlands Ragout 1982 Yes 47. Vim The Netherlands Abrasive 1967 No 48. Viva The Netherlands Magazine 1975 Yes 49. Wasa The Netherlands Swedish 1984 No crackers 50. Witte Reus The Netherlands Washing- 1967 No powder

Table 3: Sans serifs in advertisements after the Internet breakthrough

Brand Country Product Year Serif 1. Albert Heijn The Netherlands Supermarket 2000 No 2. Alka-Seltzer USA Antacid and 2007 No pain relief medicine 3. Andrélon The Netherlands Hair gel 2003 No 4. Blue Band The Netherlands Margarine 2009 No 5. Bruynzeel The Netherlands Coloured 2008 No pencils 6. Calvé The Netherlands Peanut 2009 No butter 7. Camel The Netherlands Sigarettes 2002 No

46 8. Chocomel The Netherlands Drinking 2009 No chocolate 9. Coca-Cola The Netherlands Soft drink 2000 No 10. De Ruijter The Netherlands Sandwich 2009 No filling 11. De Telegraaf The Netherlands Newspaper 2002 No 12. Douwe The Netherlands Coffee 2009 No Egberts 13. Esso The Netherlands Filling 1999 No station 14. Friesche Vlag The Netherlands Yoghurt 2009 No 15. Garnier The Netherlands Day cream 2009 No 16. Grolsch The Netherlands Beer 2005 No 17. Hak The Netherlands Canned fruit 2009 No 18. Heinz The Netherlands Tomato 2009 No ketchup 19. Hema The Netherlands Department 2002 No store 20. Hero The Netherlands Fruit juice 2009 No 21. Honig The Netherlands Soup mix 2009 No 22. Honda The Netherlands Car 1998 No 23. Ikea The Netherlands Home 2000 No furnishing shop 24. KLM The Netherlands Aeroplane 1998 Yes flight 25. Knorr The Netherlands Meal kits 2009 No 26. LEGO The Netherlands Lego 2001 No 27. Maggi The Netherlands Sauce mix 2009 No 28. Max Factor The Netherlands Mascara 2009 No 29. Mentos The Netherlands Chewing 2009 No gum 30. Mercedes The Netherlands Car 1998 Yes Benz 31. Nivea The Netherlands Sunscreen 2007 No 32. Nokia The Netherlands Mobile 2008 No phone 33. Oreo USA Chocolate 2002 No cookie sandwich 34. Peijnenburg The Netherlands Cookies 2009 No 35. Philips The Netherlands Electric 2008 No shaver 36. Pickwick The Netherlands Tea 2009 No 37. Politie The Netherlands A job at the 2009 No police force 38. Quaker The Netherlands Muesli 2009 No 39. Randstad The Netherlands Temporary 1999 No job

47 40. Ravensburger The Netherlands Game 2008 No 41. Schiphol The Netherlands Airport 2009 No 42. Sedal Argentina Shampoo 2007 No 43. Siemens The Netherlands Mobile 1997 No phone 44. Stimorol The Netherlands Chewing 2009 No gum 45. Telegraaf The Netherlands Newspaper 2002 No 46. Unox The Netherlands Soup 2009 No 47. Vim The Netherlands Abrasive 2009 No 48. Viva The Netherlands Magazine 2009 No 49. Wasa The Netherlands Swedish 2009 No crackers 50. Witte Reus The Netherlands Cleaning 2009 No products

I.I.II Sans Serifs in Books

Table 4: Sans serifs in books before the Internet breakthrough

ISBN Author Year Title Publisher Serif Popular 1. 97897 Brady, 1982 A Global Experiment in Int. Rice Yes - 11040 N.C. Agricultural Res. Inst. 628 Development. 2. 97808 Shipman, 1991 A pun my word. A Rowman Yes + 22630 R.O. humorously enlightened & 111 path to English usage. Littlefield 3. 97809 Tully, C. 1993 A to Z Guide for Writer's No + 51341 Lightweight Travellers. Block 018 4. 97808 Scheurer, 1989 American Popular Popular Yes + 79724 T.E. Music. The age of rock. Press 689 5. 97807 Jain, S.K., 1992 Applied Population Springer Yes - 92314 & Biology 257 Botsford, L.W. (Eds.) 6. 97890 Oosterman 1991 Arie Hagoort. 010 No + 64501 , A. Architect. Publishers 029 7. 97807 Assiter, 1993 Bad Girls and Dirty Pluto Yes - 45305 A., & Pictures. The Challenge Press 240 Carol, A. to Reclaim Feminism. 8. 97802 Vigil, J.D. 1988 Barrio Gangs. Street University Yes - 92711 Life and Identity in of Texas 198 Southern California. Press 9. 97895 Daiuto, M. 1988 Básquetbol: Editorial Yes + 05310 metodología de la Stadium

48 999 enseñanza. S.R.L. 10. / Blume, 1825 Bijdragen tot de flora Ter Lands Yes - C.L. van Nederlandsch Drukkerij Indië.

11. 97808 Sollors, 1993 Blacks at Harvard: A NYU Yes - 14779 W., Documentary History Press 736 Titcomb, of African-American C., & Experience at Harvard Underwoo and Radcliffe. d, T.A. 12. / Reed, L.A. 1982 Bound for the United Committe Yes + States. An Introduction e on to U.S. College and Scholarly University Life. Communi cation with the People's Republic of China 13. 97807 Nash, 1989 Brickwork. Nelson Yes - 48702 W.G. Thornes 664 14. 97838 Grossman 1988 Colori e lessico: studi Gunter Yes - 78083 n, M. sulla struttura semantica Narr 702 degli aggettivi di colore Verlag in catalano, castigliano, italiano, romeno, latino ed ungherese. 15. 97808 Electric 1987 Commercial Cool CRC Press Yes - 91166 Power Storage Design Guide. 870 Research Institute 16. 97803 Freedman, 1990 Cowboys of the Wild Houghton Yes + 95548 R. West Mifflin 004 Harcourt 17. 97890 Jackes, J. 1991 De Droom Van Het Yes - 27423 Californië. Spectrum 856 18. 97890 Schepers, 1989 De opkomst van het Rodopi Yes - 51830 R. medisch beroep in 088 Belgie: de evolutie van de wetgeving en de beroepsorganisaties in de 19e eeuw. 19. 97804 Conway, 1987 Design History. A Routledge Yes - 15084 H. student‟s handbook. 734 20. 97887 Nørlund, 1982 Det romerske Museum Yes - 88073 P. slavesamfund under Tusculanu

49 102 afvikling. m Press 21. 97899 Frank, A. 1977 Diario de Ana Frank. Cholsamaj Yes - 92256 Fundacion 046 22. 97835 Raabe, W. 1980 Die Chronik der Vandenho Yes - 25201 Sperlingsgasse. Ein eck & 039 Frühling. Ruprecht 23. 97809 Silver, W. 1993 Die Volledige Pearson Yes + 47461 Kookboek Vir Diabete. South 300 Africa 24. 97809 Robbins, 1987 Diet for a new America. BRILL Yes + 13299 J. How Your Food 548 Choices Affect Your Health, Happiness and the Future of Life on Earth. 25. 97890 Beckman, 1988 Een bos vol spoken. Lemniscaa Yes - 60696 T. t 736 Publishers 26. 97808 Kramer, 1981 Effects of Radiation on ASTM Yes - 03107 D., Materials: 10th Internation 557 Brager, International al H.R., & Symposium - STP 725. Perrin, J.S. (Eds.) 27. 97884 Neuschäfe 1992 El yate blanco. Ediciones Yes + 32128 r-Carlón, Rialp 509 M. 28. 97808 Borges, 1962 Ficciones. Grove Yes - 02130 J.L. Press 303 29. 97808 Ensminger 1993 Foods & nutrition CRC Press No + 49389 , A.H., & encyclopedia. 801 Konlande, J.E. 30. / Buurman, 1968 Foto‟s met de telelens. Focus Yes + B. 31. 97828 Deldime, 1993 Fou de theatre. Lansman Yes - 72820 R. 726 32. 97899 Vesaas, T. 1981 Fuglarnir. Foroya Yes - 91809 Skulaboka 151 grunnur 33. 97808 Bell, L., & 1982 Gentle Yoga. A Guide Celestial Yes + 90876 Seyfer, E. to Low-Impact Arts 367 Exercise. 34. 97807 Reed, K., 1984 George Orwell's 1984. Barron's Yes - 64191 & Spring, Education 008 M. al Series 35. 97803 Fisher, R., 1991 Getting to Yes. Houghton Yes -

50 95631 Ury, W., Negotiating Agreement Mifflin 249 & Patton, Without Giving in. Harcourt B. 36. 97807 Whyte, J. 1986 Girls Into Science and Taylor & Yes - 10203 Technology. The Story Francis 649 of a Project. 37. 97837 Nöstlinger 1988 Gretchen mein Oetinger Yes + 89120 , C. mädchen. 794 38. 97803 Levinson, 1989 Guerrilla marketing Houghton Yes + 95502 J.C. attack: new strategies, Mifflin 204 tactics, and weapons for Harcourt winning big profits for your small business. 39. 97890 Schmidt, 1982 Haken van a tot z. Uitgeverij Yes + 61341 A. Modern en modieus. Bigot & 109 Van Rossum BV Baarn 40. 97890 Van Mol, 1984 Handboek Modern Uitgeverij Yes - 68310 M. Arabisch. Peeters 207 41. 97808 Girdler, A. 1992 Harley-Davidson. The MotorBoo Yes + 79386 American Motorcycle. ks/MBI 030 Publishing Company 42. 90210 Kromdijk, 1967 Het nieuwe Groenboe No + 03805 G. kamerplanten boek. kerij 43. 97890 / / Het Nieuwe Testament. Uitgeverij Yes - 62380 Christofoo 442 r 44. 97808 Beard, L., 1987 How to amuse yourself David R. Yes + 79236 & Beard, and others: the Godine 663 A.B. American girls handy Publisher book. 45. 97808 Callicott, 1989 In Defense of the Land SUNY Yes - 87068 J.B. Ethic. Essays in Press 997 Environmental Philosophy. 46. 97806 Graham, 1991 In Search of Safety. Harvard Yes - 74446 J.D., Chemicals and Cancer University 366 Green, Risk. Press L.C., & Roberts, M.J. 47. 97801 Susman, 1992 Integrating Design and Oxford Yes - 95063 G.I. Manufacturing for University 332 Competitive Press US Advantage. 48. 97897 Maranan, 1991 Kudaman. Ateneo de Yes -

51 15500 E.B., & Manila 470 Revel+Ma University cdonald, Press N. 49. 97804 Scrimsha 1993 Language, Classrooms Routledge Yes - 15085 w, P. & Computers. 755 50. 97828 Tourneux, 1986 Les Mbara et leur Peeters No - 52971 H., langue (Tchad). Publishers 882 Seignobos , C., & Lafarge, F. 51. 97800 Bowersox, 1986 Logistical Management. Macmillan Yes - 23130 D.J., A Systems Integration Publishing 908 Closs, of Physical Company D.J., & Distribution, Manufacturing Support, and Material Procurement. 52. 97804 Comstock, 1988 Making Chair Seats Courier Yes + 86256 R.B. from Cane, Rush and Dover 931 Other Natural Publicatio Materials. ns 53. / Brotherton 1966 Masers & Lasers. Hoe Argus Yes - , M. zij werken, wat zij doen. 54. 97890 De Graaff, 1991 Met de T.N.I. op stap. Uitgeverij Yes - 51940 A.P. Van 657 Wijnen 55. 97895 Parramón, 1993 Mi Jardín. Editorial Yes + 80412 J.M., & Norma 786 Bordoy, I. 56. 97818 Frascina, 1982 Modern art and SAGE Yes + 53960 F. & modernism: a critical 321 Harrison, anthology. C. (Eds.) 57. 97815 Johnson, 1991 Now in november. Feminist Yes - 58610 J.W. Press 354 58. 97808 Rosenbloo 1986 Nutty knock knocks! Sterling Yes + 06963 m, J. Publishing 044 Company 59. 97804 Ong, W.J. 1988 Orality and Literacy. Routledge Yes - 15027 The Technologizing of 960 the Word. 60. 97808 Wilson, 1989 Our Father Abraham. Wm. B. Yes - 02804 M.R. Jewish Roots of the Eerdmans 235 Christian Faith. Publishing 61. 97890 Berger, T., 1993 Paasversieringen. Uitgeverij No + 62384 & Berger, Christofoo

52 921 P. r 62. 97808 Chatani, 1988 Paper magic. Pop-up Oxford Yes + 70407 M. paper craft. Origamic University 574 architecture. Press US 63. 97885 Plath, S. 1981 Poemas. Iluminuras Yes + 73212 426 64. 97805 Kennedy, 1991 Professionals, Power, Cambridg Yes - 21390 M.D. and Solidarity in e 835 Poland: A Critical University Sociology of Soviet- Press type Society 65. 97809 Stafford, 1992 Psychedelics Ronin Yes + 14171 P. encyclopedia. Publishing 515 , 66. 97818 Cole, B., 1992 Railway Posters, 1923- Laurence No + 56690 & Durack, 1947. King 140 R. Publishing , 67. 97805 Cluster, D. 1989 Repulse Monkey. Dick Yes - 25248 Cluster 118 68. 97808 Marshall 1993 Rodale's All-New Rodale Yes + 78579 Bradley, Encyclopedia of 990 F., & Organic Gardening. Ellis, B.W. 69. 97804 Shakespea 1972 Romeo & Juliet. Heineman Yes - 35190 re, W. n 095 70. 97890 Bekedam, 1987 Schapenteelt en Terra Yes - 62550 M., & Schapeziekten. 067 Herwyer, C. H. 71. / Reen, J.V. 1964 Schroevers‟ Insituut Yes - verkortingengids voor Schroever‟ de stenografie (stelsel s “groote”) 72. 97882 Nilsen, G. 1993 Slik skriver du noveller. Aquarius Yes - 44300 Forlag AS 018 73. 97815 Sanderson, 1993 Smileys. O'Reilly No + 65920 D.W. 415 74. 97804 Bâ, M. 1989 So long a letter Heineman Yes - 35905 n 552 75. 97804 Hebdige, 1979 Subculture. The Routledge Yes - 15039 D. Meaning of Style. 499

53 76. 97815 Walden, 1992 The Book of Thai HPBooks Yes + 57880 H. Cooking. 383 77. 97805 Stowell, 1992 The Cambridge Cambridg Yes - 21399 R. companion to the e 234 violin. University Press 78. 97804 Huntley, 1970 The divine proportion: Courier Yes - 86222 H.E. a study in mathematical Dover 547 beauty. Publicatio ns 79. 97802 McCullou 1990 The Electronic Design Mitt Press Yes + 62132 gh, M., Studio. 541 Mitchell, W.J., & Purcell, P. 80. 97808 Goldschmi 1986 The Impact of Inflation Rowman Yes - 47674 dt, Y., on Financial Activity in & 275 Shashua, Business, with Littlefield L., & Applications to the U.S. Hillman, Farming Sector: With J.S. Applications to the U. S. Farming Sector. 81. 97802 Van 1992 The Lacquer Screen. A University Yes - 26848 Gulik, R. Chinese Detective of Chicago 679 Story. Press 82. 97801 Cooper, 1986 The Last of the Penguin Yes - 40390 J.F. Mohicans Classics 247 83. 97804 Hiller, S. 1991 The Myth of Routledge Yes + 15014 primitivism: 809 perspectives on art. 84. 97896 Wong, 1990 The Other Hong Kong Chinese Yes - 22014 R.Y.C., & Report. University 947 Cheng, Press J.Y.S. (Eds.) 85. 97804 Machiavel 1992 The Prince. Courier Yes - 86272 li, N. Dover 740 Publicatio ns 86. 97803 Harris, T. 1988 The silence of the Macmillan Yes - 12195 lambs. 267 87. 97804 Porush, D. 1985 The Soft Machine: Routledge Yes - 16378 Cybernetic Fiction. 702 88. 97808 Robinson, 1991 The translator's turn. JHU Press Yes - 01840 D. 470

54 89. 97808 Scott, S., 1993 To Cool For Drugs. Human Yes + 74252 & Resource 361 Hindmars Develope h, W. ment Press 90. 97890 Wilbrink, 1983 Toetsvragen schrijven. Spectrum Yes - 27455 B. 741 91. 97890 Sluiter, 1981 Tram en trein, luchtig Brill Yes + 04065 J.W. en grondig bekeken. Archive 161 92. 90605 Arnoldus, 1988 Tup en Joep in de Uitgeverij No + 61279 H. dierentuin. De Eekhoorn 93. 90202 Von 1969 Waren de goden Kluwer Yes - 32525 Däniken, kosmonauten. E. Onopgeloste raadsels uit het verleden. 94. 97801 Rose, F. 1990 West of Eden: the end Frank Yes - 40093 of innocence at Apple Rose 728 Computer. 95. 97805 Berne, E. 1981 What do you say after BRILL Yes - 53149 you say hello? the 364 psychology of human destiny. 96. 97808 Wood, 1993 Whatever possessed the University Yes - 70238 R.C. president? Academic of 635 experts and presidential Massachus policy, 1960-1988. etts Press 97. 97890 Kuypers, 1991 Wittgenstein in Garant Yes - 53500 E. (Ed.) meervoud. 378 98. 97818 Lawrence, 1992 Women in Love. Wordswor Yes - 53260 D.H. th Editions 070 99. 97802 Handler, 1987 Year by Year in the Greenwoo Yes - 75927 H. Rock Era. d 080 Publishing Group 100. 97890 Toonder, 1989 Zoals mijn goede vader De Bezige Yes - 23423 M. zei. Bij 713

Table 5: Sans serifs in books after the Internet breakthrough

ISBN Author Year Title Publisher Serif Popular 1. 97895 Cesar, 2006 Album de Retazos. Corregidor Yes + 00516 A.C. Antología crítica 426 bilingüe. poemas, cartas, imágenes, inéditos.

55 2. 97808 Liddiard, 2003 Anglo-Norman castles. Boydell Yes - 51159 R. Press 041 3. 97818 North, G. 2003 Astronomy in depth. Springer Yes - 52335 809 4. 97835 Kulick, R. 2003 Auslandsbau: Vieweg- Yes - 19004 Internationales bauen Teubner 226 innerhalb und Verlag ausserhalb Deutschlands. 5. 97815 Bracy, J., 1998 Ba Gua. Advanced North Yes + 56432 & Hidden Knowledge in Atlantic 767 Xing+Han the Taoist Internal Books , L. Martial Art. 6. 97818 Abani, C. 2006 Becoming Abigail. Akashic Yes - 88451 Books 948 7. 97890 Reitsma, 2008 Bertolli‟s Pastaboek. Bertolli No + 71356 H, Van Gerechten voor elke 285 Mil, J., & dag. Zerouali, N. (Eds.) 8. 97803 Herlihy, 2006 Bicycle. The History. Yale Yes + 00120 D.V. University 479 Press 9. 10907 Van der 2006 Blue Band Unilever No + 13562 Heijden, J. Basiskookboek. Nederland 21 /Blue Band 10. 97890 Crombez, 2007 Borstkanker. Kluwer Yes - 46508 R., & 114 Paridaens, K. 11. 97829 Marcil, C. 2001 Comment chercher. Les Éditions No + 21146 secrets de la recherché MultiMon 999 d‟information à l‟heure des d‟Internet. 12. 97890 Golden, A. 2008 Dagboek van een Ambo|Ant Yes - 41412 Geisha. os 997 13. 97890 Grisham, 2009 De Getuige. A.W. Yes - 22995 J. Bruna 822 Uitgevers 14. 97890 Lewis, 2008 De Kronieken van Kok ten Yes - 26614 C.S. Narnia. Have 897 15. 97890 De Loo, T. 2003 De Tweeling. De Yes - 29528 Arbeiders 122 pers

56 16. 97890 Wiskerke, 1995 De waardering voor de Uitgeverij Yes - 65505 E.M. zeventiende-eeuwse Verloren 149 literatuur tussen 1780 en 1813. 17. 97818 Hauffe, T. 1998 Design. A concise Laurence No + 56691 history. King 345 Publishing 18. 97890 Kratzert, 1998 Die Entdeckung des John Yes - 60323 T. Raums. Vom Benjamins 502 hesiodischen "chaos" Publishing zur platonischen Company "chōra". 19. 97818 Wiegers, 2001 Echocardiography in Taylor & Yes - 53177 S.E., practice. A case- Francis 231 Plappert, oriented approach. T., & St John Sutton, M. 20. 97890 Op den 2007 Een leven vol verhalen. Ten Have Yes - 25957 Dries, D. Portret van pastor 544 Marinus van den Berg. 21. 97890 Boswijk, 2005 Een nieuwe kijk op de Pearson Yes - 43009 A., experience economy. Education 287 Thijssen, Betekenisvolle T., & belevenissen. Peelen, E. 22. 97891 Fransson, 2007 Effektivare Hexa Yes + 97710 J. informationssökning på Förlag 909 webben. En handbok i konsten att söka information. 23. 97884 Alten, S. 2008 El Testamento Maya. Novoprint Yes - 83467 053 24. 97895 Santiago, 2003 En Libertad. Corregidor Yes - 00514 S. 835 25. 97898 De Dios, 2006 Esto es Buenos Aires. De Dios No + 79445 J., & Editores 495 Gómez Romero, G. 26. 97800 Powers, 2007 Exercise Physiology. McGraw- Yes - 71107 S.K., Hill 266 Howley, E.T. 27. 97816 Hansen, 2006 Faith, Hope and Love. Xulon Yes - 00343 T.M. Press 247 28. 97890 Korf, A. 2006 Geen enkele kans. Gopher Yes -

57 51793 Publishers 628 29. 97808 Tabachnik 2005 Geometry and billiards. AMS Yes - 21839 ov, S. Bookstore 195 30. 97803 Gvirtz, S., 2008 Going to School in Greenwoo Yes - 13338 & Beech, Latin America. d 151 J. (Eds.) Publishing Group 31. 97898 Lloyd, S. 2006 Gone Troppo. Hot Monsoon Yes - 10548 Babes. Warm Weather. Books 339 Cold Beer. Paradise! 32. 97819 Dickens, 2003 Great Expectations. Collector‟ Yes - 04633 C. s Library 075 33. 90723 Innemee, 1999 Gymnastiek. Wat, hoe, Jan No + 35120 A. (Ed.) waarom. Luiting Fonds 34. 97890 Henssen, 1998 Het Corps als Uitgeverij Yes + 65505 E. Koninkrijk: 150 jaar Verloren 804 Delftsch Studenten Corps. 35. 97890 Swift, G. 2004 Het hart van onze De Bezige Yes - 23416 Nicky. Bij 043 36. 90542 Haworth, 1995 Het knotsgekke De No + 65833 J., Jones, knutselboek. Lantaarn J., Newingto n, I., & Beaton, C. 37. 97890 Englert, 1999 Het menselijk embryo Garant Yes - 53509 Y., & Van in vitro. 142 Orshoven, A. (Ed.) 38. 14000 Fisher, 2004 Holland. Where to stay Fodor‟s Yes + 13380 R.I.C. and eat for all budgets, (Ed.) must-see sights and local secrets, ratings you can trust. 39. 97890 Lovink, 2006 Incommunicado Institute of No - 78146 G., & Reader. Network 018 Zehle, S. Cultures (Eds.) 40. 97890 Oskamp, 2004 Informatietechnologie Kluwer Yes - 26840 A., & voor juristen. 388 Lodder, A.R. 41. 97890 Woelderin 2005 Inventaris van de Uitgeverij Yes - 65508 k, B., & archieven van Verloren

58 904 De Muij- stadhouder Willem V Fleurke, 1745-en de H.J. Hofcommissie van Willem IV en Willem V 1732-1794. 42. 97815 Lucado, 2004 It's Not about Me. Thomas Yes - 91450 M. Rescue from the Life Nelson 429 We Thought Would Inc. Make Us Happy. 43. 97890 Balteri, F. 2001 Klimmen. Könemann Yes + 62550 067 44. 97890 Pedroli, B. 2000 Landscape - our home. Christofoo Yes - 60384 Essays on the culture of r 909 the European landscape as a task. 45. 97884 Adrià, J.J., 2004 L'atzarosa vida Universita Yes - 37060 Jordán, d'Enrique Blat. Un t de 293 J.M., & empresari republicà del València Reig, R. camp de Túria (1879+1951). 46. 97890 Lucas, J. 2004 Leerzaam. Samen leren Garant No - 44117 in Dalton en vmbo. 233 Negen portretten. 47. 97817 Johnstone, 2006 London. City Guide. Lonely Yes + 40598 S., & Planet 316 Masters, T. 48. 97890 Gray, J. 1995 Mannen komen van Het Yes - 27431 Mars, Vrouwen van Spectrum/ 394 Venus. Mannen zijn Scala anders, vrouwen ook. 49. 97818 Gerbrandt, 2004 Mastering scrapbook Memory No + 92127 M. page design: design Makers 372 secrets made simple. 50. 97807 Haighton, 2004 Maths. The Basic Nelson No + 48777 J., Skills. Thornes 006 Phillips, B., Holder, D., & Thomas, V. 51. 97890 Delrue, G. 2006 Misdrijven i.v.m. de Maklu Yes - 46600 staat van faillissement. 368 52. 97807 Bryant, S. 2005 Monster Trucks: MotorBoo No + 60320 Ground-Pounding ks/MBI 617 Monster Trucks in Publishing High-Flying Action. Company

59 53. 97890 Brinkgrev 2006 Mozaïk van mijn leven. Het Yes - 55892 e, G. Herinneringen 1917- Spinhuis 679 2005. 54. 97808 Viens, J., 2004 Multiple Intelligences Teachers Yes - 07743 & and Adult Literacy. A College 461 Kallenbac Sourcebook for Press h, S. Practitioners. 55. 97809 Sharpe- 2005 New Wave of Zonda Yes + 58268 Young, G. American Heavy Metal Books 400 Limited 56. 97890 Epskamp, 2001 Oost kunst. Kunst in het 010 No + 64504 H., Oostelijk Havengebied Publishers 389 Gribnau, van Amsterdam. W., Spruijt, D., & De Vroom, H. 57. 97890 Muller, S., 2003 Orakelboekje Runen. Uitgeverij Yes + 74358 Inzicht is vaak de De Ring 378 herkenning van een oeroude herinnering. 58. 97808 O'Rourke, 2005 Peace Kills. America's Grove Yes - 02141 P.J. Fun New Imperialism. Press 989 59. 97818 McEvoy, 2002 Plants. Blake No + 65094 P. Education 588 60. 97847 Phoenix, 2006 Plastic culture. How Kodansha Yes + 70030 W. Japanese toys Internation 177 conquered the world. al 61. 97890 Vuyk- 2003 Pocketwoordenboek Van Dale Yes - 66487 Bosdriesz, Nederlands-Spaans. 215 J.B. 62. 97890 Grit, R. 2005 Project Management. Wolters Yes - 01347 Noordhoff 031 63. 97807 Strachey, 2005 Queen Victoria. Kessinger Yes - 66199 L. Publishing 705 64. 97890 Simons, S. 2004 Radio- en Uitgeverij Yes - 53529 televisiejournalistiek. Boom 584 65. / Bierling, 2008 Searching for Julia. Zalsman Yes + A. (Ed.) Groningen 66. 97814 Harte, B. 2006 Selected Stories of Bret BiblioBaz Yes - 26406 Harte. aar, LLC. 263 67. 97890 Briggs, A., 2003 Sociale geschiedenis Uitgeverij Yes - 58750 & Burke, van de media: van Boom 723 P. boekdrukkunst tot

60 Internet 68. 97801 Asma, 2003 Stuffed Animals and Oxford Yes - 95163 S.T. Pickled Heads. The University 360 Culture and Evolution Press US of Natural History Museums. 69. 97803 Tang, C. 2007 Sushi for One? Zondervan Yes - 10273 981 70. 97819 Chavarría, 2007 Tango for a torturer. Akashic Yes - 33354 D. Books 194 71. 97890 Hauser, S. 2007 Thailand. Zacht als Nijgh & Yes - 38831 zijde, buigzaam als Van 107 bamboe. Ditmar 72. 97814 Baughman 2006 The ADHD Fraud. How Trafford Yes - 12064 , F.A., & Psychiatry Makes Publishing 583 Hovey, G. "Patients" of Normal Children. 73. 97818 McDonald 2005 The age of commodity: Earthscan Yes - 44071 , D.A., & water privatization in 340 Ruiters, G. Southern Africa. 74. 97808 Rose, F. 1996 The Agency: William Frank Yes - 87308 Morris and the Hidden Rose 079 History of Show Business. 75. 97804 Small, B. 2007 The Border Lord's New Yes - 51222 Bride. American 45 Library 76. 97805 Enright, 2007 The boys' book: how to Scholastic No + 45016 D. be the best at Inc. 285 everything. 77. 97802 Ford, E.R. 2003 The details of modern MIT Press Yes + 62562 architecture. 027 78. 97806 Melia, F. 2007 The galactic Princeton Yes - 91131 supermassive black University 290 hole Press 79. 97808 Sears, A., 2008 The Human-Computer CRC Press Yes + 05858 & Jacko, Interaction Handbook: 709 J.A. Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies, and Emerging Applications. 80. 97803 Kelby, S. 2005 The IPod Book: Doing Peachpit No + 21422 Cool Stuff with the Press 286 IPod and the ITunes Music Store 81. 97814 Cooper 2005 The Ladies of Beverly Trafford Yes - 12058 Cohen, S. Hills. Publishing

61 841 82. 97802 Tokien, 1995 The Lord of the Rings. HarperCol Yes - 61103 J.R.R. linsPublis 252 hers 83. 97808 Hawley, 1995 The New Deal and the Fordham Yes - 23216 E.W. Problem of Monopoly. Univ Press 093 A Study in Economic Ambivalence. 84. 97815 Maraini, 2000 The Silent Duchess. Feminist Yes - 58612 D. Press. 228 85. 97895 Carvajal, 1999 Tobogán. Pre-Escritura. Editorial No + 61113 L., & Universita 510 Moya, L. ria 86. 97835 Uefa 2008 UEFA Euro 2008. Wissenme No + 77164 Österreich-Schweiz. dia Verlag 122 Das offizielle Buch zum Turnier. 87. 97887 Lauridsen, 2007 Umisteligt. Festskrift til Museum Yes - 63506 J.T., & Erland Kolding Tusculanu 175c Olsen, O. Nielsen. m Press 88. 97898 Fuentes, 2003 Vamos a Dale. 83 Editorial Yes + 03541 E. golpes contra un Alfa 309 gobierno que da risa. 89. 97890 May, P. 2004 Voetbal en zijn NBD Yes + 54835 supporters. Biblion 530 Publishers 90. 97828 Bruand, O. 2002 Voyageurs et De Boeck Yes - 04139 marchandises aux Université. 742 temps des carolingiens. Les réseaux de communication entre Loire et Meuse aux VIIIe et IXe siècles. 91. 97890 Bevan, S. 2004 Vrolijke varkentjes. Terra|Lan No + 58971 noo 593 92. 97803 Yancey, P. 1997 What's So Amazing Zondervan Yes - 10213 about Grace? 277 93. 97808 Fitz 2005 Who Owns the Past? Rutgers No + 13536 Gibbon, Cultural Policy, University 873 K. (Ed.) Cultural Property, and Press the Law. 94. 97890 Meijer, 2001 Winstdrainage. Kluwer Yes - 60028 D.G.A. 377 95. 97804 Hesse, K. 2001 Witness. Scholastic Yes - 39272 Inc. 001

62 96. 97890 Kocks, 1997 Woordenboek van de Van Yes - 23231 G.H. Drentse dialecten. Gorcum 769 97. 97807 Studelska, 2007 Yoga For Fun. Compass No + 56532 J.V. Point 826 Books 98. 97890 Adformati 2006 Young 2006: Kluwer No + 13039 e doelgroepenrapport 184 Jeugd & Jongeren. 99. 97891 Utredning 2005 Yrkesförarkompetens. Norstedts Yes - 38224 en om Betänkande. Juridik 847 förarkrav AB för vägtranspo rter 100. 97890 Brahn, 2007 Zwaartepunten van het Kluwer Yes - 13042 O.K., & vermogensrecht. 610 Reehuis, W.H.M.

I.II Bullet Type Table 6: Disc bullets in books before the Internet breakthrough

* The bullet type none indicates a list without bulleting. The list is clearly there, but the bulleting is not. ISBN Author Year Title Publisher Bullet Popular type 1. 97890 De Graaff, 1992 Eenvoudig kookboek Verba Asteri + 72540 J. voor kamerbewoners. sk 270 2. 97807 Leader, 1990 Fundamentals of Nelson Disc - 48703 W.G., & marketing. Thornes 883 Kyritsis, N. 3. 97815 Jamison, 1993 Texas home cooking. Harvard None + 58320 C.A., & Common * 598 Jamison, Press B. 4. 97808 Clark, 1990 Beaches of Kaua'i and University Disc + 24812 J.R.K. Ni'ihau. of Hawaii 607 Press 5. / Reed, L.A. 1982 Bound for the United Committee Disc + States. An on Introduction to U.S. Scholarly College and Communic University Life. ation with the People's Republic of China

63 6. 97808 Simmonds 1989 Computer Springer Disc + 98384 , D. Presentation of Data 154 in Science. A Do-it- yourself Guide, Based on the Apple Macintosh, for Authors and Illustrators in the Sciences. 7. 97809 Johnson, 1990 Everything you need Hazelden Disc + 35908 V.E. to know about Publishing 534 chemical dependence. Vernon Johnson's complete guide for families. 8. 97803 Levinson, 1989 Guerrilla marketing Houghton Disc + 95502 J.C. attack: new strategies, Mifflin 204 tactics, and weapons Harcourt for winning big profits for your small business. 9. 97809 Delaney, 1988 How to Do Your Best John Disc + 60851 J. on Law School Delaney 454 Exams. Publication s 10. 97808 Newman, 1992 How to stay cool, AMACO Disc + 14477 J.E. calm & collected M 656 when the pressure's on. 11. 97808 Sessions, 1987 How to Work with MBI Disc + 79382 R. and Modify the Turbo Publishing 674 Hydra-Matic 400 Company Transmission. How to Work and Modify. 12. 97890 Schregard 1993 Kinderen met Boom Disc + 60099 us, R.C. slaapproblemen. Een 742 werkboek voor ouders. 13. 97835 Furukawa, 1991 Logic programming Springer Disc + 40539 K., '89. Proceedings of 193 Tanaka, the 8th conference, H., & Tokyo, Japan, July Fujisaki, 12-14, 1989. T. 14. 97804 Comstock, 1988 Making Chair Seats Courier Disc + 86256 R.B. from Cane, Rush and Dover 931 Other Natural Publication Materials. s 15. 97808 Kenda, 1992 Science Wizardry for Barron's None + 12047 M., & Kids Educationa *

64 660 Williams, l Series P.S. 16. 97835 America, 1991 Parallel database Springer Disc + 40541 P. systems. PRISMA 325 Workshop. Noordwijk, The Netherlands, September 24-26, 1990. Proceedings. 17. 97809 Chambers, 1992 Picture the past. Art Folens Disc + 47882 j., & ideas to recreate Limited 228 Hood, M. history for children aged five to eleven. 18. 97808 Cunningha 1989 The Complete Book Llewellyn None + 75421 m, S. of Incense, Oils & Worldwide * 285 Brews. 19. 97808 Campbell 1990 The Art and Science Cengage Disc + 73503 Place, S. of Professional Learning 617 Makeup. 20. 97809 Strassman 1990 The business value of Strassman Disc + 62041 n, P.A. computers. An n 327 executive's guide. 21. 97806 Amberg, 1992 The creative writing Good Year Disc + 73360 J., & handbook. Books 137 Larson, M. 22. 97808 Briney, D. 1984 The Home Machinist's McGraw- Disc + 30615 Handbook. Hill 735 Profession al 23. 97808 Vriends, 1992 The New Australian Barron's Disc + 12047 M.M. Parakeet Handbook. Educationa 394 l Series 24. 97815 Morton, J. 1990 You Can Teach Mel Bay Disc + 62220 Yourself Drums. Publication 334 s 25. 78043 Cole, 1991 Moral Issues in Six Heineman Disc + 53029 W.O. Religions. n and 93 (Ed.) arrow 26. 97890 Schmidt, 1993 Waar gebeurd? Het Disc - 73052 O. Geschiedschrijving en Spinhuis and 550 sociaalwetenschappeli dash jk onderzoek. 27. 97890 Lange, H. 1992 Motivatie in Kluwer Disc - 26717 organisaties. 'Voor and 871 wat hoort wat'. dash 28. 97835 Jacquet, 1991 Conclog. A Springer Disc + 40549 J.M. methodological and 383 approach to dash concurrent logic

65 programming. 29. 97890 Jansonius- 1991 Afwijkende Acco Dash - 33424 Schultheis mondgewoonten. 380 s, K., Van Inleiding, onderzoek Coppenoll en behandeling. e, L., & Beyaert, E. 30. 97890 Van den 1991 Beslist Garant Dash - 53500 Bergh, geïnformeerd...? 842 P.M. Opnamebesluitvormin g in internaten voor jeugdhulpverlening. 31. 97818 Reid, E. 1991 Breaking the Multilingu Dash - 53591 boundaries. Migrant al Matters 334 workers' children in the EC. 32. 97804 Perraton, 1993 Distance education for Routledge Dash - 15094 H.D. teacher training. 658 33. 97890 Wijchers, 1992 Kwaliteitsmanagemen Kluwer Dash - 26717 L.T.R., t in de 925 Kerklaan, dienstverlening. L.A.F.M., Continue & resultaatverbetering Mastenbro als managementstijl. ek, W.F.G. 34. 97890 Gillaerts, 1992 Leesbaar schrijven. Garant Dash - 53501 P. Een handreiking. 061 35. 97828 Tourneux, 1986 Les Mbara et leur Peeters Dash - 52971 H., langue (Tchad). Publishers 882 Seignobos , C., & Lafarge, F. 36. 97890 Nivra 1991 Privacybescherming. Kluwer Dash - 26715 De gevolgen voor 501 organisaties en de rol van de accountant. 37. 97831 Giersch, 1977 Reshaping the World Mohr Dash - 63400 H. (Ed.) Economic Order. 214 38. 97807 British 1991 The Embankment Thomas Dash - 27716 Dam Dam. Telford 477 Society 39. 97818 Neary, I. 1993 War, Revolution & Routledge Dash - 73410 Japan. 080

66 40. 97895 Daiuto, M. 1988 Básquetbol: Editorial Dash + 05310 metodología de la Stadium 999 enseñanza. S.R.L. 41. 97890 Van 1990 Het grote spelenboek. Uitgeverij Dash + 62382 Haren, W., Kringspelen, Christofoo 774 & zangspelen en r Kischnick, bewegingsspelen voor R. kinderen van 4 tot 18 jaar. 42. 97827 Berland- 1989 La grammaire Editions Dash + 08006 Delépine, anglaise de l'étudiant. Ophrys 096 S. 43. 97890 Tettero, E. 1992 Pubers Uitgeverij Dash + 53520 Boom 307 44. 97884 Maquaire, 1974 Sabe usted vender? Reverte Dash + 71460 J.P. Reglas de oro de la 042 venta. 45. 97818 Sturmer, 1990 Welcome Relief 3. R.I.C. Dash + 63111 S., & Publication 102 Boylan, S. s 46. 97890 Hemelsoet 1982 Heelkundige Academia Dash - 38201 -Vervliet, verpleging. Press and 733 N. asteris k 47. 97803 Heloise 1989 All-new hints from Perigee Squar + 99515 Heloise. A household e 101 guide for the '90s. 48. 97804 Whitford, 1990 Getting rid of graffiti. Taylor & Squar + 19170 M.J. A practical guide to Francis e 402 graffiti removal and anti-graffiti protection. 49. 97815 Rhodes 1993 Kids. Peterson's Squar + 60792 Curless, e 512 M. 50. 97800 Engel, 1991 The divorce decisions McGraw- Squar + 70195 M.L., & workbook. A planning Hill e 714 Gould, and action guide. Profession D.D. al

Table 7: Disc bulletes in books after the Internet breakthrough

ISBN Author Year Title Publisher Bullet Popular type 1. 978002 Hill, B. 2001 The Complete Idiot's Alpha Arro + 864155 Guide to Playing Books w 3 Piano. 2. 978047 Neporent, 2006 Weight Training For For Check + 176845 L., Dummies. Dummies mark

67 6 Schlosber and g, S., & triang Archer, le S.J. 3. 978073 Kuehn, E. 2001 Divorce. Capstone Circle + 680747 Press 0 4. 978081 Mitroff, 2000 Managing Crises Amacom Diam - 440563 I.I., & Before They Happen. ond 5 Anagnos, What Every Executive G. and Manager Needs to Know about Crisis Management. 5. 978903 Moore, 2006 Statistiek in de Academic Disc - 952360 D.S., & praktijk. Service 5 McCabe, G.P. 6. 978905 Oomkes, 2003 Communicatieleer Boom Disc - 352537 F.R. 1 7. 978902 Schellens, 2002 Communicatiekundig Koninklijk Disc - 323560 P.J., ontwerpen. Methoden, e Van 6 Klaassen, Perspectieven, Gorcum R., & De Toepassingen. Vries, S. (Eds.) 8. 978906 Mazeland, 2003 Inleiding in de Uitgeverij Disc - 283290 H. Conversatieanalyse. Coutinho 3 9. 978013 Rolland, 1998 The Essence of Pearson Disc - 727827 F.D. Databases. Prentice 5 Hall 10. 978184 Bouguerra 2006 Water Under Threat. Zed Books Disc - 277705 , L. 3 11. 978078 Amekudzi, 2008 Infrastructure ASCE Disc - 440958 A., & Reporting and Asset Publication 9 McNeil, S. Management. Best s Practices and Opportunities. 12. 978027 Novak, 2002 Inviting educational Pearson Disc - 365495 J.M. leadership. Fulfilling Education 7 potential and applying an ethical perspective to the educational process. 13. 978929 UNIDIR 2003 Coming to terms with United Disc - 045149 security: A Handbook Nations 5 on Verification and Publication Compliance. s

68 14. 978352 Schalley, 2007 Analytical Methods in Wiley- Disc - 731505 C.A. Supramolecular VCH 5 Chemistry. 15. 978907 Holleman, 2008 Wokken & Zo. 55 Conimex Disc + 135627 L., Barten, Heerlijke wokrecepten 8 J., Hes, J., in een handomdraai. Van Mil, J., & Zerouali, N. (Eds.) 16. 978950 Pechar, E. 2007 101 Tartas. Dulces y Atlantida Disc + 083435 saladas. 3 17. 978157 Jones, 1999 Studying the Parables Smyth & Disc + 312167 P.R. of Jesus. Helwys 5 Publishing 18. 978095 Sihera, E. 2002 Managing the Anser Disc + 173419 Diversity Maze. Publishing 3 19. 978060 Richards, 2004 New Caribbean Junior Ginn Disc + 225240 H. English. 3 20. 978073 Holland 2007 Hospital Stay Llewellyn Disc + 871224 Buck, J. Handbook. Worldwide 6 21. 978157 Gyoerkoe, 2006 10 Simple Solutions New Disc + 224465 K.L., & to Worry. How to Harbinger 8 Wiegartz, Calm Your Mind, Publication P.S. Relax Your Body, and s Reclaim Your Life. 22. 978093 Stewart, 1997 Five Standards for Care Disc + 442672 D. Safe Childbearing. Publication 5 s 23. 978027 Bentsur, 2001 Making peace. A first- Greenwoo Disc - 596876 E. hand account of the d 2 Arab-Israeli peace Publishing process. Group 24. 978041 Jarvis, P. 2004 Adult education and Routledge Disc - 531492 lifelong learning. 3 Theory and practice. 25. 978929 Trejos, R., 1997 Toward the IICA Disc - 039337 & Lizardo Sustainable 5 de las Development of Casas, P. Agriculture and the Rural Milieu. 26. 978076 McNabb, 2004 Research methods for M.E. Disc - 561234 D.E. political science. Sharpe 2 Quantitative and qualitative methods. 27. 978902 Newman, 2008 Echt mooi. Tips om er Uitgeverij Disc +

69 971870 D., & echt goed uit te zien. Voorhoeve 7 Newman, R. 28. 978905 Doucet, C. 2003 Tactische Training. Eisma Disc + 322081 160 Oefeningen en Businessm 8 Spelvormen. edia BV 29. 978174 Southerde 2008 Surf's up. The girl's Allen & Disc + 175603 n, L. guide to surfing. Unwin 6 30. 978193 Storti. C. 2001 Art of Coming Home. Intercultur Disc + 193014 al Press 7 31. 978076 Bartlett, 1998 Snakes. Everything Barron's Disc + 410055 R.D. about selection, care, Educationa 0 nutrition, diseases, l Series breeding, and behaviour. 32. 978905 Huber, B., 2002 Colegas 1+2. Spaans Intertaal Disc - 451322 & voor bedrijf en and 3 Segoviano beroep. Grammatica. dash C. 33. 978903 Gooszen, 2008 Leerboek chirurgie. Bohn Disc - 134464 H.G. (Ed.) Stafleu van and 2 Loghum dash 34. 978907 Hendriks, 2000 De ecologische stad: Uitgeverij Disc - 536534 C., & van illusie naar Æneas and 4 Kaiser, M. realiteit. dash 35. 978849 Westall 2004 Academic and Ed. Univ. Disc + 705644 Pixton, D. Professional Politéc. and 1 & Gil Speaking: A Manual Valencia, dash Salom, L. for Effective Oral Communication in English. 36. 978900 Neyt, R. 2000 Standaard Standaard Disc + 217088 (Ed.) Aardrijkskunde 6. Educatieve and 1 Uitgeverij dash 37. 978078 Agur, 2005 Grant‟s Atlas of Lippincott Disc - 174255 A.M.R., & Anatomy. Williams and 9 Dalley, & Wilkins squar A.F. e 38. 978904 Bouckaert, 2006 Un instrument Maklu Disc, - 660064 G., Depré, d'amélioration de la dash 1 R., & qualité au sein du an Drumaux, Ministère public. squar A. (Eds.) e 39. 978904 Lagae, W. 2006 Marketingcommunica Pearson Disc, - 301113 tie in de sport. education squar 6 Benelux e and circle 40. 907233 Innemee, 1999 Gymnastiek. Wat, Jan Luiting Hype +

70 5120 A. (Ed.) hoe, waarom. Fonds n 41. 978158 Renkema, 2004 Introduction to John Dash - 811530 J. Discourse Studies. Benjamins 0 Pulishing Company 42. 978902 Kusterman 2003 Wij gaan trouwen. Lannoo Dash + 095132 s, K. Onmisbare wenken Terra 5 voor een ontspannen en onvergetelijk huwelijksfeest. 43. 978926 Henderson 2007 Fossil fuel-fired OECD/IE Recta - 403908 , C. (Ed.) power generation. A ngle 7 Case Studies of and Recently Constructed triang Coal- and Gas-Fired le Power Plants. 44. 978184 Watson, 2005 Managing for Results. CIPD Squar - 398014 G., & Publishing e 8 Gallagher, K. 45. 978082 Brettler, 2005 How to read the Bible. Jewish Squar - 760775 M.Z. Publication e 0 Society 46. 978027 O‟Connor, 2004 Electronic marketing. Pearson Squar + 368476 J., Galvin, Theory and practice Education e 3c E., & for the twenty-first Evans, M. century. 47. 978159 Kreger, R. 2008 The Essential Family Hazelden Squar + 285363 Guide to Borderline Publishing e 2 Personality Disorder. New Tools and Techniques to Stop Walking on Eggshells. 48. 978087 Ellis, 1996 The organic Rodale Squar + 596753 B.W., & gardener's handbook e 0 Bradley, of natural insect and F.M. disease control. A (Eds.) complete problem- solving guide to keeping your garden & yard healthy without chemicals. 49. 978386 Janzen, J. 2001 What are Somalia's Das Squar - 093230 (Ed.) Development Arabische e and 8 Perspectives? Science Buch dash Between Resignation and Hope? Proceedings of the 6th SSIA Congress, Berlin 6-9 December

71 1996. 50. 978193 Techrepub 2003 Administrator's guide CNET Trian + 149080 lic to TCP/IP. Networks gle 1 Inc

I.III Emoticons 1. Do you ever use emoticons when you communicate through the Internet (chat, e-mail, forum...)? An emoticon is a symbol used to refer to emotions, like :-) signifying happiness and :-( signifying sadness. Yes: 99 respondents 96 % No: 4 respondents 4 %

2. Do you ever use emoticons in text messages? Yes: 89 respondents 86 % No: 14 respondents 14 %

3. Do you ever use emoticons in handwriting? For example in a letter, in your agenda, when you leave a note that you will be back at 5... Yes: 65 respondents 63 % No: 38 respondents 42 %

4. If you ever use emoticons in handwriting, do you draw them 90 degrees turned, or upright? Above you see two examples. The first one is 90 degrees turned, the second one is upright. 90 degrees turned 15 respondents 15 % Upright 34 respondents 33 % Both 16 respondents 16 % I never use 38 respondents 37 % emoticons in handwriting

72 Appendix II: Qualitative Interviews

II.I Editors and Designers of Traditional Media What follows are the interviews with the editors and the designers of the traditional media.

Editor in Chief newspaper Metro Holland Robert van Brandwijk The Netherlands Van Brandwijk, R. Re: Vormkenmerken Metro. E-mail (May, 18 2009). Original text Translation Ik denk dat internet het van de kranten heeft I think the Internet adopted it from the overgenomen. Kijk eens naar USA Today newspapers. Just take a look at USA Today (opgericht in 1982). In die tijd waren de (founded in 1982). In that time web pages webpagina's nog niet zo modern als nu. weren‟t as modern as they are now. Metro Metro is opgericht in 1995 volgens een was founded in 1995 according to a formula formule die niet afgekeken is van internet. not copied from the Internet.

Design Manager newspaper and site NRC Media Jan Paul van der Wijk The Netherlands Van der Wijk, J. P. Re: Vormkenmerken NRC/nrc.next. E-mail (May, 19 2009). Original text Translation Ik denk zeker dat de opmaak van kranten I absolutely think that the layout of beïnvloed wordt door de vormgeving van newspapers is influenced by the layout of websites, en overigens ook andersom. In het websites, and for that matter also the other geval van NRC Handelsblad en nrc.next zijn way round. In the case of NRC Handelsblad dat inderdaad de dingen die je al noemde. and nrc.next these are indeed the things that Ankeilers, doorverwijzingen en hyperlinks you already mentioned. Eye-catchers, naar internet en hyperlinks binnen de krant. references and hyperlinks to the Internet and Ook bijvoorbeeld pagina 3 van nrc.next heeft hyperlinks within the newspaper. Also page een manier van nieuwspresentatie die 3 of nrc.next has a way of news presentation vergelijkbaar is met een internetpagina. Alle similar to a web page. All articles look berichten zien er ongeveer even belangrijk approximately equally important, so that the uit, zodat de lezers zelf een keuze kan readers can make their own choice. That also maken. Dat heeft ook te maken met has to do with the habituation of the readers gewenning van lezers aan bepaalde manieren to certain ways of reading. But our articles in van lezen. Overigens zijn onze artikelen in de the paper are generally longer, on paper krant over het algemeen langer, op papier people after all will sooner read a longer lezen mensen toch nog gemakkelijker een piece. The other way round in our websites I langer stuk. Andersom probeer ik bij onze try to take care that, as regards the websites te zorgen dat het, qua uiterlijk, appearance, they continue to be family of familie van elkaar blijft. Zo heeft de site van each other. So the site of nrc.next has a clear nrc.next een duidelijke relatie met de krant relationship with the newspaper nrc.next and nrc.next en hetzelfde geldt voor nrc.nl en the same goes for nrc.nl and NRC NRC Handelsblad. Handelsblad.

Graphic designer newspaper de Volkskrant Menno Pelser The Netherlands Pelser, M. Re: Vormkenmerken de volkskrant. E-mail (May, 19 2009).

73 Original text Translation Ik denk niet dat je zonder meer kunt stellen I don‟t think you can put just like that, that dat de opmaak naar het web toegegroeid is. the layout has grown towards the web. But it Wel is het natuurlijk zo dat internet een is naturally true that the Internet plays an steeds belangrijkere rol speelt binnen de increasingly important part in our society and samenleving en zo ook in de krant. Verder is thus also in the newspaper. Moreover the het zo dat de grafische mogelijkheden op het graphic possibilities of the Internet have internet zijn toegenomen en dat de site dus increased and so the site has more and more steeds meer mogelijkheden heeft om op de possibilities to look like a newspaper, which krant te lijken. Wat weer wenselijk is om is desirable to increase the recognisability. herkenbaarheid te vergroten. Dus helemaal So it is not totally coincidence… Within the toeval is het ook weer niet... In het kader van framework of this recognisability (and to die herkenbaarheid (en het vergroten van make the site more widely known) more and de bekendheid van de site) worden er ook more elements that were designed steeds meer elementen die specifiek voor de specifically for the site are smuggled into the site zijn gemaakt de krant ingefietst: "Ow ja, newspaper: “O yes, there also is an er is ook nog een uitgebreide site!". extensive site!”

De bottom-line is dat de twee elkaar The bottom-line is that the two obviously uiteraard enorm beïnvloeden maar ik denk enormously influence each other but I think dat de site hoofdzakelijk wordt gebouwd that the site is mainly build to the design of naar het design van de papieren krant en the paper and only to a limited degree visa slechts in beperkte mate visa versa. versa.

Dit is natuurlijk mijn persoonlijke visie en This is of course my personal point of view ben ik niet de enige vormgever bij de and I am not the only designer at de Volkskrant maar hopelijk kun je hier wat Volkskrant but I hope this is of use to you. mee.

Editor in chief newspaper website www.eldia.com Ernesto Kraiselburd Argentina Kraiselburd, E. Re: Características El Día. E-mail (May 19, 2009). Original text Translation Me parece que sus preguntas están mal I think your questions are wrongly phrased. dirigidas. El tema de los banners o enlaces As for the banners or hyperlinks how you como usted los llama se han estado usando call them, they are used in newspapers since en los diarios desde hace mucho tiempo. El a long time. The content page that papers índice que siempre han tenido los diarios es have always had is a good example. And also un claro ejemplo. Así como también empezar beginning an article on the front page and una nota en tapa y terminarla en una hoja finishing it on a page within the newspaper. dentro del diario. Answering your questions: En respuesta a sus preguntas: The paper [El Día] has always been changing El diario siempre ha ido cambiando con el as the years went by. It was founded in the paso del tiempo. Empezó en el 1800 con un nineteenth century on a tabloid format. Then formato tabloide tamaño grande. Este luego the tabloid format got smaller and in the se achico y en los 60 paso a ser un diario sixties it embraced the broadsheet format. sabana. Hace dos años volvimos al formato Two years ago we went back to the tabloid

74 tabloide. En este ultimo cambio intentamos size. In this last change we as always como siempre que se modifico el diario attempted that the diary would change modernizarlo utilizando formas y colores que modernising it using shapes and colours that identifiquen nuestro producto. Que todo el identify our product. That everyone uses mundo utilize Internet implica que vamos a Internet implies that we will use its style in incluir en su diseño sus formas. Pero the newspaper. But let‟s go back to the fact volvemos al tema de que antes de Internet, el that before the Internet, the newspaper diairo ya tenia avisos y los banners de already had advertisements and the banners internet se asemejan a estos avisos. Cuando on the Internet adjusted to these uno compra un espacio en una pagina web advertisements. When one buys space on a elije la posicion y el tamaño del banner web page one chooses the position and the dependiendo de las opciones de dicha pagina. size of the banner dependent on the options ¿Cual es la diferencia en comprar el mismo of the web page in question. What is the espacio en papel? Inclusive desde hace años difference in buying the same space on que si un cliente del diario se compromete a paper? Inclusive since years if the client of una determinada cantidad de avisos a los the newspaper compromises to a certain largo del tiempo se le hace un descuento al quantity of advertisements in the course of igual que ahora lo hace el papel. time he will get a discount just like it happens now in the paper.

Independent book designer Heleen Silvis The Netherlands Silvis, H. Re: Vormkenmerken boeken. E-mail (May 21, 2009). Original text Translation Dat lijkt mij volstrekt niet; in de I think absolutely not; in the book world boekenwereld is juist veel kritiek op de lay- there is on the contrary lots of critic on the out van webpagina's. Ik heb het nog nooit layout of web pages. I never experienced it in meegemaakt bij de 1300 titels die ik de the 1300 titles that passed through my hands afgelopen 9 jaar onder handen heb gehad. Ik in the last nine years. I don‟t see the zie de gelijkenissen niet in de zin die jij similarities in the sense that you mean, but bedoelt, wel is er een verschuiving van there is shift from serif towards sans serif, schreefletter naar schreefloos, maar die trend but that trend was launched before the is al ingezet voordat er zo veelvuldig gebruik Internet was that frequently used. So I think werd gemaakt van internet. Ik denk dus dat je you mix these things up. The changing layout die dingen verwart. De veranderde lay-out started before. The change in the layout and was al eerder ingezet. De verandering in lay- towards a sans serif typeface and a different out en naar een schreefloze letter en een layout in books started in the seventies and ander lay-out in boeken is al in de jaren back then there was obviously no Internet. I zeventig ingezet en toen was er uiteraard nog hope you can still change your hypothesis. geen internet. Hopelijk is er gelegenheid om This sounds a bit harsh, but this e-mail je hypothese bij te stellen. Dit klinkt cru, comes form years of experience and love for maar deze mail komt voort uit jarenlange the book profession and I would think it a ervaring in en liefde voor het boekenvak en great pity if you (in my view) went of the ik zou het echt jammer vinden als je (mijns track with your research. I also asked a inziens) op een verkeerd spoor onderzoek designer/artist friend who knows a lot about doet. Ik heb het ook gevraagd aan een the subject of typefaces, etc. He says: bevriende ontwerper/kunstenaar die goed “Heleen, I completely agree with your thuis is in de materie van lettertypes etc. Hij answers. Nowadays there is a more carless zegt: “Heleen, ik sluit me volledig bij jouw (some say freer) way in the use of typefaces,

75 antwoorden aan. Er is wel een slordige (voor but that has nothing to do with websites, that wie wil, vrijere) manier van het gebruik van has to do with the computer. Is she [the lettertypes, maar dat heeft niets met websites researcher] confusing the computer and te maken, dat heeft met de computer te websites? The advertising world and maken. Haalt ze [de onderzoeker] de websites do doubtlessly influence each computer en de websites door elkaar? De other.” I hope this is of use to you. I think reclamewereld en de websites zullen elkaar indeed that the link between the advertising ongetwijfeld beïnvloeden.” Ik hoop dat je er world and websites is many times stronger iets aan hebt. De link tussen reclamewereld than between books and websites. en websites lijkt mij inderdaad vele malen sterker aanwezig dan tussen boeken en websites.

Creative director communication agency De Heeren van Vonder Wouter van Nieuwland The Netherlands Nieuwland, W. Re: Vormkenmerken boeken. E-mail (May, 25 2009). Original text Translation Het is zeker niet geldig voor alle boeken dat It is certainly not valid for all books that they ze lijken op webpagina‟s. Als het wel gebeurt look like web pages. If it does happen it is is dit geen toeval. Opmaak van boeken vindt not coincidence. The layout of books always altijd bewust plaats. Indien het meer op happens consciously. If books start looking websites gaat lijken wordt daar voor gekozen more like web pages it is because one omdat men verwacht dat dit zal aanspreken expects that this will appeal to the target bij de doelgroep. De vormkenmerken die van group. The form characteristics originating het internet afkomstig zijn en op boeken from the internet and applied to books could worden toegepast kunnen zijn lettertypes, be typefaces, graphics, frames, etc. graphics, frames, etc.

Managing partner advertising agency Nieuw Kirsten Andres The Netherlands Andres, K. Re: Vormkenmerken advertenties. E-mail (May, 25 2009). Original text Translation Ik zie geen verband tussen deze twee. We I don‟t see a connection between these two. zien hooguit het verband vanuit At the most we see the connection with communicatie. Les 1: zorg dat je de aandacht communication. Lesson 1: make sure you get in korte tijd kunt krijgen, zorg dat je die attention in a short time, make sure you keep houdt door het visueel te houden en niet te it by keeping it visual and not to much text. veel tekst. Je weet dat het steeds moeilijker is You know that it keeps getting harder to deze twee dingen voor elkaar te krijgen in arrange these two things in our screaming onze schreeuwspiraal van reclame spiral of advertisement nowadays. That goes momenteel. Dat geldt voor advertenties en for advertisements and for the Internet. But voor internet. Maar voor de rest is het niet zo other than that it is not the case we consider dat we daar in opmaak rekening mee houden. the Internet in designing our advertisements. Sterker nog, ik denk dat het web veel More than that, I think that the web is used functioneler wordt gebruikt: hoe vind ik in more functional: how do I find in as little een zo kort mogelijke tijd wat ik zoek. Een time as possible what I need. And an advertentie kan en mag veel meer advertisement can and may radiate much merkgevoel uit stralen. more brand feeling.

Owner advertising agency DM Creatieve Communicatie Marco Mok The Netherlands Mok, M. Re: Site Bericht. E-mail (May, 25 2009). Orginal text Translation Nee het is geen toeval dat advertenties steeds No it is not coincidence that advertisements meer op websites gaan lijken, alleen werd dat now look more like websites than before, but in print al dertig jaar geleden geopperd door that was proposed in print thirty years ago by David Ogilvy, alleen klanten willen altijd te David Ogilvy, but costumers always want to veel communiceren. Ogilvy propageerde de communicate too much. Ogilvy propagated kunst van het weglaten, alleen de klanten en the art of omitting, but the costumers and the publiek waren hier nog niet klaar voor. Door public weren‟t ready for this. Because of the de komst van internet is men zich gaan rise of the Internet one started realising that realiseren dat men steeds minder leest maar one reads lesser and lesser but scans more. meer scant. De opmaak van advertenties The layout of advertisements is deliberately wordt bewust aan webpagina‟s aangepast, adapted to web pages, with clear steering and met duidelijke sturing en belangrijke important messages on the best places, that boodschappen op de beste plaatsen, dat geeft gives the best response. But the similarities de beste respons. Maar de gelijkenissen between web pages and advertisements are tussen webpagina‟s en advertenties zijn ook also accounted for through the fact that the te verklaren doordat de vorm hetzelfde is, de shape is the same, the famous S reading bekende S leesvorm in brieven, advertenties shape in letters, advertisements and web en webpagina's is hetzelfde. De S vorm pages is the same. The S shape is used on the wordt toegepast op internet, het komt van de Internet, it comes from conventional means conventionele communicatiemiddelen en niet of communication and not from the Internet. van internet. Wel wordt er korter But the communicating nowadays is shorter gecommuniceerd en vaker met bullets, dat and more often with bullets, that is because komt wel door internet. of the Internet.

Project manager advertising agency Roorda Yael Goudsmit The Netherlands Goudsmit, Y. Re: Vormkenmerken advertenties. E-mail (May, 25 2009). Original text Translation Is het toeval dat advertenties meer op Is it coincidence that advertisements start webpagina‟s gaan lijken? Ja en nee. In de looking more like web pages? Yes and no. eerste instantie werkt een merk altijd met een To begin with a brand always works with a vaste huisstijl (brand guidelines). Dit is een fixed corporate style (brand guidelines). This grid waarbinnen bijna alle vormen van is the grid which almost all forms of external externe communicatie aan moeten voldoen. communication have to stay within. Of Uiteraard komt het regelmatig voor dat een course it regularly happens that a text is uiting buiten dit grid wordt opgemaakt designed outside this grid in order to, for teneinde bijvoorbeeld extra op te vallen example, draw extra attention for a binnen een campagne. Meestal is het dan zo campaign. Usually it is the case that a key dat er eerst een key visual wordt gemaakt. visual is made first. On the basis of these Op basis van deze visuals worden visuals renderings are made for the different doorvertalingen gemaakt naar de diverse media. So it is not the case that the layout of media. Het is dus niet zo dat de vormgeving websites is used in the designing of the van websites wordt gebruikt voor het traditional media, but the other way around.

77 opmaken van traditionele media, maar Furthermore it is true that one accustoms andersom. Verder is het natuurlijk wel zo dat more and more to the established lines of men steeds meer gewend raakt aan het websites because the Internet nowadays is a stramien van websites doordat het internet mean that we use – more frequently than the tegenwoordig een middel is dat we - traditional media – for all sorts of purposes. frequenter dan traditionele media - gebruiken This is why it is of course possible that art voor allerlei doeleinden. Hierdoor is het directors are unconsciously influenced by the natuurlijk mogelijk dat artdirectors onbewust Internet. Also it could be that the designing beïnvloedt zijn door het internet. Tevens kan „out of the box‟ we see more and more, het zijn dat het steeds meer „out of the box‟ yields fruit to the traditional media. On the designen op het web, ook haar vruchten whole the layout of advertisements is not binnen de traditionele media afwerpt. Over consciously adapted to web pages. However, het algemeen wordt de opmaak van in some cases it is. advertenties dus niet bewust aan webpagina‟s aangepast. Echter in sommige gevallen juist wel.

Owner advertising agency Kantoor260 Auke Zeijlstra The Netherlands Zeijlstra, A. Re: Vormkenmerken advertenties. E-mail (May, 25 2009). Original text Translation Als dat zo zou zijn is dat in ieder geval geen If that is the case it is in any event no toeval, web design is een belangrijk medium coincidence, web design is an important waar in de vormgeving rekening mee moet medium with which has to be reckoned in the worden gehouden. Vanzelfsprekend lijkt de designing process. Self-evidently all the totale vormgeving dan ook op web design en design looks like web design and the other andersom. Web design is zo'n specifiek way round. Web design is such a specific medium met eigen mogelijkheden dat dit medium with its own possibilities that this is goed te zien is in haar uitingen. Dit laat zich easily to notice in its manifestations. This can zien in het gebruik van 'buttons', 'photoshop be seen in the use of „buttons‟, „photoshop filters', 'animatie' en de invloed van 'zoeken filters‟, „animation‟ and the influence of en gevonden worden'. „searching and being found‟.

Independent designer Gemma van der Aa The Netherlands Van der Aa, G. Interview. (May 25, 2009). The I indicates the interviewer, and the P the participant. Original text Translation I: Denkt u dat het Internet invloed heeft op I: Do you think the Internet has an influence de oudere media? on the older media? P: Ja, ik denk het wel. Op typografisch P: Yes, I do think so. In the sphere of gebied weet ik het zo niet. Maar bijvoorbeeld typography I am not sure. But for instance in wel in het gebruik van buttons, van die the use of buttons, those clickable ones. I use aanklikbare. Die gebruik ik nu wel in folders, those in folders now, and maybe I would en misschien dat ik dat vroeger anders had have done that differently before. But it‟s gedaan. Maar het is moeilijk om dat echt te difficult to really tell that. Now there are also zeggen. Je ziet nu ook veel meer schreefloze many more sans serif typefaces, maybe you lettertypes, misschien dat je dat onbewust use them more now because you see them all

78 meer gebruikt omdat je ze op internet veel the time on the Internet. But it is also the ziet. Maar het is ook de tijd: schreefloze modern time: sans serif typefaces are more lettertypes zijn moderner en strakker. Ik doe modern and have more taut lines. Many wel vaak de kop in schreefloos en de tekst times I put the head in sans serif and the zelf met een schreef. body in a serif. I: Waarom doet u dat? I: Why do you do that? P: Dat vind ik mooi. Met een schreef staat zo P: Because I think it‟s beautiful. A serif klassiek, maar voor grote lappen tekst typeface looks so classical, but for large gebruik ik weer wel een schreef, om de amounts of text I do use a serif, to improve leesbaarheid te verbeteren. the readability. I: Welke lettertypes gebruikt u dan vooral? I: What typefaces do you use? P: Het liefst de DTL Argo en Universe ook P: DTL Argo I like most and I also use wel, want daar vraagt de klant vraag om. Ik Universe because costumers ask for it. I like werk graag met lettertypes die veel to work with typefaces with lots of mogelijkheden hebben, zoals bold, medium possibilities like medium bold, extra bold, bold, extra bold, en zo. Helvetica vind ik niet and such. Helvetica I don‟t think pretty, mooi, die is zo breed. that‟s so broad. I: Gebruikt u ook wel eens Arial? I: Do you ever use Arial? P: Wel voor websites, maar in drukwerk niet. P: For websites I do, but in print I don‟t. I Ik vind hem niet zo mooi, te gewoon. En hij don‟t think it‟s pretty, it‟s too normal. And it heeft niet zoveel variatiemogelijkheden. doesn‟t have many variation possibilities. I: Welke opsommingtekens gebruikt u? I: What bullet type do you use? P: Cijfers, en bolletjes. Streepjes vind ik niet P: Numbers, and disc bullets. Dashes I don‟t zo mooi. Ik gebruik eigenlijk nooit streepjes, like. I almost never use dashes, disc bullets bolletjes zijn chique. Een streepje is meer iets are more elegant. A dash is something for a voor een getypte tekst, het ziet er niet typed text, it does not look dressed. With a opgemaakt uit. Met een bolletje maak je echt dot you really make a point. een punt.

II.II People Using Emoticons in Handwritten Messages In this paragraph appear the full interviews with people who use emoticons in handwritten messages. The I indicates the interviewer, and the P the participant.

Participant 1 Student, 24, male, from Groningen, The Netherlands. Interview given on May, 24 2009. Original text Translation I: Gebruik je wel eens emoticons als je chat, I: Do you sometimes use emoticons when e-mailt, of sms‟t? chatting, e-mailing or text messaging? P: Nee. P: No. I: Ja, grapjas! I: Yes, comic! P: Ja. P: Yes. I: Ok, en in handgeschreven briefjes? I: Okay, also in handwritten notes? P: Officieel of voor de grap? P: Official or joking? I: Officieel. I: Official. I: O nee dat bedoel ik niet, je bedoelt officiële I: O no I don‟t mean that, you mean in brieven? Nee, die niet natuurlijk. official letters? No, not those of course. P: Ja wel soms, als het grappig bedoeld is. P: Yes sometimes, if it‟s intended to be I: Hoe denk je dat dat komt dat je dat doet? funny. P: Om een bepaalde lading aan het I: Why do you think it is that you do that? voorafgaande te geven. P: To give certain overtones to the preceding.

79 I: Maar de generatie voor je deed dat niet, die I: But the generation before you never did gebruikten nooit emoticons in that, they never used emoticons in handgeschreven brieven. Hoe denk je dat dat handwritten letters. Why do you think that is? komt? P: I think because of the use of MSN** P: Ik denk door het gebruik van MSN** [messenger] en that you can represent certain [messenger] en dat je makkelijker, met things easier, with fewer words. minder woorden bepaalde dingen kunt uitbeelden. ** In the Netherlands Windows Live Messenger (formerly MSN) is the most used chat program. That is why Dutchmen refer to chat as MSN and to chatting as MSN‟en (MSN-ing).

Participant 2 Student, 22, female, from Groningen, The Netherlands. Interview given on May 25, 2009. Original text Translation I: Gebruik je wel eens emoticons? I: Do you sometimes use emoticons? P: Ik ben er dol op. P: I love them. I: Ook wel eens als je met pen of potlood I: Also when you write with pen or pencil? schrijft? P: Yeah. P: Yep. I: Why do you think that is? I: Hoe denk je dat dat komt? P: What do you mean? P: Hoe bedoel je dat? I: Well, your parents won‟t use them I think. I: Nou, je ouders gebruiken ze denk ik niet. En you neither learned it in school. En je hebt het ook niet op school geleerd. P: No, that‟s true, I think it is because of the P: Nee klopt, ik denk dat het komt door het use of MSN and text messages. gebruik van MSN en sms. I: Do you also use a lot of emoticons in I: Gebruik je daarin ook veel emoticons? those? P: Ja, ik vind het dan makkelijker om P: Yes, they make it easier for me to let the bijvoorbeeld ironie door te laten klinken en irony ring through and that sort of thing. zo. I: And do you use them on purpose when I: En gebruik je ze dan expres ook als je met writing with a pen or does it happen like pen schrijft of gebeurt het meer per ongeluk, accidently, because you use them so much in omdat je ze bijvoorbeeld zoveel gebruikt in text messages? sms‟jes? P: No I use them on purpose, it of course P: Nee ik gebruik ze wel bewust, het hangt er depends on for whom the message is meant. natuurlijk ook vanaf voor wie het bericht bedoeld is.

Participant 3 Student, 20, female, from Groningen, The Netherlands. Interview given on May 26, 2009. Original text Translation I: Gebruik je wel eens emoticons in I: Do you sometimes use emoticons in handgeschreven briefjes? handwritten notes? P: Ja, ik doe dat best wel vaak. P: Yes, quite often actually. I: Schrijf je dan nog vaak met de hand? I: Do you still write by hand often? P: Ja we hebben een huisboek***, en daarin P: Yes we have a house book***, and when I doe ik dat wel vaak. En sowieso als ik een write in it I use emoticons. And anyhow briefje achterlaat. En bij stukjes voor een 21- when I leave a note. And with pieces for a diner****. 21-dinner****. I: Wanneer ben je daar ongeveer mee I: When did you start doing that more or less, begonnen, met emoticons in handgeschreven using emoticons in handwritten letters?

80 briefjes schrijven? P: O, a long time ago already, when I was P: O, heel lang geleden al, toen ik twaalf was twelve I guess. denk ik. I: And why do you do it? I: En waarom doe je dat? P: I don‟t know… To express your emotions. P: Weet ik niet… Om je emotie uit te Or when you make a joke, you use a winky drukken. Of als je een grapje maakt, dan doe emoticon, so they know it‟s a joke. Because je zo‟n knipoog-emoticon, dat ze weten dat sometimes I say blunt things, so they have to het een grapje is. Want ik kan soms best wel know it‟s not serious. botte dingen zeggen, dus dan moeten ze wel I: But you can also express your emotions weten dat het niet serieus is. with plain text, why do you choose I: Maar je kunt je emoties ook uitdrukken emoticons? met gewoon tekst, waarom kies je dan voor P: It‟s shorter, en it looks cute I think. de emoticon? P: Het is korter, en het staat leuk vind ik. *** In Dutch student houses there sometimes is a house book, often on the toilet. The residence write their thoughts and feelings in it and arrange house dinners and parties using the house book. **** In Dutch student unions, in some ways comparable with the fraternities or sororities in the USA, a member has a dinner on his twenty-first birthday and his friends give him a book with memories.

Participant 4 Student, 22, male, from Los Angeles, USA. Interview given on May 26, 2009. I: Do you use emoticons in handwritten messages? P: Yes I do it all the time, sometimes I have to stop myself from doing it. I: Why? P: Because if you use them too much it looks overdone. I: Why do you use them? P: I don‟t know, I think automatically. I just want to add a certain feeling, and then I put the emoticon. Usually the smiley, sometimes the sad one. The smiley one can mean all sorts of things, like, hey I‟m just joking, or please, or I‟m happy, or you‟re an idiot… I: Why do you use emoticons in stead of text? P: Because it‟s easier, you don‟t have the think about how you‟re going to put something into words. It‟s always difficult to do that. Like when you‟re having a conversation it‟s easier to just smile than to explain how you feel. I: Since when do you use them? P: I don‟t know, I think I always have… but that can‟t be. When were they invented anyway? I: 1982. P: That long ago? I don‟t know, maybe it‟s because of online chatting, I used to do that a lot when I was younger, no I don‟t anymore but apparently it keeps having its influence.