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Yidishe velt (Vilne) 1 (1): 50-53 and (2): 221-227. Introduction The Arabs in Israel constitute 18 percent of the total population, numbering 1,130,0001 including East Jerusalem. 2 Language education is considered an impor­ tant part of the curriculum at all stages ofeducation. The languages studied are Arabic, Hebrew, English; French is studied as well in several private schools. The Bagrut examinations3 and the National Assessment for Educational Progress4 (known as MASHOV) clearly show that the Arab pupils in Israel d;) not have a satisfactory command of the three main languages (Arabic, Hebrew and English) that are taught.s The unsatisfactory command of these languages is attributed to two main groups of factors, which can be labeled external internal. The chief external factors are: the policy of control and supervision that the Ministry of Education exercises on Arab education in general (Al- Haj 1995) and on language education in particular; the dominance of Hebrew; the status ofArabic as "official" in name only; and the definition and perception Israelas a Jewish State. The internal factors are related to social processes within Arab society, that is, the socio-economic situation, the diglossic situation of Arabic, and the increasing use of Hebrew features into Spoken Arabic. As AI-Haj (1995:216) explains "the ruling groups [in Israel], without exception, have attempted to delegitimize Arab and Palestinian nationalism to use the education system as an instrument for legitimizing the official ideology alongside the transmission of vague universal values". Formulation of the language education policy in the Arab sector is under the exclusive responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The implementation this policy is evident, for instance, in the curricula, in the number allocated to language instruction, in the hiring ofteachers, and in the approval of textbooks. The teaching materials in the textbooks do not meet the needs of the Arab pupil, and they are designed, among other things, to educate the 156 Muhammad Amara Arab education in the Hebrew s~,lte " about the values of the Jewish society and its customs. For instance, in by the changed socio-political circumstances in the last five decades. Three Hebrew language classes, Arab pupils learn more about Judaism than Jewish interrelated factors need to be considered in order to understand the main do in State-sponsored public schools. In Arabic more literary texts from characteristics ofthe society and the collective identity ofthe Arabs in Israel: (1) the classical period are learnt than from the modern period. These texts are Israel's policy towards the Arab minority; (2) internal developments within the distant from the life and the identity of the Arab learner. In English there are Arab society; and (3) external regional developments and their influence on the many texts imbued with Jewish themes and Western culture, also distant and Arabs in IsraeL Relevant to the first of these is the Israeli-Arab conflict and the even alien to the Arab pupil's world. Language education emphasizes the perception and definition of Israel as a Jewish State. Together these help technical side oflanguage instruction. That is to say, language is emphasized as determine the nature of relations between the Arab minority and the Jewish a means of communication, and the importance of language in fostering the in the Jewish State. These relations are characterized by continuous character of the Arab pupil as an independent individual; in conveying national tension and friction. symbols is almost ignored. The basic assumption after the founding of Israel was that because the Arabic in Israel is recognized as an official language Arabs in Israel are a national minority, they are an integral part of the Arab However, in reality it is official in name only (Spolsky and world and because they identify with that world emotionally and physically, Jews, as many studies show,6 avoid studying Arabic, while Arabs they constitute a risk to Israel's security. As long as no appropriate solution is formally (from the third grade on) and informally for both instrumental and to the conflict, the Arabs will continue to be a security risk (Riter 1996). communicative needs. Highly educated Arabs in most cases have a better Consequently, the Arabs are perceived as citizens whose loyalty to the country command of Modern Standard Hebrew than of Standard Arabic (see Amara is "questionable and ... a potential for risk to its Zionist character (in the best and Abu-AkeI1998). case) or even to its very existence (in the worst case)" (Benziman and Mansur A linguistic repertoire is considered an 1992: 211). The security perception has brought abou t the exemption of the Good command of a variety of languages is needed by minorities to increase Arabs in Israel from the duty of military service and has created the perception their chances to cope successfully with the socio-economics of their lives. of"loyalty conflict" (Riter 1996) or "dual loyalties" (Landau 1971). According Appropriate language education policy may contribute to success in schooling to these perceptions, the Arabs are more loyal to the Arab world than to Israel. and raise the level of their achievement. It is important to emphasize that The results of these perceptions, especially military exemption, has helped to success in education contributes significantly to the integration of the Arab institutionalize discrimination against Arabs in Israel. For example, many in the life of the country, giving him/her better opportunities for financial benefits are granted only to those who serve in the army. progress in his/her career. Israel performs many activities in the name ofsecurity. Land appropriation The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the major forces shaping Arab is one of the most salient; in this and other domains, laws have been enacted, language education in IsraeL The forces influencing Arabic, Hebrew and and emergency regulations have been implemented. A well-kno English and the effects ofthese forces on pupil achievement will be considered. concerns the villages of Iqrit and Biram.7 Discrimination against the Arabs is a general background ofArab society in Israel is given. This is followed by also evident in allocating government resources and payments, such as a brief description of the group's language repertoire. Finally, the major factors child allowances (up until 1998) and university fees, as determined influencing and shaping Arab education are described and discussed. Katsav Commission. The security issue is not the only factor influencing the situation and status of Arabs. The main influence on their situation and status lies in the very Arabs in the Hebrew state: General background definition and perception ofIsrael as a Jewish State. The Independence Charter states this clearly in its formulation that Israel is a Jewish national state, The point of departure here is the impact of the extra-linguistic forces on the many laws have been enacted to enhance the Jewish character the country Arab language education. Arab society in Israel has been considerably influenced (Kretzmer 158 Muhammad Amara Arab language education in tile Hebrew state Extensive and continuous co-,:!cern for security issues has ,their unfavorable position. In the national domain, the definition ofhrael as i discussion of the essence and identity ofthe country, and has made State made it extremely difficult for Arab citizens to identify with of relations between the Arab minority and the Jewish majority a which are representative of the Jewish majority, e.g., the flag and the issue. Policymakers in Israel have not clearly determined the type ofpolicy to be state's national anthem. carried out regarding the Arabs in Israel, either in the short or long run. several regional developmen ts over the last fifty years have contrib­ Decisions have been made under the pressure of events (Benziman and Mansur uted to the shaping of Arab society in Israel: Pan~Arabism in the 19505 and 1992). However, because these events were few and scattered, there was no 1960s, the defeat of the Arab countries in the Six Day War, the increasing power active pressure on decision makers to take decisive steps. Generally speaking, and recognition of the PLO in the international arena, the success of the Islamic problem solving in the Arab sector is ad hoc, such as after strikes or violent revolution in Iran and the growth of religious fundamentalism in the neighbor­ demonstrations. A good example is the first Land Dal marked in 1976 when ing countries, the Lebanon War in 1 the Palestinian Intifada 1987-1993, 9 the Israel government for the first time considered seriously the demands of the and more recently, the Oslo accords. In sum, Arab minority together with internal and external developments all contribute to the It is worthwhile mentioning that in the last decade considerable changes current texture of Arab society in Israel.