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COPYRIGHT and CITATION CONSIDERATIONS for THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION O Attribution — You Must Give Appropriate Credit, Provide COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION o Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. o NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. o ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012). Title of the thesis or dissertation (Doctoral Thesis / Master’s Dissertation). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/102000/0002 (Accessed: 22 August 2017). Xhosa Views on Sexual Morality in the 1960s – A Comparative Study between the Christians and Non-Christian (Red) People by Siphoesihle Phindile Gumede 201236219 Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in the Department of Historical Studies of the Faculty of Humanities at the University of Johannesburg Supervised by Prof. Natasha Erlank Acknowledgements This thesis is dedicated to my mother and sisters who have my biggest supporters in every way possible. The writing of this thesis has been one of loss and growth. I undertook this journey beginning of 2017, two months later after losing my brother in law to a short illness. Shortly after his death, our family went through the biggest trial involving the rape of one of my nephews (my brother in law’s son). The case compounded with my job loss and the loss of my brother was all too much. After battling with deep sadness for months and the shame which lingered throughout the community concerning the case, I contemplated dropping out. What I believed to be God’s grace, I was met with increased support from my family: Nokukhanya, Futhi, Thuli and my beautiful mother, Lebohang Gumede – I love and appreciate all of you. To my friend Carmen, thank you for ensuring that I remained determined to complete the final phase of this thesis. I will forever be indebted to all those who were a part of my healing and growth. To my friend, Tafadzwa, your friendship is appreciated. I would also like to thank the History department at the University of Johannesburg, especially Professor Groenevald for accepting my application to work as a tutor. To Prof Natasha Erlank and Dr Nafisa Essop Sheik, I would also like to send my appreciation for your words of encouragement, increasing academic and emotional support. 3 Abstract This thesis focuses on changing sexualities and moralities in Xhosa areas from the 1940s-1960s and seeks to venture into transcribed interviews collected and recorded by an African Percival (Percy) Qayiso. African interlocutors and research assistants like Percy Qayiso played an immeasurable role in pioneering scholarship on Black people through oral interviews and transcription. His contribution shaped the content of the data collected and contributed to the work by the Mayers in the Xhosa in Town project. When looking at the interviews in Qayiso’s manuscript, there is a common view amongst rural and urban communities - that young people are no longer sexually ‘chaste’ compared to the older generation. The argument here is that young people are more sexually active and no longer apply preventative measures to avoid unwelcome consequences, i.e. premarital pregnancy. In the rural areas, sex-play (ukumetsha), referred to as a more accepted form of sexual expression by older people for unmarried youths and is less accepted and regarded as ‘old fashioned’. Within the topic of sexual morality, topics like rape and pre-marital pregnancy are part of the study by default. There is also a notable increase of predatory masculine sexual identities and a more visible distinction of identities rural and urban attitudes towards the 1960s. The cessation of virginity testing is understood to be the cause of increased sexual ‘immorality’. The inaccessibility of support systems, family planning services, inadequate employment and lack of opportunities in the face of massive social changes. The coercive legislation that forced Black people into controlled compounds or locations led to spiralling problems of over-crowdedness and other social ills. Consequently, measures to curb shame and dishonour, like fines and ostracism, became prominent in various Red (traditional) communities. The critical conventional sanctions which policed and maintained a measure of stability in the past were rejected. In this thesis, I also discuss how Black cultures and systems have been historically centred on the control of female sexuality, and how those systems were oppressive in its own right. Furthermore, the militarized system of apartheid worsened the position of Black women as sexual assaults on them increased. This thesis focusses on Xhosa views on the concept of sexual morality in the interviews gathered in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, within the town and rural divide model developed by Philip Mayer. The interviews are very important and are the highlight of this thesis as they reveal Qayiso’s methodology and the consciousness of the informants concerned. The aim is to show how individuals and communities conformed and constructed nuanced sexual identities and practices, which in turn varied over space and time. The nuances in identities revealed that individuals became more involved in the creation of moral codes in the face of dramatic changes and the harsh realities of apartheid. 4 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................... 3 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 4 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7 Background/ Context ....................................................................................................... 16 Area of Study .................................................................................................................... 19 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 21 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 24 Writing about Sex in some parts of Africa .................................................................... 24 Sex in South African History .......................................................................................... 29 Sex in Xhosa History ........................................................................................................ 33 CHAPTER 3: CHASTITY, PRE-MARITAL ABSTINENCE (UKUMETSHA), AND CONTRACEPTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 38 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 38 Interviews about Pre-marital Pregnancy .................................................................. 44 Ukumetsha versus Full Sexual Intercourse .............................................................. 47 Vaginal Examinations .............................................................................................. 51 Contraceptives ......................................................................................................... 53 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 59 CHAPTER 4: THE ‘WRONG’ CONSEQUENCES OF SEX, SEX WITHOUT CONSENT (RAPE), INCEST AND ABORTION CASES ............................................................................... 61 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 61 The emergence of ‘wrong sex’ ................................................................................ 64 Rape views and cases ............................................................................................... 70 Pregnancy Cases ...................................................................................................... 75 Incest interviews ...................................................................................................... 84 Abortion Cases ......................................................................................................... 86 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 91 CHAPTER5: XHOSA MARRIAGES ............................................................................................ 93 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 93 The Anthropology and history of Xhosa Marriages ................................................ 95 Xhosa Marriages .................................................................................................... 100 Missionary activity and Xhosa Identity ................................................................. 102 Red
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