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I AM WHAT YOU MAKE ME. an EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS of GANGS in the HEARTLAND by CORINICE L. CEPHUS-WILSON Ba

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I AM WHO YOU SAY I AM; I AM WHAT YOU MAKE ME. AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF GANGS IN THE HEARTLAND By CORINICE L. CEPHUS-WILSON Bachelor of Arts/Science Sociology and Psychology Northeastern State University Tahlequah, OK 1994 Master of Human Relations in Counseling University of Oklahoma Norman, OK 1997 Master of Arts/Science in Sociology Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK 2003 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2012 I AM WHO YOU SAY I AM; I AM WHAT YOU MAKE ME: AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF GANGS IN THE HEARTLAND Dissertation Approved: Dr. Jean Van Delinder Dissertation Adviser Dr. Bin Liang Dr. Gary Webb Dr. Alyson Greiner Outside Committee Member Dr. Sheryl A. Tucker Dean of the Graduate College ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 Overview of Street Gangs in United States .............................................................3 Street Gangs and Crime Rates .................................................................................4 Significance of Study ...............................................................................................5 Researcher’s Personal Connection ...........................................................................6 Research Questions ..................................................................................................8 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..................................................................................10 Definition of Gangs................................................................................................10 Literature Review...................................................................................................16 III.THEORETICAL APPROACH ...............................................................................21 Multiple Marginality Theory .................................................................................22 Multiple Marginality in the Heartland ...................................................................32 IV. GANG MEMBERSHIP AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ........................39 Gang Structure ......................................................................................................39 Gang Membership Typology .................................................................................43 Gang Membership Demographic ..........................................................................44 Elements of Gang Activity ....................................................................................48 History of Gang in the United States .....................................................................54 History of Gangs in Oklahoma ..............................................................................56 History of Gangs in Tulsa ......................................................................................60 V. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………….66 iii Research Design.....................................................................................................66 Contextual Data-Newspaper Article Review .........................................................67 Sampling Population ..............................................................................................68 Protection of Confidentiality..................................................................................68 Data Collection ......................................................................................................69 Map of Targeted Areas ..........................................................................................74 Geographic Areas...................................................................................................72 VI. RESEARCH FINDINGS……..………………………………………………….77 Demographics of Respondents ..............................................................................80 Socioeconomic Status of Respondents ..................................................................84 Characteristics of Respondents’ Gang Membership ..............................................86 Results of Research Questions ...............................................................................87 VII. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………..113 REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................123 APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................141 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 4:1 Predominant Oklahoma Gang Sets .............................................................58 Table 4:2 Oklahoma Per Capita Gang Member Saturation .........................................59 Table 4:3 Predominant Tulsa Gang Sets ......................................................................63 Table 4:4 Number of Tulsa Gang Sets by Gang Type .................................................65 Table 4:5 Gang-Related Homicide Rates in Tulsa County .........................................66 Table 5:1 Gang-related articles ...................................................................................68 Table 5:2 Census Data: Neighborhood Characteristics ...............................................75 Table 6:1 Demographic Characteristic of Respondents...............................................78 Table 6:2 Educational Attainment of Respondents ....................................................79 Table 6:3 Socioeconomic Level of Respondents ........................................................82 Table 6:4 Characteristic of Respondents’ Gang Membership ....................................84 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 3:1 Multiple Marginality Framework ...............................................................23 Figure 3:2 Black Population Shift ...............................................................................36 Figure 3:3 White Population Shift ..............................................................................36 Figure 4:1 Photo- Gang Graffiti ..................................................................................50 Figure 4:2 Photo- Gang Graffiti ...................................................................................51 Figure 4:3 Photo- Gang Graffiti ...................................................................................52 Figure 4:4 Number of Gang & Gang-Like Homicide by Age, Race and Ethnicity Oklahoma 2004-2008................................................................................................60 Figure 5:1 Map of Tulsa County High Risk Neighborhood ........................................74 vi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Are gangs1 a national epidemic? Many gang researchers would answer this question with a resounding, yes. In fact, gangs have become an institution among minority populations, particularly, within Latino communities (Vigil 1993). Within the last forty years the United States has seen an explosion in youth “street gangs”. Gangs are everywhere; they exist in all fifty states (Egley 2005). The exact number is hard to determine (Howell 2000; Curry and Decker 1996); however, the National Youth Gang Survey-NYGS (2009) currently reports there are approximately 1 million gang members and over 20,000 active gangs in the United States (Put as a footnote These totals include both prison gangs and motorcycle gangs (NYGA 2009). Why has there been such a dramatic increase in gangs? The 2009 National Gang Threat Assessment (NGTA) suggest the proliferation of gangs is related to the increase of 1Throughout this dissertation, the word “gang” will refer to “youth gangs or street gang.” The term “gang homicides” will refer to incidents that involve gang members as victims and/or offenders. 1 new media technologies which gangs have adopted as new recruitment techniques, such as, cell phone texting, face book, MySpace and other social networks. Another contributing factor to the proliferation of street gangs is the blurred lines between prison and street gangs (Decker, 2001); formerly incarcerated gang members released into the community often maintain connections with other gang members still in prison and particular street gangs, such as the Bloods and the Crips has grown to be a part of prison life when street members enter the correctional system (McGloin 2005; OSBND 1991). Moreover, enhanced law enforcement reporting and improved gang awareness may have also contributed to an increase in the number of gang members identified by some law enforcement agencies with the percentage of law enforcement agencies reporting gang activity in their jurisdictions increased from 45 percent in 2004 to 58 percent in 2008 (NGTA 2009, p.5 ). Prior to the 1980s, problems with gangs were almost non-existent. Characterized as a minority problem; little attention was placed on the existence of gang prior and during the 1960s. Three federal commissioned studies2 on the nature, causes and treatment of crime, all concluded youth gangs were not of major concern; nor did they pose a significant threat to the populace (Miller 2001, p. 3). In the 1970s, only 20 states and 73 counties in the United States reported problems with youth gangs (Miller 2001, p.25). During 1985-1989, Oklahoma law enforcement agencies only reported three cities and six counties experiencing problems with gangs (Miller, 2001,
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