P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

Journal of Adult Development, Vol. 8, No. 4, 2001

Cognitive Developmental Theory and Spiritual Development

Kelly B. Cartwright1

Traditional conceptions of cognitive development have failed to account for changes in adult cognition as well as more subjective and intuitive features of human experience. This paper reviews recent theories and research in cognitive development and spirituality with the aim of providing connections between the two domains. Neo-Piagetian and postformal theories of cognitive development suggest that advances in cognition are domain-specific, dependent on individual experience, and can occur at any point in the lifespan. However, theories of spiritual development have not adequately addressed these points. Thus, a novel account of spiritual development is presented that addresses these features with respect to individuals’ changing conceptions of their relation to an External Power.

KEY WORDS: postformal thought; spirituality; cognition; faith development; religious development.

Human development is a lifelong process char- cess of spiritual development (e.g. see Elkind, 1997; acterized by both predictable patterns and individual Fleck, Ballard, & Reilly, 1975; Mitchell, 1988), variation in multiple domains. The aim of this paper previous accounts of spiritual development have not is to highlight potential connections between two of incorporated features of more recent neo-Piagetian these domains, cognition and spirituality, by applying and postformal theories of cognitive development. recent conceptualizations of cognitive developmental A review of these theories suggests at least three theory to spiritual development. The particular focus issues that should be incorporated into a theory of this analysis will be the effects of cognitive devel- of spiritual development. First, traditional Piagetian opment on individuals’ constructions of the relation theory does not address cognitive developmental of humanity to an External Power, and it is suggested change in adulthood (i.e. beyond formal operational that individuals’ level of cognitive development con- thought). Therefore, some researchers have pro- strains their understanding of this relation. Different posed postformal theories of cognitive development faith traditions offer various conceptions of Powers to account for cognitive change in adulthood (e.g, beyond the self: some monotheistic, others polytheis- Labouvie-Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). Second, tic, or even atheistic. However, most faith traditions some theorists have suggested that cognitive devel- share the notion that individuals relate in some fash- opment is not domain-general, as implied in the orig- ion to an External Power whether it is referred to as an inal Piagetian program, but occurs at different rates Ultimate Being, a Higher Power, God, Gods, Fate, or within particular domains and may occur at any point natural energy. Thus, in this paper these terms will be in the lifespan (Bidell & Fischer, 1992; Case, 1992; used interchangeably to denote a Power (or Powers) Karmiloff-Smith, 1991; Sinnott, 1998). Finally, tradi- perceived to be external to the self, to which individ- tional Piagetian theory asserts that cognitive devel- uals regard themselves to be in relation. opment is evidenced by an increasing reliance on Although attempts have been made to apply objective, scientific reasoning. However, more recent Piagetian cognitive developmental theory to the pro- conceptualizations suggest that a comprehensive the- ory of cognitive development must also incorporate 1To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department subjective experience such as social, interpersonal, of Psychology, Christopher Newport University, One University and contextual interactions as these may be instru- Place, Newport News, Virginia 23606; e-mail: [email protected]. mental in producing cognitive change (Bidell &

213

1068-0667/01/1000-0213$19.50/0 C 2001 Plenum Publishing Corporation P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

214 Cartwright

Fischer, 1992; Blackburn & Papalia, 1992; Case, 1992; researchers have therefore suggested variations in Labouvie-Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). postformal thought (thought processes that develop These critical features of cognitive developmen- beyond the traditional Piagetian modes of formal tal theory will be described in the following sections, operational reasoning), to rectify this omission and and then theories of spiritual development will be provide a more complete account of cognitive devel- discussed. Finally, these features of cognitive devel- opment (e.g., Blackburn & Papalia, 1992; Labouvie- opmental theory will be applied to spiritual develop- Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). According to classic ment in order to provide a novel approach that might Piagetian theory (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969), formal better capture the variation seen in adults’ thinking operational reasoning, characterized by the ability to regarding spirituality. reason logically about abstract propositions, is usually exhibited by most individuals during adolescence COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY and into adulthood. Piaget assessed formal thought, using scientific or mathematical problems, regarding In the domain of cognition, Jean Piaget’s theory a reliance on scientific, hypothetico-deductive modes has been tremendously influential, suggesting a pre- of thought as evidence for cognitive sophistication. dictable sequence of stages for cognitive develop- Thus, he characterized human cognitive development ment: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete oper- as movement from the more subjective perspectives ational, and formal operational. Piaget argued that of young children to more objective modes of these stages were characterized by qualitatively dif- thinking seen in adolescents and adults. ferent modes of thinking through which individuals Piaget argued that formal reasoning is sophis- pass from infancy to adolescence (for a summary of ticated in that it requires individuals to coordinate the theory, see Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Each succes- abstract propositions within a logical system. sive stage incorporates the features of the preceding However, Piagetian theory made no provision for mode of thought and adds additional skills that tran- development of reasoning beyond the level of the scend the previous, less sophisticated thought pro- single logical system. Theories of postformal thought cesses. For example, infants in the sensorimotor stage suggest that some individuals move beyond formal process information that is directly available to them operational reasoning because they exhibit the ability through their sensory experiences and actions on ob- to consider and coordinate multiple logical systems jects in the world around them. As infants pass into the of thought and select one particular system as “true” preoperational stage, they add the additional feature for themselves (Sinnott, 1998). This consideration of symbolic mental representation, a skill that allows of multiple logical systems, with the concurrent re- them to transcend their previous understanding of the alization that any of the systems is potentially viable, world by enabling them to think about objects without has been characterized as a new kind of subjectivity having to directly experience them through sensory that incorporates the objective modes of thought or motor means. Preoperational thought is, however, characteristic of formal operational reasoning. Thus, characterized as subjective and illogical. The subse- postformal theories of cognitive development suggest quent stage, concrete operations, allows individuals that individuals progress from subjective to objective the additional development of logical reasoning that is modes of thought as suggested in Piaget’s original limited to concrete situations; and formal operational program and then transcend formal reasoning by thought allows individuals to transcend the limitation integrating the subjective and objective forms of of the concrete by reasoning logically about abstract reasoning in adulthood (Blackburn & Papalia, propositions. Although many neo-Piagetian accounts 1992; Labouvie-Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). of cognitive development have generally preserved Applications of cognitive developmental theory to this stage sequence (Case, 1992), Piaget’s account of other domains should reflect the evolution of the cognitive development has been criticized on sev- theory and include postformal reasoning in their eral grounds. Descriptions of three of these criticisms analyses. follow. Global, Age-Related Developmental Cognitive Development in Adulthood Changes in Cognition

Traditional Piagetian theory fails to address A second criticism challenges the traditional the nature of cognitive change in adulthood. Many Piagetian notion that global changes in cognition P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

Cognitive and Spiritual Development 215

occur at roughly the same ages during childhood and great deal of human experience. As a consequence, adolescence for all individuals. Recent conceptualiza- “researchers in the adulthood area have concen- tions of cognitive developmental theory suggest that trated on recovering the dimensions lost to Piaget’s individual cognitive development is not necessarily description of the mature organism—the subjective coherent across domains (Case, 1992; Karmiloff- and intuitive, the interpersonal, and the imaginative Smith, 1991; Labouvie-Vief, 1992) and is character- (Labouvie-Vief, 1992, p. 203).” By applying cognitive ized by tremendous variability that is dependent on developmental theory to more subjective domains individual developmental context (Bidell & Fisher, such as spirituality, it becomes clear that such connec- 1992). Piaget (1972) himself eventually recognized tions are essential in order to understand the whole the importance of context to an individual’s cognitive of human development. development, conceding that individual experiences might produce domain-specific differences in cog- nitive outcomes. It has been further suggested that SPIRITUALITY AND SPIRITUAL when processing information with which they have DEVELOPMENT little experience, adults may actually demonstrate an earlier level of thought before exhibiting more Spirituality can be defined in many ways, and it advanced cognitive processes (Sinnott, 1998). When has been distinguished from religiosity in that spiritu- taken together, these ideas indicate that cognitive ality reflects individual, inner experience rather than development within a particular domain may occur at observance of outward dictates or customs that may any point in the lifespan, depending upon individual be tied to a particular faith tradition (Sinnott, 1998). In experience. Therefore, cognitive developmental anal- the following sections, some representative theories yses within domains of development should incorpo- of spiritual development will be reviewed and impor- rate the notion that different modes of thinking may tant features of these theories will be highlighted to fa- not be tied to particular age ranges but may be tied, cilitate a discussion of potential connections between instead, to individual experiences, contexts, and life spiritual and cognitive development in adulthood. events.

A Brief Review of Theories Social and Contextual Effects of Spiritual Development on Cognitive Development Previous theories of spiritual development have Traditional Piagetian theory contends that ad- focused on parallels with many aspects of human vances in cognitive sophistication demand an in- development. Some theories, for example, have cen- creasing separation from an individual’s subjective, tered on ego development, autonomy, and self- personal experience, and an increased reliance on awareness as they affect and are affected by rela- objective, hypothetico-deductive modes of thought. tionships to others (Conn, 1993; Fowler, 1981, 1994). However, contextual variables such as social inter- Other theories have focused on the development of actions are said to play an important, and even moral understanding and consequent behavior to- essential, role in cognitive change into adulthood, ward others (Fowler, 1981, 1994; Mitchell, 1988). especially those interactions that center around the Additionally, some theorists have suggested parallels exploration and potential reconciliation of differing between children’s understanding of religious or spir- viewpoints that occur in significant social relation- itual concepts and Piagetian stages of cognitive devel- ships (Blackburn & Papalia, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). In opment (Elkind, 1997; Fleck, Ballard, & Reilly, 1975); fact, Sinnott (1998) suggests that the negotiation of however, as is the case with traditional Piagetian differing viewpoints in social contexts may serve as theory, these accounts neglected to address spiritual a catalyst for the development of postformal reason- change in adulthood. Comprehensive lifespan per- ing because such negotiation forces individuals to si- spectives on spiritual development are offered by multaneously consider multiple potential systems of Fowler (1981, 1994) and Oser and Gmunder ¨ (1991; thought. Labouvie-Vief (1990) reinforces the impor- see also Oser, 1991, 1994), and their theories have tance of subjective experience to development when both been tremendously influential in the study of she argues that reducing conceptions of mature adult spirituality in recent decades (Nipkow, Schweitzer, & thought to only logical modes of thinking omits a Fowler, 1991). P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

216 Cartwright

Fowler (1981), in his seminal work on faith devel- context, as reflected in many of these theories. Thus, opment, suggests that individual faith development the concept of relationship and the process of tran- reflects a “meaning-making” process in which indi- scendence seem essential to spiritual development viduals seek to understand their own lives and the and appear to be necessary components of an inte- values and commitments that guide them. His theo- grative theory of this process. retical formulation was based on extensive interview As is the case with classic Piagetian theory data with hundreds of individuals that suggested dif- (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969), the majority of accounts ferent modes of meaning-making across the lifespan. of spiritual development suggest age-related changes According to Fowler (1981), the individual’s under- that are associated with more general developments standing of her- or himself in relation to others and in the cognitive, moral, or social domains. Although to centers of shared value and commitment is essen- Oser and Gmunder ¨ (1991) assert that the develop- tial in the development of faith. Oser and Gmunder ¨ ment of religious judgment is independent of de- (1991; see also Oser, 1991, 1994) also address the velopment in other domains, they also propose age- relation of humanity to the Divine with specific at- related developmental changes in religious cognition. tention to individuals’ constructions of their relation- As mentioned previously, neo-Piagetian accounts of ship with a Higher Power. Their particular focus is on cognitive development and recent theories of postfor- the development of religious judgment in this rela- mal thought indicate that developmental changes in tional context, and they suggest that the development cognition are not necessarily coherent across domains of religious cognition is independent of other moral or constrained by chronological age. Even among and cognitive developments. Like Fowler, Oser, and adults, there is tremendous variability in levels of Gmunder ¨ (1991) conducted extensive interviews in cognitive functioning and spiritual understanding. A which they required participants to make religious more comprehensive account of spiritual develop- judgments about social dilemmas, and their stages of ment must address this issue. Additionally, as noted religious judgment were formulated based on these by an anonymous reviewer of this manuscript, many data. Thus, although their theory is similar in nature of the theoretical accounts of spiritual development to Piagetian cognitive developmental theory because provide typical descriptions of individual behavior at it proposes sequential changes in the structure of indi- different developmental levels. However, they do not viduals’ cognition, the developmental stages they pro- offer explicit, formal mechanisms for spiritual change pose are not parallel to traditional Piagetian modes of in adulthood. These issues are addressed in the theo- thought. retical formulation that follows.

Important Features and Potential Criticisms INTEGRATING COGNITIVE of Theories of Spiritual Development DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY WITH SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT The theories of Oser and Gmunder ¨ (1991) and Fowler (1981) are similar in that they propose stage- The previous sections reviewed theories in cog- like changes in spiritual development from a lifespan nitive and spiritual development, outlining particular perspective. These theories also share a focus on re- criticisms and essential features in each of these do- lationships, especially the relation between humanity mains. In the sections that follow, a novel conception and a Higher Power. Conn (1993) suggests that ma- of spiritual development is presented that incorpo- ture spirituality involves a kind of self-transcendence rates features of neo-Piagetian and postformal theo- where individuals develop the ability to go beyond ries of cognitive development. themselves in truthful knowledge, free commitment, and loving relationship to others, both human and Divine. Conn’s formulation indicates that transcen- A Formal Mechanism for Developmental Change dence of self may be the means by which spiritual de- velopment is achieved (Conn, 1993), but she does not According to cognitive developmental theory, in- provide a formal explanation for this process. Gener- dividuals progress through stages characterized by ally, just as mature cognition is refined in the context qualitatively different modes of thought. At each suc- of relationships to and with others (Sinnott, 1998), cessive stage, individuals build upon and transcend spirituality is also understood to develop in the same their previous thought processes by incorporating P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

Cognitive and Spiritual Development 217

additional, more sophisticated ways of understand- conflict produces changes in individuals’ cognitive ing the world. The transcendence of prior modes of structures. When individuals are faced with circum- thought characteristic of cognitive development pro- stances that are not consistent with their current con- vides a formal mechanism by which spiritual devel- ception of the world, they must look beyond their opment may also occur. It is asserted that individu- own constructions of reality to “make sense” of the als’ understanding of their relation to a Higher Power available information. The following discussion illus- progresses through stages that are parallel in nature to trates how spiritual development might be affected the original Piagetian stages: sensorimotor, preopera- by individuals’ cognitive developmental level result- tional, concrete operational, and formal operational. ing in a changing understanding of their relatedness Additionally, as suggested elsewhere (Sinnott, 1998), to a Higher Power. individuals’ understanding of their relatedness to an External Power can develop beyond formal opera- Cognitive Developmental Stages tional modes of reasoning to include a new subjec- in Spiritual Development tivity characteristic of postformal thought. At each stage, an individual’s understanding of their relation In Piagetian theory, Sensorimotor thinkers are to an External Power transcends their prior under- bound to their own perceptual and sensory realities. standing by incorporating additional cognitive skills; Infants in Piaget’s sensorimotor stage are, at first, not however, their understanding is also constrained by able to differentiate self from other. For individuals their current level of cognitive development. It is fur- at this level, the only “knowable” information is what ther argued that these different modes of spiritual is directly detectable by their sensory or motor ex- understanding do not emerge at the ages originally perience. Because the concept of an external Power proposed in Piagetian theory, nor are they restricted is itself abstract and not directly observable by sen- to particular age ranges in development. Rather, pas- sory or perceptual means, individuals at this level ex- sage through these stages may occur at any point in a press no awareness of a spiritual level of reality, a person’s lifetime, depending upon individual experi- “fundamental reality that is not material in nature ences, awareness, and motivation. (Koplowitz, 1990, p. 105).” Just as the sensorimotor Traditional cognitive developmental theory has infant is not aware of the existence of “other” as dis- been criticized for its reliance on objective modes tinct from “self,” the individual at this level of under- of thought and omission of the effects of more sub- standing does not experience awareness of a Power jective factors on cognitive development. However, external to the self unless the person is brought “face neo-Piagetian and postformal theories of cognition, to face” with a spiritual level of reality through some as well as theories of spiritual development, empha- conflict or significant life event. size the importance of social and contextual variables As stated previously, contextual variables of- to developmental change. It is argued that individ- ten spark changes in spiritual awareness and devel- uals’ subjective experiences, including social interac- opment. For individuals who begin the process of tions, context, and life events, stimulate the process of transcendence, a transition to preoperational modes transcendence by forcing individuals to move beyond of thought may occur. Piaget’s preoperational stage prior cognitive processes and engage in new modes is characterized by what is termed “pre-causality of thought. For example, the experience of conflict (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969),” or reasoning that is or adversity in the process of a divorce may promote not yet governed by conventional logical principles. cognitive development because it necessitates the ne- Children at this level often account for events in their gotiation of differing views in difficult circumstances lives by mythical means. An individual beginning to (Sinnott, 1998) and often requires individuals to con- contemplate her or his relation to a Higher Power sider other cognitive constructions that transcend may not have incorporated conventional explanatory their previous understanding of situations or events. mechanisms for the relationship. Instead, these indi- In their qualitative study of spiritual development, viduals may tacitly accept that there is “something Hamilton and Jackson (1998) found that participants out there” beyond the self that defies explanation. In most often reported adversity or unexpected life the case of a near-death experience, for example, an events to be the catalyst for their emerging spiritual individual at this level might suggest that “Someone awareness. Similarly, Fowler (1981) suggested that up there was watching out for me, but I don’t know conflict motivates the development of faith. These why or how. It was a miracle.” Thus, at this level, the ideas are consistent with the Piagetian notion that relationship between the individual and an external P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

218 Cartwright

Power is understood at a mythical level without logi- conventional social norm of reciprocity that governed cal explanation. their understanding at the concrete operational level. As individuals make the transition to concrete Their focus may merely turn from concrete behaviors operational thinking, they begin to incorporate con- to abstract principles like love, justice, and mercy. In ventional explanations into their spiritual under- seeking to explain and insure their relationship to a standing and to devalue their subjective experience Higher Power, these individuals may understand that (Labouvie-Vief, 1990). Concrete operational thought they participate in that relationship by demonstrating is characterized by adherence to logical reasoning, but love, justice, or mercy to others. Although their focus it is limited to tangible items and events. At this level, has shifted to abstract principles, these individuals still individuals may seek a logical explanation for their view their relationship to God as contingent on their relationship to God, being dissatisfied with the mythi- own behavior. Many individuals, regardless of age, cal, subjective nature of their previous, preoperational remain at this level, without examining or critically understanding. At this point, the social norm of reci- evaluating the culturally transmitted conventions in procity offers a logical alternative and may be incor- which they are embedded (Ormer & Fowler, 1993). porated into their understanding of this relationship. At the concrete and formal operational levels, In order to participate in a benevolent relationship individuals tend to cling to objective, logical expla- with an external Power, individuals at this level may nations and eschew any subjectivity in interpretation look for concrete means to insure and explain that re- or understanding. However, once individuals can step lationship. Often, these explanations include behav- away from and out of the culturally transmitted views ioral commitments to socially communicated customs, that have constrained them, they are able to consider values, or beliefs. Overt behavior such as giving to the those views as potential alternatives rather than ab- needy or abstaining from various activities provides a solute truth. The ability to consider multiple alter- tangible mechanism by which an individual at the con- nate versions of reality and select one as appropriate crete level can comprehend their relation to a Higher for self is typical of postformal modes of thinking Power. Many religious traditions support this level of (Sinnott, 1998) and has been characterized as a new spiritual development by focusing on overt behavior kind of objectivity that incorporates the subjective as evidence for religious or spiritual commitment. In- (Labouvie-Vief, 1990). An individual at this level dividuals at this level of spiritual development under- would no longer be embedded in the culturally trans- stand that they are a participant in a relationship with mitted framework that guided her understanding at a Higher Power because of the concrete activities in prior levels. For example, individuals at the post- which they engage, and this tangible explanation sat- formal level might still focus on abstract notions of isfies their need for concrete logic. love, mercy, and justice in relationships. However, When individuals move into the formal opera- because the cultural norm of reciprocity no longer tional level of reasoning, Piaget suggested that they constrains their understanding, behavioral demon- are finally capable of reasoning logically about ab- strations of these principles may no longer be seen stract notions. At this level of spiritual development, as necessary to maintain and insure relatedness to individuals should begin to consider the abstract a Higher Power. As suggested by Conn (1993) and principles that govern the behaviors on which they Fowler (1981), the many,varied relationships between focused in the concrete operational mode of thought. self, others, and an external Power are all vital compo- Rather than focusing on specific behaviors, individ- nents of spirituality. Rather than focusing on how they uals at this level may focus, instead, on the abstract can maintain a relationship with God through the be- principles that underlie the behaviors. For example, havioral administration of love or mercy to others (a they may focus on benevolence or love for human- unidirectional and limited conception), individuals at ity rather than the specific act of giving to the needy. the postformal level see that these abstract principles Although individuals at this level are capable of rea- are unifying forces in the vast connectedness between soning abstractly, their reasoning is still constrained self, others, and a Higher Power. by (or embedded in) the social contexts in which they find themselves (Ormer & Fowler, 1993). Young SUMMARY AND DIRECTIONS adults and adolescents at this level tend to value uni- FOR FUTURE WORK versal laws and are often tied to concrete conven- tions (Labouvie-Vief, 1990). Thus, individuals at this This paper provided an overview of recent ad- level may still be constrained, for example, by the vances in cognitive developmental theory and applied P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

Cognitive and Spiritual Development 219

these to spiritual development to provide a more co- suggestions regarding an earlier version of this herent explanation for the variation and development manuscript. of spiritual understanding in adulthood. Future work in this area should focus on testing the developmen- tal mechanisms and sequence suggested in this pa- REFERENCES per. In order to determine whether the sequence of spiritual understanding presented here is supported, Bidell, T. R., & Fisher, K. W. (1992). Beyond the stage debate: longitudinal or cross-sectional studies that examine Action, structure, and variability in Piagetian theory and re- search. In R. J. Sternberg & C. A. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual spiritual development at several points in adulthood development. New York: Cambridge University Press. might be useful. Because adults may exhibit vary- Blackburn, J. A., & Papalia, D. E. (1992). The study of adult cog- ing levels of spiritual understanding without regard nition from a Piagetian perspective. In R. J. Sternberg & C. A. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development. New York: Cambridge to chronological age, longitudinal research is prob- University Press. ably better suited to the task of determining devel- Case, R. (1992). Neo-Piagetian theories of child development. In opmental sequence. Qualitative studies like that of R. J. Sternberg & C. A. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development. New York: Cambridge University Press. Hamilton and Jackson (1998) involving focus groups Conn, J. W. (1993). Spirituality and personal maturity. In R. J. or individual interviews may also provide insight into Wicks, R. D. Parsons, & D. Capps (Eds.), Clinical handbook of the sequence of changes in spiritual understanding as pastoral counseling, Volume 1: Expanded edition (pp. 37–57). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. well as the nature of the events or contexts that pro- Elkind, D. (1997). The origins of religion in the child. In B. Spilka mote those changes. “Conversion experiences” are a & D. N. McIntosh (Eds.), The psychology of religion (Chap. 8, type of change associated with some accounts of spir- pp. 97–104). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Fleck, J.R., Ballard, S. N., & Reilly,J.W.(1975). The development of itual development. Additional research should also religious concepts and maturity: A three stage model. Journal examine whether the mechanism for spiritual devel- of Psychology and Theology, 3, 156–163. opment proposed here, transcendence of prior modes Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. New York: Harper of thought, might also account for the changes as- Collins. sociated with spiritual conversion. The present con- Fowler, J. W. (1994). Moral stages and the development of faith. In ception was framed in terms of individuals’ under- B. Puka (Ed.), Moral development: A compendium, Volume 2 (pp. 344–374). New York: Garland Publishing. standing of their relatedness to an External Power. Hamilton, D. M., & Jackson, M. H. (1998). Spiritual development: To understand individual spirituality more fully, this Paths and processes. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 25, focus should be extended to include individuals’ un- 262–270. Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1991). Innate constraints and developmental derstanding of self and their reciprocal relatedness to change. In S. Carey & R. Gelman (Eds.), The epigenesis of others. In addition, this model of spiritual develop- mind: Essays on biology and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. ment is presented in general terms that may or may Koplowitz, H. (1990). Unitary consciousness and the highest de- velopment of the mind: The relation between spiritual de- not apply to development within particular faith tra- velopment and cognitive development. In M. L. Commons, ditions with different cultural influences (e.g., west- C. Armon, L. Kohlberg, F. A. Richards, T. A. Grotzer, & ern vs. eastern). Future work in this area should also J. D. Sinnott (Eds.), Adult development, Volume 2: Models and methods in the study of adolescent and adult thought (Chap. 6, consider the applicability of cognitive developmen- pp. 105–111). New York: Praeger. tal theory to spiritual understanding within particular Labouvie-Vief, G. (1990). Modes of knowledge and the orga- religious frameworks like Buddhism, Christianity, or nization of development. In M. L. Commons, C. Armon, L. Kohlberg, F. A. Richards, T. A. Grotzer, & J. D. Sinnott Judaism as well as to different cultures. The goal of (Eds.), Adult development, Volume 2: Models and methods in this formulation was to present a potential integra- the study of adolescent and adult thought (Chap. 3, pp. 43–62). tion of cognitive development with a more subjective New York: Praeger. Labouvie-Vief, G. (1992). A neo-Piagetian perspective on adult aspect of human development: spirituality.Additional cognitive development. In R. J. Sternberg & C. A. Berg (Eds.), work investigating connections between the objective Intellectual development. New York: Cambridge University and subjective aspects of human experience can only Press. Mitchell, C. E. (1988). Paralleling cognitive and moral develop- move the field closer to a more complete understand- ment with spiritual development and denominational choice. ing of human development. Psychology, a Journal of Human Behavior, 25, 1–9. Nipkow, K. E., Schweitzer, F., & Fowler, J. W. (1991). Introduc- tion. In J. W. Fowler, K. E. Nipkow, & F. Schweitzer (Eds.), Stages of faith and religious development: Implications for ACKNOWLEDGMENTS church, education, and society (pp. 1–15). New York:Crossroad Publishing. Ormer, R., & Fowler, J. W. (1993). Childhood and adolescence—a I would like to thank Dr M. Paz Galupo and faith development perspective. In R. J. Wicks, R. D. Parsons, two anonymous reviewers for their comments and & D. Capps (Eds.), Clinical handbook of pastoral counseling, P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000

220 Cartwright

Volume 1: Expanded edition (pp. 171–212). Mahwah, NJ: Oser, F. K., & Gmunder, ¨ P. (1991). Religious judgement: A devel- Paulist Press. opmental approach. Birmingham: Religious Education Press. Oser, F. (1991). Toward a logic of religious development: A reply Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adult- to my critics. In J. W. Fowler, K. E. Nipkow, & F. Schweitzer hood. Human Development, 15, 1–12. (Eds.), Stages of faith and religious development: Implications Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child for church, education, and society (pp. 37–64). New York: (Helen Weaver, Trans.). New York: Basic Books (Original Crossroad Publishing. work published 1966). Oser, F. (1994). The development of religious judgment. In B. Puka Sinnott, J. D. (1998). The development of logic in adult- (Ed.), Fundamental research in moral development (pp. 375– hood: Postformal thought and its applications. New York: 395). New York: Garland Publishing. Plenum.