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P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000 Journal of Adult Development, Vol. 8, No. 4, 2001 Cognitive Developmental Theory and Spiritual Development Kelly B. Cartwright1 Traditional conceptions of cognitive development have failed to account for changes in adult cognition as well as more subjective and intuitive features of human experience. This paper reviews recent theories and research in cognitive development and spirituality with the aim of providing connections between the two domains. Neo-Piagetian and postformal theories of cognitive development suggest that advances in cognition are domain-specific, dependent on individual experience, and can occur at any point in the lifespan. However, theories of spiritual development have not adequately addressed these points. Thus, a novel account of spiritual development is presented that addresses these features with respect to individuals’ changing conceptions of their relation to an External Power. KEY WORDS: postformal thought; spirituality; cognition; faith development; religious development. Human development is a lifelong process char- cess of spiritual development (e.g. see Elkind, 1997; acterized by both predictable patterns and individual Fleck, Ballard, & Reilly, 1975; Mitchell, 1988), variation in multiple domains. The aim of this paper previous accounts of spiritual development have not is to highlight potential connections between two of incorporated features of more recent neo-Piagetian these domains, cognition and spirituality, by applying and postformal theories of cognitive development. recent conceptualizations of cognitive developmental A review of these theories suggests at least three theory to spiritual development. The particular focus issues that should be incorporated into a theory of this analysis will be the effects of cognitive devel- of spiritual development. First, traditional Piagetian opment on individuals’ constructions of the relation theory does not address cognitive developmental of humanity to an External Power, and it is suggested change in adulthood (i.e. beyond formal operational that individuals’ level of cognitive development con- thought). Therefore, some researchers have pro- strains their understanding of this relation. Different posed postformal theories of cognitive development faith traditions offer various conceptions of Powers to account for cognitive change in adulthood (e.g, beyond the self: some monotheistic, others polytheis- Labouvie-Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). Second, tic, or even atheistic. However, most faith traditions some theorists have suggested that cognitive devel- share the notion that individuals relate in some fash- opment is not domain-general, as implied in the orig- ion to an External Power whether it is referred to as an inal Piagetian program, but occurs at different rates Ultimate Being, a Higher Power, God, Gods, Fate, or within particular domains and may occur at any point natural energy. Thus, in this paper these terms will be in the lifespan (Bidell & Fischer, 1992; Case, 1992; used interchangeably to denote a Power (or Powers) Karmiloff-Smith, 1991; Sinnott, 1998). Finally, tradi- perceived to be external to the self, to which individ- tional Piagetian theory asserts that cognitive devel- uals regard themselves to be in relation. opment is evidenced by an increasing reliance on Although attempts have been made to apply objective, scientific reasoning. However, more recent Piagetian cognitive developmental theory to the pro- conceptualizations suggest that a comprehensive the- ory of cognitive development must also incorporate 1To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department subjective experience such as social, interpersonal, of Psychology, Christopher Newport University, One University and contextual interactions as these may be instru- Place, Newport News, Virginia 23606; e-mail: [email protected]. mental in producing cognitive change (Bidell & 213 1068-0667/01/1000-0213$19.50/0 C 2001 Plenum Publishing Corporation P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000 214 Cartwright Fischer, 1992; Blackburn & Papalia, 1992; Case, 1992; researchers have therefore suggested variations in Labouvie-Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). postformal thought (thought processes that develop These critical features of cognitive developmen- beyond the traditional Piagetian modes of formal tal theory will be described in the following sections, operational reasoning), to rectify this omission and and then theories of spiritual development will be provide a more complete account of cognitive devel- discussed. Finally, these features of cognitive devel- opment (e.g., Blackburn & Papalia, 1992; Labouvie- opmental theory will be applied to spiritual develop- Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). According to classic ment in order to provide a novel approach that might Piagetian theory (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969), formal better capture the variation seen in adults’ thinking operational reasoning, characterized by the ability to regarding spirituality. reason logically about abstract propositions, is usually exhibited by most individuals during adolescence COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY and into adulthood. Piaget assessed formal thought, using scientific or mathematical problems, regarding In the domain of cognition, Jean Piaget’s theory a reliance on scientific, hypothetico-deductive modes has been tremendously influential, suggesting a pre- of thought as evidence for cognitive sophistication. dictable sequence of stages for cognitive develop- Thus, he characterized human cognitive development ment: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete oper- as movement from the more subjective perspectives ational, and formal operational. Piaget argued that of young children to more objective modes of these stages were characterized by qualitatively dif- thinking seen in adolescents and adults. ferent modes of thinking through which individuals Piaget argued that formal reasoning is sophis- pass from infancy to adolescence (for a summary of ticated in that it requires individuals to coordinate the theory, see Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Each succes- abstract propositions within a logical system. sive stage incorporates the features of the preceding However, Piagetian theory made no provision for mode of thought and adds additional skills that tran- development of reasoning beyond the level of the scend the previous, less sophisticated thought pro- single logical system. Theories of postformal thought cesses. For example, infants in the sensorimotor stage suggest that some individuals move beyond formal process information that is directly available to them operational reasoning because they exhibit the ability through their sensory experiences and actions on ob- to consider and coordinate multiple logical systems jects in the world around them. As infants pass into the of thought and select one particular system as “true” preoperational stage, they add the additional feature for themselves (Sinnott, 1998). This consideration of symbolic mental representation, a skill that allows of multiple logical systems, with the concurrent re- them to transcend their previous understanding of the alization that any of the systems is potentially viable, world by enabling them to think about objects without has been characterized as a new kind of subjectivity having to directly experience them through sensory that incorporates the objective modes of thought or motor means. Preoperational thought is, however, characteristic of formal operational reasoning. Thus, characterized as subjective and illogical. The subse- postformal theories of cognitive development suggest quent stage, concrete operations, allows individuals that individuals progress from subjective to objective the additional development of logical reasoning that is modes of thought as suggested in Piaget’s original limited to concrete situations; and formal operational program and then transcend formal reasoning by thought allows individuals to transcend the limitation integrating the subjective and objective forms of of the concrete by reasoning logically about abstract reasoning in adulthood (Blackburn & Papalia, propositions. Although many neo-Piagetian accounts 1992; Labouvie-Vief, 1990, 1992; Sinnott, 1998). of cognitive development have generally preserved Applications of cognitive developmental theory to this stage sequence (Case, 1992), Piaget’s account of other domains should reflect the evolution of the cognitive development has been criticized on sev- theory and include postformal reasoning in their eral grounds. Descriptions of three of these criticisms analyses. follow. Global, Age-Related Developmental Cognitive Development in Adulthood Changes in Cognition Traditional Piagetian theory fails to address A second criticism challenges the traditional the nature of cognitive change in adulthood. Many Piagetian notion that global changes in cognition P1: FZN/LOV P2: GFU Journal of Adult Development PP200-341946 June 29, 2001 9:48 Style file version Oct. 23, 2000 Cognitive and Spiritual Development 215 occur at roughly the same ages during childhood and great deal of human experience. As a consequence, adolescence for all individuals. Recent conceptualiza- “researchers in the adulthood area have concen- tions of cognitive developmental theory suggest that trated on recovering the dimensions lost to Piaget’s individual cognitive development is not
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