CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment for the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology and Social in Sociologyand ofArts ofMaster degree forthe In partialfulfillment ANTI-NATIONALIST, ANTI-MILITARIST, FEMINIST THE ACTIVIST SELF: COLLECTIVE IDENTITY IN Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology Social ofSociologyand Department MOBILIZATION INSERBIA Central European University Central Supervisor: Dan Dan Rabinowitz Supervisor: María Lis Baiocchi Anthropology Submitted to By CEU eTD Collection personal for existence. necessity personal a all above but duty acivic only not is activism context, this In self. of concepts activists collective the how identityhighlights thesis the importantly, Most orientations. ideological specific of anti-nationalist,for bases asthe identities asvalue well as emotions, networks, of social functions various anti-militarist feminist the experiences, by is activist facilitated previous identity construction a collective of activistThe activists. anti-militarist anti-nationalist, feminist, as becomesself-definitions shared central to construction of aprocessof inrepresents organization this how activists’ participation interviewssemi-structured Women inwith in Blackactivists Serbia,looks thethesisat from gathered on mobilization.qualitative data Based anti-militarist anti-nationalist, Abstract This thesis deals with the concept of collective identity formation via feminist, via formation identity collective of concept the with deals thesis This ii CEU eTD Collection Zhukova, my andmyZhukova, sisters, mother. Viktoriya Nikolic, Dragan Jeremic, Milica Fridman, Orli Rooney, Thomas instructor, project: of this realization and finding for the time inyour busy schedules to meet me. with Perkovic,Anastasijevic, Magdayour for andAdam willingness,yourPuskar hospitality, Mahuron, JelenaZorica Trifunivoc, Nadja Duhacek, Boban Stojanovic, JasminaMemet, Tesanovic, Katie Josifovic, Nevzeta Lepa Mladjenovic, Zajovic, Stasa you enormously: LinaSerbia. Ithank Vuskovic,in time my during interviewed I activists Black in Women the of all of participation Ana Imsirovic, Snezana Djordjevic,Acknowledgements Marija My supervisors, Francisca De Haan and Dan I alsoRabinowitz; thank the following people whoin different ways were of greathelp to the my academic writing carry researchthe this without beenproject neverout to I wouldhave able iii CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 47 Bibliography Concluding ...... 45 Remarks ActivistFeminist Anti-Militarist, of Anti-Nationalist, Identity IV:TheCollective Chapter Chapter III: Three Phases of Repression...... 16 Chapter II: A FeministPeace Initiative...... 11 Chapter I: Civil Society as Politics of Resistance in Serbia ...... 6 During the 1990s Introduction...... 1 Acknowledgements ...... iii Abstract...... ii Table of Contents ...... 21 iv CEU eTD Collection Available: 3 resisting. were they regime the and originated scope the beyond goes but of this thesis. important Here, I obviously focus is 1999 almost and exclusively1991 between onSerbia place because took that it was the contextof secession inwars whichWiB 2 Wednesday silentin vigil against warthe (Duhacek 2002). 1 They of are one the past. criminal confrontSerbia’s projects inSerbiato important most 2007). basis warsonastrictthe regular (Cockburn against publicly protesting inKosovo—WiBlater, continued years and, Bosnia andHerzegovina the atrocities it was committing. denounce Milosevic theregime publicly for and the warinCroatia Slobodan of protest to As other conflicts in of one WiB andHughes groups (Mladjenovic Serbia to first were 2000) The the developed in the Balkan theIsraelipeacefully vigils protest territories.occupation to Palestinian the of region—in inspired(WiB) of andhadbeen by Israeli a group who,in1988,held women weekly Black in Women the themselves called They signs. held and war the of victims the all for mourning sign of blackas a wore war.They against the protested andpeacefully center from Belgrade held a vigil in front of Studentthe Cultural Center in Belgrade’s city Introduction claimed to be “a ‘Serbia that was not atwar.’” was not ‘Serbia that be “a to claimed which reality,” criminal its “denied which regime, Serbian the of politics belligerent in peace movement. women’s organizations international the important most the of one become has Yugoslavia multi-ethic and multi-cultural group of ten women who were protesting against the wars that were destroying then Zajovi Yugoslav the during Serbia than other States Successor Yugoslav by played of roles examination The single every Square Republic Belgrade’s in stood WiB Bosnia-Herzegovina, in war the During ü , Staša. (2006). “Not in Our Name! Feminist Ethics and Confrontation with the Past.” URL On October 9 WiB started as a feminist, anti-militaristic, anti-nationalist project to confront the http://www.zeneucrnom.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=201 th , 1991,after the outbreak inof war Croatia, agroup of feminists 1 3 Today, WiB have become one of of the one WiB have become Today, 2 1 What started in 1991 as a CEU eTD Collection Available: Available: 6 5 4 the to “refers cost (SMOs), organizations movement and social (SMs) movements risk/cost activism. According to McAdam, in the context of the study of social repression. importantly—state bothand—most social to subject WiB havebeen organization, the in name.” were committed our that and warcrimes relentlessSerbian people,’ exclusively because of our for accountability calls for war the been wehavealways labeled‘a shameSerbia for and the stigmatized, andcriminalized, margins, atiny minority “we has stated, tothe in alwayshave represented Serbia:pushed disrupting the process of restoringnormalcy and peace. (Fridman 2006) As Stasa Zajovic inmove Serbiaas bymany pastin the WiBhavebeen to considered people on,the order forget fightbecause inthiswaygeneral about the Paradoxically, they social tendency to culturethe of militaristic, surroundingdenial Serbia’s authoritarian, and criminal past. by “guided in samemoral the Not imperative: our name!” destruction in itsall formsof theybroughtthat about, asStasa Zajovic Kosovo; today, they take and Bosnia-Herzegovina, destroying were Croatia, to oppose warsthat streets the the to the streets to to past. During 1990s,WiBtook the of imperative with recent the duty dealing the task various human andrights the only explicitly feministorganization to take as its foremost Zajovi Zajovi Co-founder andcurrent coordinator of WiB. ü ü The activism of WiB represents a case of what Dough McAdam calls high- fighting been has that movement aconsciousness-raising are in Serbia WiB The , Staša. (2006). “Not in OurName! Feminist Ethics and Confrontation with the Past.” URL , Staša. (2006). “Not in OurName! Feminist Ethics and Confrontation with the Past.” URL http://www.zeneucrnom.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=201 http://www.zeneucrnom.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=201 remember those very wars and the incredible the and wars very those remember 2 6 Indeed, ever since the inception of inception the since ever Indeed, 5 4 hasstated, CEU eTD Collection initiatives that sensitize the public to important societal issues.” women’s resistance to war andthe history of those who are different; we start campaigns and legislative rights, transitional justice and fundamentalism; we create an alternative women’s history by writing about concepts of security, civil society, women’s activism, interethnic and intercultural solidarity, reproductiveeducate womenabout feminism, pacifism, antimilitarism, nonviolence, women’s peace politics, new models of transitionalof justice; application the we and create past the new with forms of transitionalconfrontation we demand justice from a feministnegotiations; peace perspective;and processes, we peace networks, coalitions, and associations to stimulate the active participationof women inpeace-building, regional level across all state, national, ethnic, and all other divisions and barriers; we build peace all forms of patriarchy, war and violence; we build networks of women’s solidarity onthe global and homophobia, and all otherforms of discrimination; we create space forwomen’s voices and actions against nationalism, sexism, militarism, all forms of ethnic homogenization, fundamentalism, xenophobia, 7 by andWiB women’sof non-governmental Network WiB constituted inother Serbia, – ofWiB Women’s PeaceNetwork the andbuiltNetwork International initiated the have organization’sinfluence expanded have also the of sphere Belgrade. beyond They they intact; organization the of cohesion the maintain to managed only not have WiB organization (Zajovic 2007)in toinhibitorder advancementthe ofits mission. WiB activists and of anddivisivenesspromoting among distrust the membersof the 2000) These practices and social aimthe state havehadfrightening andexhaustingof (Zajovic 2007;Amnesty 2005; Fridman International 2006; Mladjenovic and Hughes illegitimately unlawfully detained, socially tortured, demonized. and criminalized intimidated, physically slurred, attacked, beingthreatened, WiB instances activists of been have there years, the Throughout censorship. and authoritarianism, nationalism, (1986:67) WiBbegan theirwork on a volunteer basis in anatmosphere of rampant risky others.” and/or morethan costly of are clearly instances activism where “certain social,financial, physical, so forth—of andinengaging aparticular type of activity,” legal, dangers—whether the anticipated to “refers risk while activism,” form of particular expenditures of time, money, and energy that are required of a person engaged in any WiB’s missionstatement is the following: “We bring visibility to women’s nonviolent resistance to war, Despite the social and state repression they have endured throughout the years, the endured have repression throughout they and state social Despite the 3 7 CEU eTD Collection organization—namely, the process of collective identity formation. thatisprocess when atstake join andactivists this support social movement etc.However, none thesociological 2006), of exclusively analyzing on focus them they address, such as political subjectivity (Duhacek 2002),social memory (Fridman inquiry of topics of development the specific the necessary backgroundto of the as part map the how motivesorganization organization, for and sketch emerged, participation— These studies previous providebiographical information members the someof of the of violence during the collapse of Yugoslavia in (MladjenovicSerbia. andHughes 2000) war anddomestic to organized women’s resistance of study (Slapsak the 2001); and anthropological building nation-state 2002); the and (Duhacek of Yugoslavia of disintegration the studyinWiB the process of redefining political women’s subjectivities in inthe Serbia context of the role of role (Duhacek 2006); the citizenship WiBand between responsible of construction the of women during WiBof and and the work politics ofsocial memory (Fridman relationshipthe 2006); study the 2007); the(Cockburn movement peace women’s transnational the of Yugoslav context the in wars of secession intoprompts theirand this what organization sustainedparticipation? Why organized? apartfrom activists, other did foundingthe members, mobilized become remain them to Whathas motivated into this organization? participation activists’ has motivated what and social state repression, of both context the as WiB.In such continue towork has been not conducive tothedevelopment of civil initiativessociety admirable butalso intriguing.in sociologically context and WiB The which originated organizations from (Cockburn WiBSerbia. 2007; 2008)All isnotof this only obviously Previous studies of haveWiB included the qualitative sociological study of WiB 4 CEU eTD Collection research. identity last,(Gecas At Iprovide2000). concludingremarks with suggestions for further including theories of (Passy networks social emotions 2003), (Calhoun and2001), value Melucci’s collective identity andtheory (1996), it supplementwith theories,other at look of all, First I paradigms. variety theoretical of a with inconversation activists (2007:49) Ichapter four, Ianalyze my findingsempirical from my interviews with WiB WiB.” Zajovic has calledthe“dis/continuity towards backgroundrepression on what of provide a moveto on Iwill three, chapter mentioned In before. WiB of previous studies specifically feminist peaceinitiative drawingfrom contributionsthe made by the this of characteristics the to context a I willprovide two, In chapter originated. of civil society inandmovement theanti-war during the Serbia 1990s, within whichWiB are. they who of part a becomes activism anti-nationalist anti-militarist, activism; feminist anti-nationalist, in anti-militarist, part take activists do only not WiB, in participation engage into political activism would signify a negation(Duhacekbut aboveall 2002), apersonal,of necessity. attimes almost vital Failing to of the self as such. Through their notof only actof citizenship an consist matter—does for that activism, political in all WiB—and via activism anti-nationalist anti-militarist, feminist, in engaging context, of this In self. concepts activists’ sharply define that formation identity collective of aprocess represents organization the into mobilization of process the that argue I thesis in this specifically, in WiB and activism inpolitical participation for motives Based on fifteen semi-structured interviews with WiB activists on their subjective their on activists WiB with interviews semi-structured fifteen on Based In what follows, in chapter one I will first provide a backgroundfollows,in the emergence In provide Iwillfirst a to chapterone what 5 CEU eTD Collection movements of became againstresistance of communism governingthe part elites and the party predominantlymale elections, been who intellectuals of part had dissident the Czechoslovakia,following thefall of Berlinthe Wallinmulti- the 1989 and of advent exist. to allowed not was theory democratic liberal of prism the through asdefined citizen the Understate-socialism, subject. political as where herindividual a isdefined act and interms thecitizen freedoms of rights to liberal democracy, of citizenship of concept from the drastically differed citizenship conceptof polity.from the This excluded ethnicity—wereequally or gender, age, class, their to rights political citizenship wereequally limited. All citizens—regardless of as state the before disempowered equally citizens were all Understate-socialism, private. of public was politics pervaded bythepowerof communistthe civil state, becamesociety housing atthe expense herof rightto political subjectivity individualand autonomy. suppressed. Inthiscontext, citizenthe in wasdefined work, herwelfare, right to to and wereusually state the challenging to andpotentially asalternatives pose themselves could that initiatives civic or activities—political political and economic, social, all over had control state the inCEE—where Duringstate-socialism state-apparatus. authoritarian all-intrusive an of pervasiveness the to resistance of politics as dissidence political of notion the with hand in hand went society civil of notion the (CEE), Europe Eastern Serbia Duringthe 1990s Civil ofResistance Society as Politics in Chapter I: Einhornargue and Sever(2003)inthat such of CEE, countries as Poland and since argues during samethat realm the the At(1997) Watson communism time, EinhornAccording during and to communismSever (2003), in Central and 6 CEU eTD Collection its ideological bases. (Stojanovic 2000)This political move enabled the regeneration and Serbian opposition with newly the emerged Serbianleadership devoid the opposition of thepre-1989 much of of interests theideological of collusion the that sametime the 1989 weremaintained at to regime prior had communist characterized the that structures 1987.opposition prior to alleged of had defense Serbianism beenthat basis ideological the much of Serbian the of nationalism andthe rhetoricthe Slobodanpower, of for appropriated Milosevic arising to even more, andmore importantly,by Yugoslav other (2000:451)Aspeoples.” a strategy but by nations of regime, the aboutengenderment conceived the existing and exploitation tothe resistance ruling an regime hadbeenlargely based onnational ideas arguments 1970s and 1980s,with liberal exception narrowthe of circles,and civilly-oriented Stojanovic,authoritarian, 2000)According“duringthe to rule. (Stojanovic one-party of socialist Yugoslavialike wasalso, in countries in other a structure CEE, of institutional politicaland structure the 1991; censorship. 2000)However, (Ramet Slapsak official to prone less and in CEE regimes socialist other the to comparison in initiatives system of one-party, authoritarian rule. (Gordy 1999) it a in remained actuality plurality), (multi-party regime of a liberal democratic features nationalism.Although nominally Serbia post-1989 1999)the (Papic showed apparent state- to state-socialism passagefrom the rather butdemocracy to state-socialism from passage a involve not did post-communism to communism from passage the however, of process andpolitical pluralismassuch. wasadvanced InSerbia, democratization Following Milosevic’s rise to power in andpolitical power institutional the Following rise 1987, Milosevic’s to Socialist Yugoslavia hadbeen more the development open to independentof civic 7 CEU eTD Collection 1999: 24) (Gordy republics” in forces and different regime anti between anti-war communication and fomenting and division when isunity needed” as“afor severing pretext as unpatriotic, “thetreasonous, with categorically opponents political ability to disqualify regime the wars provided the signified, they that that tragedy humanitarian incredible the avital constituted part of destructionthe of alternatives.” (Gordy 1999: 24)In addition to “the war where destroyed Yugoslavia, that the wars ininstigating mainrole the itsopposition owncadre of to allies.importantly, (Gordy Most 1999) regime the played limited their part visibility, public of co-opted and right-wingthe nationalist political and opponents political discredited media sources, important most the over control maintained results, election manipulated population, the depoliticized systematically regime The rule. overbearing its to alternatives all byresisting system parliamentary total monopoly of power.changed from socialism nationalism.to (Papic 1999) Itfundamentally outlook, the on was, systematically power its maintain to used regime the that ideology formed that where but the untouched almost regime remained communist of bases former the the structures institutional the preventedwhere state-nationalism, to state-socialism from the developmentpost-communism as communism in passagethe hence toshould Serbia be understood and theirto live right inof together (Stojanovicone state. 2000)Thepassage from a normal allegedpeople defense Serbian inits of the multi-party camouflaged adventof elections, consolidation of the power of the SKS, named the Serbian Socialist Party (SPS) in the Throughout 1990s, the regimethe maintain MilosevicSlobodan of managedto a 8 CEU eTD Collection from Papic (2000) Papic from 8 toward refraining the curtailmentand a stabilization of the Yugoslav state, autonomous women’s organizations that worked of women’s rightsa peacefulincluded thatsought movements pan-Yugoslav political of settlementdisputes and freedoms in theinitiatives These of regime. the power overbearing the to contextresistance of mobilizations of the exemplary provided also In addition initiatives other protests, tothe culture. political a democratic in furthering and resistance civil a of culture of development therolehighlights of in students’and 1991/1992and1996/1997 citizens’the protests the in she which (2005: 147), protests” of “history inSerbia asa the1990s characterizes Blagojevic state-nationalistauthoritarianism. to 1990s emergedasthelocus of resistance completely monopolized by one party and oneman, civil society in Serbiaduring the (2002: 128) representations.” symbolic their and roles, social identities, women’s of naturalization and instrumentalization, the“retraditionalization, she as calls what in handwith (1999:168) calls level atthepublic structural the emasculation men’s of power went hand preclude betweento equals.”Whatcompetitionof possibility any 2002:130) (Papic Papic himself except men all therefore and institutions, political all disempower to consistently worked beginning Milosevic “From the authoritarianism. state/nationalist/patriarchal and fundamental civicdisempowerment of 1990sasone during of context the Serbia describes thesocio-political Papic(1999) became Serbia during 1990s private. the justit as had happenedin regimes, civil in CEE undertotalitarian communist society Here, I borrow the term ethno-fascist nationalism to describe political situation inSerbia during the 1990s In this context where the ethno-fascist nationalist state nationalist ethno-fascist the where context this In In this context, with the realm of formal politics and decision-making bodies formal anddecision-making politics with of realm the In thiscontext, 9 8 pervadedpublic politics, CEU eTD Collection politics of nationalistthe (Susak2000) state. an it tothe posed alternative since bytheregime and discredited frequently attacked was and phenomenon urban exclusively almost an was initiatives pacifist and nationalist anti- society civil of development The organizations. intellectual independent and organizationscivil society, objectors, of conscientious developmentthe thatpromoted oflife and wellas of inYugoslavia demilitarization as deserters aspects all on aiding such as WiBrise in organizations worked toward ofnationalism anti-war that Serbia, 10 CEU eTD Collection peace movement “to be VISIBLE, not to be seen as something natural, as part of of our aspart natural, be seen notto beas something VISIBLE, “to movement peace deemed invisible. The women foundcamewho to WiB their wanted presencein the and wasfor becauseof model the granted inpeace groups taken patriarchal work women pervading themedia (Cockburn andswaggering streets the 2007:85) politics, dominating now militarism patriarchal of upsurge terrifying the against initiative outside the realm of the mainstream peace movement and formto a “specifically feminist in1994 Cockburn 2007:84) Thus theysawtheneedwar toorganizeresistance pacifist to patriarchal language and ignoring theinequalities between women and men.”(Zajovic any “the way models, peacemovementand that was…repeating using patriarchal certain in being addressed issues not of were gender movement, within peace the noticed that, WiB found to came who women The men. and women pacifist other with together worked they where in Serbia, movement peace mainstream in the part took first they 2002). centers. (Duhacek organizationthe feministof conferences and groups,andin foundationthe of women’s organizationthe had involved been in of production the feminist academicin scholarship, in avariety ways of differentof Women totheinception Blackprior Founders assuch. of foundersthe of WiB hadlong involved been the with feministmovementin Yugoslavia because start sincethe orientation feminist a clear with an haveorganization been WiB war. and militarism, nationalism, to response feminist a specific initiated WiB initiatives, II: Chapter A Initiative Peace Feminist For WiB activists, the peace movement was to certain extent replicating a replicating extent certain to was movement peace the WiB activists, For rather, se; per WiB in activities anti-war their begin not did WiB of founders The and pacifist anti-nationalist of society civil development thecontext of the Within 11 CEU eTD Collection 1999, 2002)By WiBacting aspublic subjects, political limitations the imposedby reject (Papic children. nation’s the of mothers as roles conventional their to return to them encouraging women, depoliticize to has attempted order thegender of reconfiguration place in with nationalistSerbia rise the of revivalism the since end of 1980s.the This has been an act of subversion by statement, bodilytheir presence” and a“conscious act of It subversion” (2002:120). to the reconfiguration of the gender order that Cockburn 2007) has taken before tradition inception the WiBthat of in was of in unheard (Mladjenovic Yugoslavia. over. (Fridmanon a regular 2006) basisvigils held they earlier, mentioned As during resistance. non-violent of form inthe WiB streets the to the war yearscreated and on especial a datestradition once the war period (in Mladjenovic and 2000:265,emphasis Hughes added). wasof women’s public political action, a from states, from other wheremurderersfrom I first Ilive state challenged the the confess…that andthen those “I Yugoslavia”: informer people for all the freedom, democracy peace, and the formyears for 1998, which oftheiractivism seven for of of a “confession guilttook they doas political deemed important to in subjects. As expressed WiB’s annual of report was what in involvedaction anti-war butratherbecause is “whatwomen becoming do,” for others because care to involvedbecoming action inanti-war not WiB original). were political choice” inMladjenovic (WiB and letters Hughes2000:262,capital in the woman’s role,” they “wanted it tobe clearly understood that what we were doing was our According to Duhacek, WiB’s presence in the street has been a “material street in the presence Duhacek,WiB’s to According In search forvisibility and as a way to assert theirpolitical subjectivity, WiB took because Iconsider this to beresponsible politicalbehavior ofa citizen 12 ” CEU eTD Collection survivors. bonds crimessolidarity 1990s(Fridman with warvictim the of of they 2006); also create in warsandthe historical Serbia inregardsto narrative memories tothe predominant war counter- offer only not they way, this In way. same exact the Srebrenica—in in genocide 10 July the of anniversary as the dates—such important they commemorate mourned all victimsthe of war. (Slapsak 2007)In 2001; Cockburn post-warperiod,the and war by brought destruction deadly the against warned they clothing black their banners, in black. (Cockburn 2007) Through carrying anddressedcompletely anti-war against the warsby protested makingin in Republic standing Square acircle,silence, years, they war the During history. Serbia’s into the1990s of war crimes wars and political unit activists are “building a model of citizenship that is based on responsibility role of an in accomplice and (Zajovic in warpropaganda” war 2002:120)WiB Duhacek them “identification with the states, with the male militaristic states means to assume the because for have state identification with the inrejected (Zajovic 2002)They Duhacek state. the and nation the to disloyal as their roles and accepted nation-state Serbian the against themselves explicitly have positioned inception the they of organization, the their name andby demanding for accountability warsfrom the Since Serbian the state. Yugoslavia, but above warsthatdestroyed the of by condemnation only not aswomen public their subjectivity all by taking responsibility their WiB of have traditional conceptions roles. gender political activists asserted for the wars that were committed in Through Through public commemorations, WiB work toward inscribing memory the the of they belong (Duhacek to.” 2006:214, emphasis in original)the 13 th for the for 1995 CEU eTD Collection Papic, “as to According ways. material and symbolic both in nationalism of discourse the within manipulated areusedand women byconsideringhow nationalism stanceagainst political antinationalism emerged asakey in WiB aclear group”(2007:87). took principle the clear and strong a soon but identity, ‘national’ and ‘nationalism’ on take their femininity for thepurposes of ethnic political (Cockburn 2007:88) power.” and “masculinity manipulate that ideologies as militarism, and nationalism of intersection values” (Cockburn 2007:88),between understood women who genderedthe nature of the similar with women between rather war, of victims as positioned similarly women this day.(Cockburn importantly,“they 2007) Most invoke sisterhood between didn’t with activists from all over former Yugoslavia and other parts of the world that persists to war bonds with other activists in the region and tocreate a network of women’s solidarity locatedYugoslavia, in so-called enemysides of conflict. (Cockburn 2007) live their identitiesmilitarist (Cockburn ideologues of be 2007:88)They toldtheir state. to refused howto and how to politicsrespond of namingwere being by andothering” that promoted nationalistthe and to those “the fell became WiB drawn, identities apartandsharply Yugoslavia rejected ethnic of others who were, rejected confinement the of identity their “Serb.” the category to (Cockburn 2007)As after the fallrejected patriarchal ofand essentialist notions of the category “woman,” they have also mothers, care-takers, and bearers of the nation’s children; in short, just like they have Just like WiB have persistently rejected the reduction of women to the roles of According to Cockburn, “in the early days they [WiB] were not unanimous in unanimous not were [WiB] they days early the “in Cockburn, to According pre- the maintain to effort explicit an made WiB collapsing, was Yugoslavia As insiders they are colonized and instrumentalist in their ‘natural’ functionin as instrumentalist their‘natural’ and the theyarecolonized 14 CEU eTD Collection “beyond rational” and were “a threat” in “a (Papic1999) of need control. and threat” were “beyond rational” in Serbianationalities other of women by bore children of numbers (i.e., high the about “worried” were they Roma, that time same the abortion—at to women Serbian of right the Albanians,contested virulently and church and Serbian Serbian governmentthe Orthodox 1990s,the InsideSerbia during the Muslims),thousands of menMuslim by women thewarin Serb during andHerzegovina.Bosnia whose birthratesof women’ they instrumentalization andidentity.” cultural Papic (2002:128)According most to dramatic (1999),the example claimed were target of the of men’s instruments asmediated againstother national violence destruction, as“as and birth ‘machines’” and sacrednation’s as ‘essence’ outsiders was the incidence of systematic rape of 15 outsiders they are reified into reified are they CEU eTD Collection connections international with networks.solidarity In of 1998 following outbreak the WiB’s sever asaway to avariety WiB a means of through Network International the (Zajovic 2007:50)Between 1992 and purposefully state 2000,the meetingsfrustrated of of frightening,threatening, blackmail [sic], breaking and solidarity cohesion.”and group “asaform police interrogation to subject were twelve WiBactivists over period, this first declarations following their actions in street several In opportunities. addition, throughout From faced they illegitimatealso1993 onwards, legal against proceedings their public one occasion unlawfully banned toconducthumanitarian inwork camp.a refugee (1995) and denial of criminal (Zajovicreality” 2007:49) between 1991and 2000,WiB in were crimeof likethe WiB.Inthiscontext as“state-organized others—such activists anti-war consequently for lack whileblaming wars the of claimedalleged an responsibility promoted a denial of its belligerent reality2008). by claiming that Serbia of leadernationalistminister Kostunica’s present asprime the Vojislav (2003- upto was not at war and and assassination followingand period election the Djindjic Djindjic’s (2000-2003), Zoran prime minister murder of democratically-elected the and regime of Milosevic the fallSecession between andfall the period the Milosevic regimethe the of (1991-2000), phases identifiedin order: chronological periodthe comprising the WarsYugoslav of distinct three into divided be can and interwoven are years the throughout endured have Chapter III:ThreePhases of Repression state the repression of period first the during Zajovic (2007), Accordingto Women in and Back repression Zajovic social state that the According to (2007), 16 CEU eTD Collection legacy—a legacy entrenched in the institutions of the country country inatthe ofthe in and persons the institutions the legacy entrenched legacy—a in “the ousterof government, Milosevic in bringOctober 2000didnot anendtohis February the change 2003. Despite dropped until not regime were them by Milosevic the initiated against been had that proceedings financial legal the sametime, atthe Belgrade; of outside activities their of promotion the fear” 2007:52)and (Zajovic of “disburdening actions butalso socially stigmatized andcriminalized. (Zajovic 2007) during street physical anti-war their verbal to andattacks subject only WiB not were level, At social from the expelled 1991-2000period,the during (Zajovic 2007) Serbia. were volunteers WiB international while apartments, their of some in bugs of installation and phone-calls, monitoring of search, secret apartment to weresubject WiB activists organization’s materials by confiscated documentation and was SSS.In the addition, through financialAlsoWiB an during this warrant. werecriminalized arrest through period, prosecuted control,detention theinterrogations by the Serbian State Security passport(SSS), one of them was subject toillegitimate and torture of one WiB caught(Zajovic 2007; andMladjenovic 2000). Hughes fromactivist this be thatshould inner organizationsWiB enemies” as“Serbia’s human other and rights as wellsamethe labeled who Seselj, Vojislav parliament as Serbian the of member right-wing somestatenationalist of theentity, through a public which statement, followed by was aggressiverhetoricthe of extreme- while anti-warother WiB peacegroups groups. condemned andother this governmentban twoviolence inKosovo, governmentthe banned ananti-war rally organized byWiB and WiB activists were During the period of the Djindjic government (2000-2003), WiB experienced(2000-2003), a Djindjic government of Duringthe period the Between June and WiB September 2000,several daily activiststo weresubject 17 CEU eTD Collection December 10 on Day Rights Human International days—including significant on actions street Since(2007:53). 2003,WiB been have unjustifiably banned from conducting avariety of previousmethods (Milosevic’s) from period wererehabilitated regime, as that well” repressive measures taken against them both at the social but most important, state, level. the in a renewal experienced WiB Kostunica, Vojislav of power to rise the and Djindjic levels institutions.” highest Following (Fridman those of of assassination the 2006:293) the Bosnian war and demanded for responsibility and accountability from for and Serbian the Bosnian from the responsibility demanded warand accountability men inand end the BosniaandHerzegovina,in theof Srebrenica, town July 1995at of 10 the commemorated like This WiBwhowereinvolved incalled the “Facing a campaign Past.” campaign intimidation and by partiesstate non-state conducted against humanrights organizations and harassment systematic of a campaign of part were Apparently, they 2005. October this alleged offenses (Amnesty International Zajovic2005; 2007). also had unannounced from visits the main officers police to ofWiBin office regardsto at the Ministry of Internal Affairs and atthe Economic Crimes Department and they have police interrogations and hearings in Departmentthe of Organized Crime Prostitution and crimethe of fororganization Consequently,women of prostitution. have they undergone of financialbeen irregularitiesaccused and have investigationson to subject unjustifiably been have they importantly, Most offenses. legal of accused been have they and WiB main of office the to officers of police visits intimidation through state to subject been the of representatives of rehabilitation the “parallel to byZajovic, stated As These incidents were particularly prominent between the months of April and April of months the between prominent particularly were incidents These th 2004 and International Women’s 2004and International March Day on 8 th year anniversary of year anniversaryof genocidethe Bosnian Muslim boys of 8000 18 th 2005. Also, they 2005.Also,they have CEU eTD Collection degree of ghettoization of WiB and separated us from (Zajovic usfrom participation.” public WiB separated and degree of of ghettoization increased an to led protection this of forms some that “think WiB time same At the WiB. campaign inanincrease resulted of in custody police all actions street the organizedof by in defenders human Serbia.This increaserights theprotection of to Serbian state (Zajovic attackers. the Fridman 2006; Amnesty 2007; 2005) International against the WiBpressed chargesthat violence by ignoring blatantly condoned this police tothe 10 prior 9 November on Anti-Semitism and Fascism Against Day International the of celebration yearsa commemoration in10 of genocide sincethe and Srebrenica, during apublic prosecuted forSad demanding warcrimesbe those Haguetribunal, tothe sent that during duringSrebrenica in actionWiB attacked were in activists astreet 1995. In 2005, Novi since genocidenine of in the years in public the andduring commemoration Serbia ofmosques attack and non-Serbs violence andthe therise inKosovo action of opposing during WiBwere astreet attacked Amnesty (ZajovicInternational 2005) In 2004, 2007; 9 Obraz including organizations clerical-fascist and nationalist extreme with affiliated individuals to, limited not but actors—including, bynon-sate andthreats attacks physical and media harassment to subject been have Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. (Amnesty International 2005) theformerSocialist of in territory the committed warcrimes and wars forthe state Obraz means “honor” in Serbian. in “honor” means Obraz th . They . They also threatening received numerous phone-calls intheir during office the days In 2005, Amnesty launchedInternational aninternational campaign requesting the At socialthe level,power of since therise WiBto in Kostunica Vojislav 2003, th anniversary of in Srebrenica. genocide the anniversary the Inseveral of occasions, 19 9 and the Fatherland Movement of Serbia. of Movement Fatherland the and CEU eTD Collection on March 8 10 (2007:54) inhibitfrighten,WiB”individuals join exhaust aswellto and to organization.the Serbian government over human rights defenders like WiB that aim to “discredit, the of repression planned and show continued the evidenceto serve as events these 2008. 8 Women’s Day on March International of incelebration peace march and performance a WiB banned out associationscarrying from of wereunjustifiably opposition the and skinheads from upon night election party organizedreturn an byacoalition andof parties by were attacked twoWiBactivists in Most2007 recently, January been subjectto. have Serbia like WiB by notdid meansan socialany to the put end repressionstate and they faced rights byhuman ofthe2007) Theinternational problems in defenders recognition 16 March Day on Women’s International for planned had they activities the out carry to protection police and commemoration of International in Women’sactions street Day where 2008 Europe werein city forbidden. capital only the WiB was wereBelgrade finally property. public granted permissionand safety public The Belgrade police refused to grant WiB a permit to carry out a street performance and a peace march apeace and performance street a out carry to apermit WiB grant to refused police Belgrade The th 2008 (WiB, personal correspondence). 10 (Danasin WiB2007;WiB,According personal Zajovic, correspondence). to th on the alleged basis that the street performance and the march would constitute a threat to a threat constitute would march the and performance street the that basis alleged onthe 20 th CEU eTD Collection actors and the capacity of an actor to underline its uniqueness and be distinguished by be uniqueness and distinguished its underline to actor an of and capacity the actors an from differentiate actor that theboundaries other Itestablishes range ofsituations. themselves partof a common unity.” (Melucci 1996:70-71) and and makedecisions,” “emotionalinvestment…which feel individualsenables to negotiate, each other, influence communicate, whointeract, actors between relationships of means,“a concerning of definitions action,” ends, andfields network active “involvesof place.” process cognitive The collective isaction identity (1996:70) totake such which in constraints and opportunities of field the and action their of orientations the level) groupsatamoreconcerning by complex individuals (or produced a numberof in ofcontention. ofkind this narratives participation from their elucidated be will activist feminist anti-militarist, anti-nationalist, of identity collective andhence sharethe activists feminist anti-militarist, anti-nationalist, men become and participants in atsocialsome effort in change.” women (cited Gecas 2000:99-100)How co- by shared adefinition with engaged becomes are they who of sense individuals’ how “the between mesh individual the systems. specifically, More and cultural the is question as by Gamson and andsolidarity” interests common members’ its from derives that group identity,collective is (1989), “the as succinctly defined by sharedTaylor definition ofa A formation. identity collective of aprocess represents activism feminist militarist, empirical findings toelucidate in order how in participation anti-nationalist, anti- Anti-Militarist, Feminist Activist Chapter IV: The Collective Identity of Anti-Nationalist, According toMelucci,identity appears usually as given and across continuous a is andshareddefinition an interactive identity Melucci,“collective to According In this chapter, I present a variety of different theories in conversation with my 21 CEU eTD Collection activism as paramount to their existence. their to asparamount activism of narratives from activists’ becan formation elucidated identity of process collective which its members recognize themselves and arerecognized.” (1996:75) of individuals, itdefines requisitesthe for joining the ‘movement’, and the criteria by membership the It regulates its environment. social respectto with limits actor of the the ensures the continuity and For Melucci,of (1996:74) “collective contextstudy inthe conflict.” identity SMs of the permanence of the movement of subjects their withstand action and to thebreakdown of social inducedrelations by over time”as themselves affirm to them andenables other each to “itindividuals ties that establishes solidarity it…the guarantees and identity “reinforces collective ofthe members among solidarity actors, Melucci,1996:73) According in to contextof the confrontation oppositional with other mean(which opposition) by can also social (Melucci denial or other and actors” political itsconstruct its identity recognition independently of cannot actor ‘others’…a collective mustdistinguish by from berecognized ability others itself to these actor a collective of exist. “The to in order social recognition necessitates italso sametime, atthe collectives; elucidation. The process of collective identity allows actors to act as autonomous of inneed itis a process butdynamic actually situations, transcends phenomenon that others. The notion of a collective identity also appears as a given and as a continuous of society;this I don’t feel an like island. interested; I’m not interested inthat.’ Somehow it makes me alive, Ifeel that I am apart For me it is really importantZorica,For not to be passive. I couldn’t just look and say a represents activism ‘I’manti-nationalist anti-militarist, not in participation much How 22 CEU eTD Collection the rolethe thatsocial playnetworks in of process the developmentof a political function, astructural-connection function, and adecision-shaping function. (Passy 2003) fundamental functions in the process of participation into a SMO: a socialization have three networks Social repression. social of roleconditions under important more even an play they but in democracies mobilization SM of factor important an action.” are people involved)networks to take (Passy Social eventually prompt 2003:22) individual risk of the of action, costs success, chances (e.g. andperceptions preferences individual when end very the at and participation for potential create that identities thisthroughout entire atthebeginningby building process, andreinforcingindividual identity. “intervene They collective of rolea play in a paramount construction the process of how people decide to join and remain as part of a SMO, and hence they also According to Passy (2003), social networks are in importance networks Passy of the social primary According to (2003), you feel really autistic, like closed. don’t care, I’m going to take care of my cats and my boyfriend and nothing else” but then don’t feel autisticenvironment around me, to talk withpeople isaroundthat me in my everyday narrow life […]I very when some change to least at something, I do to have do just I So life. love something.I live, Sometimeschoice, Idon’t like it, if I quit, would I commit suicide? No, Idon’t want to, Iwant to of course onworld and the other if hand I quit”it,I say “I hate I’ve youdone What’snothing. your get tired and[I have] This very general motivation:say [foractivism]: Idon’t want to live thisin kind of“I Ana,For way. inthat belong, I like feel I somewhere is this and else, anywhere belong somewhere because I couldn’t fit anywhere else, actually all my life, Icouldn’t fit I like feel I […] somewhere belong I like feel I now and anywhere belong myself find [Activism] issomethingIfind myselfsomething in, where I belong. Actually,couldn’t I Jelena, For On the one hand, the socialization function of social networks refers primarily to 23 CEU eTD Collection the mid-1980sthe she onwards, became involved with andwomen’s in feminist groups conference in Central-Eastern Europe. Upon her definitive return to Serbia from Italy in feministfirstfeminists otherfrom Belgrade the in with two organized she 1978,together with politically-consciousfeminist groupsof journalists, artists, and inItaly writers and, student organizations whilein feminism.and finally,university,She became involved oriented left-wing then music, roll ‘n rock through mainly movement hippie the joined whileby livinginItaly, inthestudents’ participating then demonstrations of 1968. She ageof the 14, at activist became apolitical me.” She and activities parents’ political my between “continuity sees she and occupation Nazi the during youth communist very background.” and were from political Jasmina’sparents partof a Icome the in evidentbecomes joining creating of theirnarratives activists’ pathtoward or WiB. activist anti-militarist anti-nationalist, feminist, of identity collective a of formation 2003:24) Thesocialization function of as networks social facilitating the process of (Passy issue.” protest agiven towards consciousness political solidifies or and creates interpretive frames, facilitates process the of identity-building andidentity-strengthening, networkslocation “enables ofindividuals in define andthem specific redefineto their involvein inactions (Somers2003:24)The reality.” Passy 1992 that this perceived them cognitive frames, thereby social interpretenabling them to definereality and to asetof “thatinindividualsnetworks specificidentities buildand andshape solidify actors’ the consciousnessindividuals of developstoagreat extentin interactions withtheir other consciousness, creating social actors’ dispositions to participate in a SM. The political To begin with Jasmina, one of the founders of WiB, “politics is part of my life my of part is “politics WiB, of founders the of one Jasmina, with begin To 24 CEU eTD Collection children victims of domesticraising in mid-1980s. groups the SOShotline 1990, she the co-founded In for women and violence. Sheshe joined publicgroups discussion on women’s issues and women-only, consciousness- was one of the organizers involved Woman with andat thebeginning Also Society at theendof 1981. 1980s, the of of the Women’s sheLater on, became and place elsewhere. in Belgrade took that students’ protests in she participated the such. WiB In1968, prior origination networks as of tothe activist Action until she co-founded WiB. conscientiousprovidingsupport to and objectors in wardeserters Centerforthe Anti-War initiatives inall Yugoslavof the Army participated the (JNA), war, she against National SOS hotlinefeminists that up for women set victims of domestic violence. On brinkthe inthe in feminist and in1990participated groups Society,Yugoslavia, of one first the institutions During of state. the the 1980s, she became Woman involved with and University, aninitiative of dissidentprofessors and students that was banned from the During thistime,movementshe dissidentthe through became involved with Open the inwas also anti-nationalist,‘n which musicplayed roll rock amajorprotest of role. by joiningmovement the dissident against communist the regime inYugoslavia which in inher whensheactivism. activism the 1970s, wasastudent began university, the She family” and she also felt the anti-fascist “a from very comes WiB.She influenceof formation the to prior of activism a life-time of the 1968 student protests as a catalyst for her via WiB. activism political in anti-war engaged she power, to came Milosevic When Yugoslavia. Similarly, Lina, also one of the co-founders of WiB, had significant experience in experience WiB,hadsignificant of of co-founders one the Lina,also Similarly, WiB,had of founders the of andalsoone WiB’scoordinator Stasa, Jasmina, Like 25 CEU eTD Collection domestic violence. In 1990s,the she founded theAutonomous Women’s Center. ingroups From she 1986. a these groups, co-founded SOS hotline victims for women of discussion in groups beginningthe of 1980s and the women-only consciousness-raising, from thatoriginated public women’s groups conference—namely, discussions this inin 1978,whichwas“a involved Yugoslavia inherlife,shegot point” turning with feminist then.After attendingdidn’t understand conference too first the waspolitics” that before warperiod. the Shewas, however, “reallyinto this injustice against women—I originated. WiB from yearsand which forthree stayed she Action, where for Anti-War Center permitand countries war. the to tosecedewithout In 1990,she with becameinvolved the constitutional a with involved became she initiative war, of brink the on was Yugoslavia When Parliament. that intended to press became politically involved in Women’s the in Party; the1991, she co-founded theWomen’s government to renew involved feminist and with the groups with Woman andin Society In particular. 1990, she constitution herwhich town had been intoa pensioners’converted club. During the 1980s she became inback get youth aspacefor the fighting to inhigh-school, whenshe was career activist her started War.She World Second the evenbefore activists werepolitical her parents of both where family, her from activism” that inherited “somehow She such. as WiB of from WiBwhich originated. the Women’s Party they inParty 1990 and Women’s the in Onthebrink Parliament 1991. war, togetherwith of joined the first peace group, the Center for Anti-War Action, Lepa, also one of the co-founders of WiB, was not involved in politics at all life the origination involved had Zoricabeenher with to alsoall prior activism of 26 CEU eTD Collection joining WiB. She had beeninvolved in organizationthe independentof an workers’ and byvolunteering afterwards specific one for camp refugee nearby his town. becoming involved in an educational for refugeesproject in several Serbiaaround towns them. collaboration with some of the parties of the opposition even when notjoining any one of Milosevic primarily her regime, activitiesthrough as a journalist and through her from an early age. During the 1990s, she was active in the political opposition against the with politics she so became acquainted a feminist, mother was also her and communists the1990s. throughout against Milosevic regime the protests in involved was constantly citizens’ per sebutthe joinorganization not anycivilsociety in 1990s,shethe did Duringof Yugoslavia. war one of the founders of WiB and Ana joined them in their activities since the start. mother was Her and others. Lina, byLepa, been hadco-founded that violence domestic of victims children and women for hotline SOS the for volunteer a became she school, high- end wereshutdown. Atthe of protests student after the started University that members were students’ of the of protests 1968 andof organizersthe part of Open the They born. was she before activists political were parents her of both because evolution,” For Ana, to become interested in politics was a somehow “a spontaneous in rather was asomehow becomeAna,interested politics For to Snezana,joinedWiB who in had involved been 2005, also with to activism prior Boban, whojoinedin WiB of 2001,had experience firstby activism political were her parents Both of “born political.” inWiB, joined 1999,was who Marija, joined whoNevzeta, on WiBin1999,becameinvolved inactivism outbreak the 27 CEU eTD Collection LGBT community organized in the near most university. When inmost she university. in near college, LGBT the organized community part of herinWhile upbringing. high-school, inthe she participated activities of the was conscious sotobepolitically Party, in Democratic active the been have politically parents her of Both WiB. joining to prior activism of experience significant had months, Center. Law Humanitarian the in work to used mother her and journalist a political is father with political activism as both her parents have been involved with political activism. Her Network – Network WiBof in Serbia tojoiningprior WiB as such. is Women’s that partof Peace the inBelgrade,anorganization Center Trafficking students. Upon her return from Bulgaria, she joined WiB. in amore tocreate discussions order structureddialog Serband between Albanian Central in WhileEastern Europe. studentsorganized Bulgaria,and she andother panel body attend university from in student Bulgariawas primarily the 2000 to where there formerin Zagreb, and Yugoslavia with shemovedoffices Belgrade, until Pristina to organization called the Post-Pessimists, which was a network of young people across joiningexperience to prior WiBassuch. Whileshe was inhigh-school, shejoined an daughter of one of foundingthe members of the organization hadand alsoactivist in herhomeof Kruzevac. town organization non-governmental feministof creation a union women’s supported that issues, especially Roma issues, women’s as in well as the Katie, an American volunteer who has been involved with WiB for the past seven past the for WiB with involved been has who volunteer American an Katie, months,“grewup” pasteight forinvolved WiBbeen has the with Magda, who Adam, who became involved with WiB in wasinvolved2005, with Anti-the Nadja,has whobeeninvolved WiBin with aconsistent basis since is2005, the 28 CEU eTD Collection SMO becomes clear from activists’ account of how they came to create WiB but even WiB but create to howthey came of account activists’ from clear becomes SMO play joina SMO.Thefunction to people in networks connecting social that structurally a acquaintances—play or a “mediatingand betweena participant role” movementpotential opportunitieslinks for to participation. aSMO—suchasfamily members,friends, Ties to participationto in a SMO has topeople already involved with a SMO are fundamental a person iswho already the predisposed that ties In this context, 2003:24) action.” (Passy with a SMOanopportunity “convertto concreteinto their toparticipate dispositions activities of a SMO, such as vigils and street performances, offer individuals identifywho long as isnothere it opportunity for to be convertedinto action.” (in Passy 2003:24) The Fishbeininitial will participate (1980),“the unrealized latentto disposition or remain as and Ajzen to According aSMO. join actors social make to suffice not does movement, SMO. Passy argues thatSMO. Accordingidentification to Passy, this function precedesa into the actors social actual of action integration of process of the involvement facilitating in with play with networks social a that a specific SM, such as the women’s peace for threeyearsSerbia tojoining prior WiBas such. in ofWiB –Network PeaceNetwork isof Women’s the part that a feminist organization WiB. shejoined experience, following persons.Theyear provided this for Mexico border that undocumented services in theyear an for US- from organization shespenta volunteering college, graduation andof Peace Initiative. Students’ the Upon participated inafeministgroup wasco-leader The structural-connection function of social networks refers primarily to the role Jelena, who became involved with WiB in 2007, hadbeen involved with Sunglas, 29 CEU eTD Collection “push haveand pullfactors intervened, (respectively, socialization andlinkages structural formation of an anti-militarist, anti-nationalist,feminist identity. According Passyto after of a process in represents participation how WiB of inthe study into consideration take shaping function ofsocial is networks most relevantperhaps the to function of networks playnetworks in actualizingparticipation social actors’ into aSMO.The decision- Magda, For Jelena, For and Magda on how they came to join the organization. Jelena of accounts the from instance, for be seen, can founders the than other activists of participation the facilitating in networks social of role The friendship. of ties common SOS Hotline for women and children victims ofdomestic violence, as well through as the or Action for Anti-War Center in the jointfrom activism instance, organization—for other; linkedthey were prior structurally specificthrough totheinception networks of the more so of how they came to join WiB after its foundation. The founders all knew each The third, decision-shaping, function of social networks refers to the role social how to get in. to join a long time and I said “yeah, sure.” Because I wanted it, Ijust didn’t know exactly wanted to go to a meeting to see her about something and then Stasa asked me if I wanted I thought of joining and a family friend, a neighbor, is a member for a long it. time about something do can and I interested infundamentalism and nationalism and I wanted to learn more and to see ifI fundamentalism before I met them [WiB] and that’s why I wanted to go to WiB, Iwas them [WiB]time last year in July. Iwas in aperformance of Srebrenica and Iwent to Srebrenica with alsoI met here, now we are bestand friends, feminismshe actually, to learnwas more about feminism I in and my WiBfriend from here, Marina,andgot whom she took me there I came herefor firstinterested [to Sunglas] andthe this was the firstfirst place where I get intouchwith in their work, actually I got interested in 30 CEU eTD Collection participate in participate notthis are of kind activism by only shaped beliefs, butalsoactivists’ by to Decisions activists. WiB feminist anti-nationalist anti-militarist, of narratives the from which influence individuals’ decisions to participate in a SMO. (Passy 2003:26) contributesmeanings tothedefinition that individual preferences”of perceptions or their self-positioning within world…Social this createandrelations a structure of sustain constant work of definition and redefinition of the social world by individuals, as well as maximizing behavior. The decision becometo involved in a SMO isshaped by“the and self-interested, mere goal-oriented, human than action is more to fact there that the notice of takes SMOs. Thephenomenological paradigm into mobilization understanding inherent inbehavior of (Passy others.” 2003:25) the rationalist conceived instrumental as“individuals primarily decideand the strategically according to are social networks context, this behavior.maximizing In and self-interested, intentional, primarily as conceived is action human in which theory, choice rational of premises paradigm from networks social function of the the decision-shaping paradigm conceptualizes rationalist the hand, one the On standpoints. phenomenological and rationalist from and thus presents of itself protest the and theirwillingness own action.” totake (2003:25) various parameters by assessing process adecision-making undertake political contention a betterinvolvement with a SMO. (2003:24)frameworkwith opportunity the mobilization)”for participants in potential a SMOdecideon their For Passy, “those who are ready to join a specific for The decision-shaping function of social networks becomes particularly evident particularly becomes networks social of function decision-shaping The On otherthe hand, thephenomenological paradigm thelimitationsaddresses The of beendecision-shaping networks function social both has conceptualized 31 CEU eTD Collection narratives below: narratives activists’ the of examples from seen be can as activist, feminist anti-militarist, nationalist, anti- of identity collective the strengthening and in creating role paramount a plays networks social of function decision-shaping the context, this In it. of outside others with through the ties that activists’ share among themselves within the organization as well are created that belonging as and recognition, support, solidarity, community, senseof the there with them and I recover, I go there every once in a while. When I am tired of tired am I When a while. in once every there go I I recover, and them with there one of the most gratifying things. When I reach a great desperationsatisfaction that we have with the community here of victims,[in who Serbia],recognize us, for meit is I go wishes these share andI whom with people here—the I’m why is that lot—and a I this respect hand, wish of everything. Most peoplejustice [here] make me angry I don’tand respect On them. theother forcannot the livevictims, in a countryelse, and it is everything,therethat makesa lot […] If I can’t is mefight, so1991, I nothingdo I nothaveangry, live no motive,in this country, only wherethis. because Only this else. I andpeople the peopleif I withdon’t whom make I dodo […] this,this. nothingme I havesoThe livedangry heregreat I can’talland liveof withoutmy life doing but this; I haveI can’t nolive reason here [in Serbia], to live Stasa, for Similarly, I havehere, no motive after to live here womensurvive this war time […] not alone. I isolated myself […] and I didn’t feel at all well. So this activism really helped In war time it was many Lina women for Similarly, needed because the feeling was much better if you aredone […] I met womenwho were really goodwe and put our energies together […] be could something that Black, in Women like me, like people other were there realized going crazy, ofkind political work, because the during wars if you don’t do anything youfeel like really.do refugees, the help opinions, of kind these exchange we could and meetings had we This waswould have gone crazy or Iwould have gone on exile. Withthe a thing like Women in Black onlyWomen in Blackplace was the only safe place,that if it hadn’t Jasmina, For during warperiod,I the beencould for Women in Black I feelthink I alright with myself. I 32 CEU eTD Collection For Snezana,For […] lot of people aroundsomething me and I wholike [it] change to I want […]have of them. I knowpart a be to try asto not onethe here person enough too I have cannot samesomething, change theideas world but I haveand a we can womentry to changein the somethingage,in the way that I wantbut to be free […] I feel now them they[WiB] like my family […] They are have energyThis [WiB] is maybe some safeto place fightfor me, but not on the Adam, victim andFor side, I I feelsee free here, that if they want to changeactually youcheers up, gives you some energy […] things are going horribly wrong, that yousee you and news the watch goyou to because thatworried youget place Sometimes difference.’ and you talk to some women and it a made speak you hearing great, was you ‘that tell and in come who and ago years lecture or workshop your heard have who people into bump you when helps it sometimes maybe different times youfeel thatwhat you aredoing as an activist is not enough and then like to spend time with them, evenapart from activism or anything like that […] At helping someone […] They [WiB] are also nice people and I like to hang out with them, I WiB][With I like ideathe that Iam doing something for thepublic good, thatI’m Nadja,For temperamental organization […] very a is it because organization, the support can I and me support me and help tired, and I need only people with a similaropinion. WiB is really organizationwhich can about war and war crimes becauseand Mladic, it was and very Karadzic, importantI find my place with similar andopinions [in WiB], withforpeopleSlobodan with asimilar opinion,me. Because Milosevic, I ForwasNevzeta, so I wastired so to explain to other people together, and putting together solidarity bonds […] them putting indignations, these gathering wego as long as motive, I seeno here. knowing that it isalost cause. Can itbe a lostcause? Yes.But Isee no motive to live We resist together. Solidarity in the struggle, that is the most important thing forme, am not scared. That is the most important thing: to have people say “we do not let them.” […] If I see that people do not resign relationship human themselvesequal almost an created we have because them, with and Irest thateverything, they don’t become apathetic, I 33 CEU eTD Collection hence cognition and emotions asirremediably Calhoun opposite. argues thatrather than much of Western thought has been founded and which posits thinking andfeeling and flawed perspective may stem from long-standingthe mind/body dualism upon which this that argues Calhoun “abnormal.” activism and norm the becomes society where reifies a notion of social activism as social deviant behavior and establishesview This a dichotomy elucidation. further of worthy not and “irrational” merely as behavior activists’ may behavior that dismiss a and“irrational” “rational” dichotomy between creates seriously emotions take to action of sociology rationalistic incapacity a of the that argues differentsolidarity actions.as well tomotivate movement catalysts Calhoun as correctly group for vehicles as serve also may they and movement a join to people emotions motivate may movements, social In action. social motivating factors as seriously emotions has taking in avoided that bias sociology rationalistic the criticizes Calhoun participation. mobilization. SM in play emotions that role the to paying attention of perception, without matter partina SMOasa take decision to the conceptualizes still paradigm—she phenomenological the it—namely, to alternative network paradigmandevenwhen she amoresocial sophisticated rationalistoffers limited tool to analyze participation in a SMO. Even when Passy is critical of the The social networks paradigmisby although networks auseful The Passy (2003) offered social same place when you when talk, you feel free and I think that is important […] different,like gay people, […]Ithink lesbians that’sok, because peopleall havethe peace and democracyus, with connection the and that’s think I freedom and democracy and peace is which connection, same […] This is the group the openedbut wehave woman different very it’s and forconnection special very a We have the[…] people who are According Calhoun to (2001) emotions play afundamental in role SM 34 CEU eTD Collection participation both participation duringboth thewar and after period: their regarding accounts activists’ from seen be can as members, by them to brought those reflect only not and emotions produce movements that point Calhoun’s emphasizes indignation, and helplessness through the medium of pro-creative action, which anti-militarist,feminist venuefeelings transform provides a of activism to anger, activists’ narratives of their involvement with thisfrom type of evident contention. becomes identity Anti-nationalist,collective feminist anti-militarist an anti-nationalist, of construction the in facilitating hence and activism feminist anti-militarist nationalist, members.” (2001:55) produce emotions; they do not simply reflect emotional orientations brought to them by that“movements sameAtthe Calhoun argues actions.time, actors’ hence indetermining as relational,be worldviews—andinfluencing in interpreted eachother shaping actors’ should, antagonisticwith understanding alongperception, emotionscognition andas they working, you get to are know you more, not onlypractice you with get to know,because being active youunderstand, learndon’t more,you you and get to helpless feeling of really sort are you with my time, Iwas not working, Ididn’t know what to do, Imean before you startbeing active the WiB wasI in some kind of agony: Ididn’t know what was going on, I didn’t knowbefore what to beginning do the in I remember that before because war the survive me helped really [WiB] Lepa, for Similarly, […] it stop would something when thewar started, Icouldn’t eat, I was watching the news every hour hoping that don’t sit there and eat yourself from inside.just Iwasyou shortly upset,life, but Iwasown reallyyour upset about something do you because activist, an became I depression with the cruelty of the society, with the lies, this is like the only place; coming out of Women in Black saved me fromJasmina, warperiod,For the during going mad, because I was going mad with depression, The role that emotions play in motivating activists into participation in anti- 35 CEU eTD Collection For Marija, For […] for? what then thing,, responsible very strong. And if you don’t have that indignation thatis the mostyou important make as a motive […]it All the intoWomen in Blacka haveproactive this indignation, that and aggression, the and crimes the before indignation the indignation, the was founders] motives, butbecause of moral and emotional motives […] What united us all [the If you ask me why Stasa, For I have founded Women in Black,passive […] it is not becausesomehow important formy life to do whateverI can do, not to feel totally ofhelpless and ideologicalstreets, people, cars, weon andgo toI wasschool just goes life normal, is andso everything like seemed 100 it angryhand other the on and km nearby very starting awaybecause killing it was started like a sort[…]in school I atthat time,offelt secondary a schooltheater, andit all seemed it so bizarre, becausewas the war was everythingjoined them [WiB] together is with my mother sowe wentregular: there, these standings […]I was against it, so if that’s the least thing I can do, then I’manything going to do that, at least.so So I atjust leastIt you was can showlike, your attitude,I Ana, for Similarly, don’t that know, that is notI want done in tomy name,do something empowerment,I’m personal is political becomes a really good moment in that […] butpublic you it givesfeel you cornerreally back invisibly, the it’s a circle: energy youhelpless are doing somethingthatdoing, you empowered are becausefor you been haven’t helpless you and been the haven’t onesitting in youpublic and byhave doingto this actmore fordo the forceagainst fascism, it’s important. And then this givestopolitics back your the to force that this is survive meaning right what youpublic are gives that others, of the front in standing inblack, in thesebody, your bad times. It’sThere different. that’s square, main arethe on body your with out other going are you if but that, knows nobody people who are againstvisibility to your general politics: if you are against the regime and yougives are sitting that in and the youryourself kitchen,for and others the about care that regime activities pro-creative into helplessness and nobody knows.is really difficult to exist like that […] so it gives meaning, you are transforming yourAnd guilt and when youbum yourself with guilt, you bum yourselfgo with shame, youwith bum yourself with helplessness and it and beforepeople, other with involved are you because on we going is what of organizedmore understand you more, know you are really like sitting here not knowing what to do. And then you 36 CEU eTD Collection evident in the account of activists’ involvement with WiB. with involvement activists’ of account in the evident particularly becomes This values. same their hold that collectivities to people connect to identitiespeople based onvalues the whoshare samehave the same capacity ethnicity), identificationpromote and solidarity whobelong with people (such samethe to group as direction lives.”to our (2000:94)Heargues whileidentitiesthat may based on groups fundamental identity of sources location, “since values givemeaning,and purpose, these, Gecasnation or social argues class),professional in occupation), terms of location intheir specific(such groups as a specific as well thatas in areterms inofvalues theirterms collective they who sense of definePeople their inin participation aSMO. concept of analysis the of theirand identities. socialvalue important inandhence arean viapeople participation aSMO extremely develop the In additionroles systems (suchto that identities collective the to central are identities value Gecas (2000), to According as formation. theiridentity in collective role afundamental are play identities value networks, position perhaps within onetheir offamily the or mosttheir In addition to the socialization and the decision-shapingfunction of social moment. the at living is he where world the or society the ok in feel doesn’t he because suffering, is orher him because is it changes, revolutionary changes, of kinds those for looking is someone If today. society the in feel safe we don’t because it’s changes, revolutionary wanted Christianity the in even history, see in can we as ofchanges kinds those for looking is who everyone and society in changes revolutionary demanding are that ones the are representing are WiB that things, emotions and politics, go together, that’s my point of view. The political values don’t have to think all ineconomic way orpolitical you way do you, to something, for so good thoseis it two if yourself for decide will you of view, point emotional an from it are trying to divide those two things; if you want to get a very good job you will also see in society you can divide political values from emotional values, only in capitalism they emotional point of view and anemotional aspect in our activities. It’s foolishto say that The political values of WomenBlack in and my political values necessarily have an 37 CEU eTD Collection making and the evaluation guide decision of situations, states being specific transcend of modes that conduct or of events,desirable about beliefs or “defined asconceptions are values because precisely situation and are ordered by overlooked. Heargues relativeidentities that basedonvaluesremainregardless constant of the importance.”be to not differences significant are there same atthe time, identities; kinds of and other (Gecas According to Gecas, there is clearly an overlap between identities based on values on based identities between overlap an isclearly there Gecas, to According they were doing it[…] knew that this organizationwas something that I really agreed withtheir mission and how doing it, or Iagree with their mission or agree withpart of it orsomething like that and I somethingthan rather that doing are they what in believe and in believe I really could I agree that organization with what an was it that knew I theyBelgrade in here before them about I read what arerespected doing but I am not Blacksure about inhow theythe thatare I reallyUS believeand things are things of those both in andanti-militarist, I’d military, I’vethe against I’m and believedfeminist a I’m heard in for a while. Andof since I themheard WiBbecause with tobecomeKatie,involved For chose she of Women in already here and whatit starts and what are the warning signs. they hadwaris not inevitable, how it is something that wedone canand should avoid andstop and how and it was the onlyI place where somebody was sort of make a structured effort to explain how The reason Igot involved with WiB is because it was the only thing that made any sense, Nadja, for Similarly, ofexplanation. kind some me give problem, was war. And I try to find some answers and WiBknow wasa lot the ofonly questions, one group and who anyyou like, look answer can lives their how and was here do will based people these what in war. happens, that why When I try to find the root of victims of domestic violence forand me it was like a real problem, and Iasked myself but this was somethingsome kind of answers. I respect all these otherthatkinds of activists [feminist activists] a waslot, a reallyI had a focus on warbig problem, and Women in Black wasproblem the only one group who give me for me,For instance,because for Boban, refugees are not 38 CEU eTD Collection lives. activists’ of aspects all permeates activist feminist anti-militarist, feminist, of identity collective the where activism, to relationship their of narratives activists’ from elucidated collectivecan be remain transcendand situations to intrinsic identities, constant 2000 andinet al Rokeach Gecas2000:95) The 1973 inway as identities, whichvalue live a single day with a person who does not agree with me politically 100% [...] essential, Ilive from activism, Ido not separate my private life from activism, Icouldn’t but I have no reason to live here, after1991, I have no motive, only this […] Activism is live here, I have no motive to live just this.here This is the main motiveif to live here […]I I can’tdon’t live without doing this; I can’tdo this. I have liveddo not livehere in Serbia.all of As a person,my life with this charge, I do notI do see not any seemotive any motive to live here,to live in Serbia if I don’t work on this. Stasa, For If I don’t work on this, I people see activism only as a job, that is no good […] everything that Iwear is activism. Basically all my life […] It makes me sad that some is activism, almost all people who are my friends are involved insome kind of activism, Ilisten what everything activism, is I read what everything activism, is ofheart part every that working time from 9 tosome benefits and etc.5 This oris not a job like somethingany other, like anordinary job, Idon’t have like that.which Every I doday thatof my lifeis a isway discrimination,activism, everything is very,ofvery connected becauselife for meactivism in this way […] BecauseI really live activism, from that time whenI I go to don’tthe store and recognize some kind of do that becauseI cannot separate my private life from my activism, my activism is my lifeI as awholeget and money, and Boban, For [activism] the most important. home and be something else,you are all the time like that […] Besides my child, that’s want to stay more […] It’s life, it’s not just ajob, activism is way a of life,you can’t go say “oh,I’m coming from work, I’m tired” sometimes I don’t wanna go home, actually, I [Activism] is not ajob for meactually, it’s more like something Ienjoy doing and Ican’t Jelena, For 39 CEU eTD Collection experience a sense of self-realization authenticity. and asenseof self-realization experience actforaccordingneed peopleof anegation values self. to the in tothese People order actaccording specific these valuesrepresents failingspecific to to according values, to self senseof theirWhen define people 2000:95) (Gecas values threatened.” their are affirmation of values,their guilt and shameinnot living the in uptotheir values, andfear angeror when satisfaction and pride feel “people dimension: emotional fundamental According to Gecas, values are produced via cognition; nonetheless, they have they nonetheless, a via cognition; Gecas, values areproduced According to job that can pay me that I can be happy like now, satisfied, not only happy, satisfied. inmediation” Ithink that Ifind myself inactivism and I think that there doesn’t exist a this is not a job; itis activism. This is a way of life.when somebody says “I find myself I loose myself, Ifind myself in [activism]. This is my life, Ireally find myself in this job, am doing something isenoughfor me…Now feelcannot worka regular inI job I because This is my life. This is what I like. From time to time it is very hard, but the feeling that I Adam, For be changed. will something that a hope I have group this With hope. the is not only a job, but thisis atmosphere, this is solidarity, this is our anti-militarism and Actually my job WiBin is I’m financial coordinatorbut I’m first of all an activist […] it Nevzeta, For private life too […] what made me, what made my books, on private and on publiclanguages, my country issues,gave me,Ichose […] This is not easy,but that Ithink activism is the way I live my fight forthem and that’s activism, because I didn’t accept the life that my parents, my have an easy life, but all the choices I made in my life I madeit is and I am very it happy onwithmy mylife, Iwent throughown many and difficultI situations,had Ididn’tto The significance of activism inmy life is absolutely primary,because it made my life as Jasmina,For 40 CEU eTD Collection doctrines.” (Gecas 2000:98) Gecas notices that SMOs usually represent and represent SMOs usually promote that notices 2000:98)Gecas doctrines.” (Gecas ideological grounding of individualthe in the form of political, philosophical or religious, abides by his her moral or (quoted incommitments.” Gecas 2000:95) Values “signify the when person the attained affirmation rather asenseof buta sense of is not pleasure SM. the to committed and authenticityvalue identity among that definecausal agent in one’s environment, as efficaciousmovement and competent.” Whena the ideologySM and or SMO manage a perceive as oneself motivation to is the “self-efficacy while oneself” of evaluation members,to promotefavorable a enhance self-esteem,or maintain to try to and favorably oneself view to theymotivation self-efficacy,are more to the “refers of Self-esteem self. the of concept the foundation” “motivational the likely to feel loyal (Taylor 1991:29,emphasisand in original)the myself. If I am not, I miss the point of my life, I miss what being human is for is human being what miss I life, my of point the miss I not, Iam If myself. and innot imitation else’s.Butthisanyone anewof being gives to of importance true way, in this my life live to upon called “I am where originality, own one’s to loyal be to be and true full human beings.” (1991:26).The notion of authenticity the implies capacity independent and crucial moral significance. Itcomes beto something we have attainto to on takes touch in being when about comes accent moral the of displacement rightly…the touch with ourwhich isis astheand defined feelingof “being what right wrong. ForTaylor, while in moral feelings would matter here, as a means to the end of acting According to Shamir “the consequences of acting in accordance with one’s values one’s with accordance in acting of consequences “the Shamir to According provide and self-efficacy self-esteem Gecas, authenticity with along According to Taylor (1991)defines from a authenticity notion as displacement morality, the of 41 me .” CEU eTD Collection nationalist feminist activism. feminist nationalist anti- feminist, with involvement their of narratives in activists’ evident particularly becomes This foundation (2000:200) moral aperson’sself-conception.” for provide the even may They movement. social the to commitment individuals’ for implications with identities, value of their aspects members’ of self-definitions, become important ideology Gecas, values such as the ones aforementioned, “as integral parts of a movement’s very fact that they are a SMO, WiB promote the value of activisminclude anti-militarism, anti-nationalism,justice, anti-homophobia, and peace. Andby the as such. According to WiB instanceand somevalues that of particular values.For promote represent the in warin […]Iwas thinking Iwas doing the right thing because Idecided to come to live to who got drafted, who went as volunteers,generational so it was more or lessbecause my generationpersonal, it’s acitizen, responsibility, maybe a I could have done lot something,involved and also of the peopleI can feelwho myselfwere responsiblein the war Zorica, for Similarly, werefor the mywar age because […] peopleI was already 30 years old […][…] It’s a WiB only the not war, the against protests daily were there started war the when because beeverywhere, to had I so horrible, was It wrong. is war the wrong, it’s know You activism of type this with involved became she Lepa for Similarly, to be aWomanBlack in and do anti-war stuff […]” here, was I if or country the leave to options: two I had up. stand not couldn’t I it. about inon Bosnia, Kosovo,in couldn’t say I “it’s ofnone my business.”I couldn’t not write youknow people that being are killed and everyone is lying […] Iknew whatwas going situation, ifyou know somethingthat is wrong to stay quiet is very difficult. Because if than an honor[…] I had a personal responsibility [to stand], itisavery particular instead of me, but since nobody else was doing it we had to do it, it felt more like a duty doing it, we had It wasto just my conscious that we were dodoing something important, sinceit. nobody else was I would have been waryears, the Jasmina,during For very glad if somebody else was doing it 42 CEU eTD Collection the fact that I I generally like amto haveopinion an on stuff, so this actuallyhelps me confirm something and I like doingMagda, For something to stand up for what I think is of the parts I rightreally like. […] one is it and am I of who part is [WiB] years. 20 or 10 in guilty feel to like wouldn’t I and horribly wrong within my life time, the way it went wrong formy parents 20 years ago […] I am afraid that if I don’t do at least as much as I can maybe For Nadja, she isinvolvedsomething with WiB because else will go see situation […] I think I have to say, to show my statement […]” [to say it] publicly through activism,against manythrough things, to mydeclare work, myself, because to say it I open,havethis situation; because we must do ansomething opinionabout it. To itme it is isimportant part to say that Iam of and my conscious.I interested inpolitics” because politics is interested in you, it’s your life. We are now in [want to be there], Ithink it’s good, it’s important […]I don’t likepeople say “I amnot no I can, I don’t like being in the first plan […] I don’t likeforme in these[to discussions be Iam terriblyin the shy and I didn’tstreet], like to be visible the but in streets, I do We were many years only a few on the streets, 10 of Lina us, for and Similarly something that was difficult personal level[…]” about 38 years, it’s too much […]WiB it is a very important part [part of my life] atthe have own problemsmy with health,you etc. so know I’memployedand many. And can’t anymore” but aftercan’t comea anymore!few Please let me!” andhours after that I say “oh, Ican’t, Ican’t”I’m I just say “I back at thethat in an open way organization.in the streets […] Sometimes I’m tired and Isay “I’mfinished! No, I BecauseBecause I need to stop war, to I’mstop fascism, to stop militarism,tired, and I would like to say I sheis of Nevzeta, WiB, part For […] involved was I that regret don’t I level emotional and personal the on but years, so many altogether we spent that I regret it, regret altogether be here in Belgrade, so I decided to stay in Belgrade […] It was my decision, and I never other country but I neverthought of it, but whenthe warstarted I felt the responsibility to Belgrade when the war started. I had the possibility of maybe to organize my life in some 43 CEU eTD Collection happen andjust sit and wait or just sit,it’s stupid […] that let Ican’t and that be like to daughters their teach will they scarves,” their have won’t work, they“it’s will haveok, morewe have, peaceful aboutsociety our seeing children, infundamentalistchange way, justsit saycan’t and I it’s theygreat, somethingare ourgoing young to Church, life.women Andand I thinkit’s I arecanjust I than do oflife more ok,something something, don’tneed I goingbecause myself is reasons ofthe theyone and reasons, not justbackcan me,know, but if towe all getmarriages together than I I had actually wejust could and that’s do one ofand the reasons,feel theymaybehappen. she is myI have motivation, a daughterit one and ofI wantthe is for her a betterthe life, I purposewant wait just and for to sitaround something to happen, Ineed to do something to her to havemy right not is a better it I think do, life to thing right the need I something do, to I need that thingSomething […]Because is activism Jelena, For I can’t be that I feel like I need to do so that I can be ok with who I am. patriarchy allthat against means, allthat […] and thatthat’ssomething forms I think and so I think you can’t just work fundamentalism,against militarism, we work against thoseone areand workingcapitalism, against patriarchyagainst I feelworking me to so theworld, better needbe a would it personally different, very be to work against and militarism all reinforce patriarchy and to me if wethat Ineed todo […] Ifeelpatriarchy;got that Ifeel capitalism, that rid andfundamentalism, of patriarchy things would important, it is something that I want to do and I really enjoy doing and it is something if I didn’t do it I would feel I’m; really, that do so can I something is I it don’tthink I and Iam who of know big part really a is if [Activism] guilty is the right word but I think it’s Katie,For organization? […] an join to have you do why yourself, for feminist a be you “can’t say just they that, with People usually are like they understandjust don’t why feel the needI tobe soupright 44 CEU eTD Collection passing reference to the relevance of the structural-connection function of networks in functionnetworks passing reference relevance to the of of structural-connection the make a only I study, qualitative primarily fact thisthat wasa the formation. Dueto decision-shaping function networksin social of collective process the identity of situations. all transcends therefore that identity value a activist feminist anti-militarist, nationalist, anti- identity of collective andthe in itself becomesActivism avalue participation. community, recognition,support, solidarity, belonging and in created of process the of bonds the by strengthened becomes that identity is an it values; their to according provides a venuefor individualsaffirm to their sense of self by enabling them actto indignation, and helplessness by individuals rendering with a sense of agency.Activism feelings of anger, itto transform provides venue the of activism—at character live othersandwith they cannot that without. share activists that identity an becomes activism feminist anti-militarist, anti-nationalist, in short, Because, involved? get they do why Then repression. social and state undergo still WiB however, it; from different significantly is regime Milosevic the of demise the participation, despite therisksinvolved? For self-evidentreasons, period following the motivated their in tobecome what this involved of dangerous contention, type activists’motivations in fortheMilosevic it regime If during participation WiB. was Concluding Remarks Earlier in this thesis I point at the relevance of the socialization-function and socialization-function the of relevance the at point I thesis this in Earlier life-affirming fundamentally the at point participation of narratives Activists’ concerned study this of realization the motivating questions The main research 45 CEU eTD Collection world. its the tocontinual andcontribute developmentspread throughout network of that the analysisinto network through look the mechanisms should the havepromoted that research subsequent network WiBof is organizations, aninternational Serbia but actually to limited only not is WiB that considering finally, And formation. identity collective tostrengthening contributes groups oppositional with activists of relationship the by inopposition defining a collective identity. Subsequentresearchshould into look how points in as mentioned atthe relevanceMelucci thesis, earlier the of (1996), recognition the role of primary socialization in contributing to the development of an activistidentity. activists.research Subsequent intoshould perhapsnot look only ofnetworks, role the but become ininfluencing were to their fact decisions their activists played parents that the role that the at point interviewed theactivists of some thesis, in this earlier mentioned As research. in subsequent elucidated further be should which participation, movement 46 CEU eTD Collection McAdam, Doug. 1986. “Recruitment toHigh-Risk Activism: The case of Freedom D. Gordy, E. 1999. Gecas, V.2000. “Value Identities, Self-Motives, and Social Movements.” Pp. 93-109 in Fridman, O. 2006. “Alternative Voices in Public Space: Serbia’s Women in Black.” Einhorn B. and Sever C. July 2003. “Gender and Civil Society in Central and Eastern ------.2006. “The Making of Political Responsibility: Hannah Arendt and/in Duhacek,D. 2002.“Gender Perspectives on Political in Identities Yugoslavia.” Pp.113- Danas. 2007.“Hooligans Women Attack in Black Activists.” URLAvailable: Cockburn, C.2007. Calhoun, C. 2001. “Putting Emotions in Their Place.” Pp. 45-57 in Blagojevic,“Belgrade 1996/1997: M.2005. Protests From Women in Movementthe to Amnesty International. 2005. “Serbia and Montenegro: The Writing on the Wall: Serbian Bibliography Analysis Summer.” of Alternatives R. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Identity, and SocialMovements Self, I Pp.163-190 Europe.” in Ashgate. Eastern Europe in 205-221 Pp. Casethe Serbia.” of Ravenna, Italy: Longo Editore. 126 in http://www.zeneucrnom.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=285 Polletta, F. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Politics. andSocial Emotions Movements Ashgate. Eastern Europe Women’s Movement?” Pp.147-164in http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/EUR70/016/2005/en Human Rights Defenders at Risk.” Pdf. From URL available: Ethnologia Balkanica From Gender toNation . London, UK:Zed Books. The AmericanJournal of Sociology The Culture of Power inSerbia. Nationalismand the Destruction From Where WeStand:War, Women’s Activism,andFeminist . University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. edited by Lukic, J., Regulska, J. and Zavirsek, D. Burlington, VT: edited by Lukic, J., Regulska, J. and Zavirsek, D. Burlington, VT: 10:291-303. International Journal ofPolitics edited by edited andJulieRada Ivekovic Mostow. 47 edited by Stryker, S., Owens, T., and White Women Citizenship and inCentraland Women andCitizenship inCentral and edited by Goodwin, J., Jasper, J., and 92 (1):64-90. . Passionate CEU eTD Collection Watson, P. (1997). “Civil Society and the Politics of Difference in Eastern Europe.” Pp. Taylor, C. 1991.Taylor, Susak, B. 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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 48 Frontline Feminisms:Women, War, and Thinking Differently: A Readerin Differently: Thinking edited by Skjelsbaek, I.and The RoadtoWar in edited by Diani, M. and edited by Ramet, S. Social Movements and edited by Popov, . CEU eTD Collection Zajovic, S. 2006. “Not in Our Name! Feminist Ethics and Confrontation with the Past.” ------.2007. “Dis/continuity------.2007. Repressionof Towards Women in Pp.49-55inBlack.” http://www.zeneucrnom.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=201 Available: URL and D.NewYork Routledge. Keates and London: 21-29 in in Black: Belgrade. PeaceWomen for Transitions, Environments,Transitions, Translations edited by Perkovic, M.; Urosevic, M., and Zajovic, S. Women 49 edited by Scott J., Kaplan C.,