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Samuel Alexander and Peter Burdon Wild democracy: a biodiversity of resistance and renewal The Ecological Citizen, 2017; 1(1):45-54

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27 November 2018

http://hdl.handle.net/2440/115308

www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

Wild democracy: A biodiversity of resistance and renewal

Might the theory and practice of liberal representative democracy need to be rethought Samuel in and for the ‘Anthropocene’? What resources are available when trying to orientate oneself in radical political space today? In this paper, the authors draw on varieties of Alexander and and to develop a new, ecocentric political sensibility and practice, Peter Burdon which they call ‘wild democracy’. Calling for a ‘biodiversity of resistance and renewal’, this signifies an eco-egalitarian politics that privileges participation over About the authors parliamentary representation, with the aim of transcending and initiating Samuel is a lecturer a process of planned economic contraction. Focusing attention beyond the with the Office for Environmental Programs, ballot box, this analysis attempts to rethink the meaning of political participation in University of Melbourne, an age of ecological crisis and deepen the understanding of what it means to be an Melbourne, VIC, Australia. ecological citizen today. He is also Co-Director of the Simplicity Institute.

he great American philosopher John apathy at our own peril. It is government of Peter is Associate Professor Dewey once wrote: “Every generation the people, certainly, but not government at the Adelaide School has to accomplish democracy over by the people and increasingly not for the and Deputy Chair of the T International Union for the again for itself” (Dewey, 1981–90: 299). His people. Accordingly, with a deferential Conservation of Nature’s point was that at each moment in history nod to Dewey, below we offer an outline Ethics Specialist Group. citizens and nations inevitably face unique of a new political orientation, sensibility challenges and problems, so we should not and practice – a position we call ‘wild Citation assume the democratic institutions and democracy’. In a global tide that seems to be Alexander S and Burdon P practices inherited from the past will be drifting enthusiastically towards ecocide (2017) Wild democracy: A adequate for the conditions of today. Our and fascism, wild democracy signifies a biodiversity of resistance and ongoing political challenge, therefore, is radical and participatory eco-egalitarian renewal. The Ecological Citizen 1: 45–54. to ‘accomplish’ democracy anew, every politics that seeks to take root beyond the generation. tired parliamentary distinctions of left Keywords It seems we have forgotten Dewey’s and right. This is an attempt to rethink Anarchism; eco-anarchism; the meaning of political participation in lesson. Too often we assume instead that eco-; Marxism; democracy is something that has been an age of ecological crisis and deepen the societal change achieved already, once and for all. Why do understanding of what it means to be an we need to reinvent it? Indeed, in the wake ecological citizen. of every election, it is easy to be seduced During the course of this preliminary back to the comfortable unfreedom of statement, we intend to show how wild the shopping mall or withdraw into the democracy can be enriched by drawing existential numbness of social media or on the resources of both anarchism and television, believing that, having voted, our political work is done. The task of Wild democracy in a nutshell. governing is now in the hands of our so-called ‘representatives’. That’s what Opposed to the conventional ‘top-down’ politics and economics of growth, political participation means in a wild democracy recognizes that we are living in an age of gross ecological overshoot and seeks to establish an ecocentric, decentralized democratic capitalist society, doesn’t it? culture by privileging ‘grass-roots’ participation over parliamentary This is, of course, an impoverished, representation with the aim of transcending capitalism and initiating a even dangerous, conception of democracy, degrowth process of planned economic contraction. which we propagate by way of casual

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Marxism. For us, this involves living in So what are our options? What resources the utopian spirit of creative resistance and do we have to draw on when trying to renewal – prefiguring alternative, post- orientate ourselves in radical political capitalist modes of existence – even if space today? at first they are always and necessarily partial, compromised, temporary and Marxism small-scale. Whether engaging in acts of Marxism represents the most prominent resistance or renewal, we argue that the alternative to the capitalist mode of Today it is widely “ wild imagination is the most potent force and representative democracy, so assumed that it at the disposal of post-capitalist social it’s an obvious place to begin considering would be ‘illiberal’ to movements. The path beyond is, as yet, what a radical politics might mean, and a govern in such a way unimagined. This is the democracy “to useful point of departure for understanding come” (Derrida, 2010: 73–83). the politics of wild democracy. that would curtail What are we to make of Marx’s works ecocide.” Resources for wild democracy today? First, his critique of capitalism In recent years, the term ‘Anthropocene’ remains as relevant as ever, even if it has entered the vocabulary of scientists needs updating for the 21st century (Hardt and philosophers, and is slowly filtering and Negri, 2000). Marx fiercely objected into public discourse more broadly. In a to the concentrations of and power sentence, this notion reflects the idea that produced within capitalist and activity is now so fundamentally argued that this was not a conditional degrading the ecosystems of that but an inherent feature of them. Recent this constitutes nothing less than a new evidence seems to support this (Piketty, geological era – the first geological era 2014). Indeed, today the richest eight ‘caused’ by . Like reckless gods, people now own more than the poorest we are transforming the face of the half of humanity (Hardoon, 2017). No fancy planet, a licence apparently granted to theorizing by liberal ‘free marketeers’ can humanity (or parts of humanity) under possibly justify this indigestible disparity the name of ‘freedom’, by the philosophy of wealth. It demands a political response, of political . Today it is widely driven by the citizenry. assumed that it would be ‘illiberal’ to Furthermore, a strong (though not govern in such a way that would curtail absolutist) case can be made that the ecocide. Such governance would interfere ‘superstructure’ of democracy and culture illegitimately with our so-called freedoms under capitalism is insidiously shaped – our apparent human right to commit by the ‘economic base’ of privatized, ecocide. “Freedom for whom?” we might corporate interests, in ways that entrench fairly ask. the underlying policy aim of profit- Is it not reasonable to believe that we maximization in undemocratic ways. For might need to rethink politics, especially these reasons, among others, we contend liberal democratic politics, in and for that Marx was right to reject capitalism the Anthropocene (Purdy, 2015)? This as unjust and undemocratic, and the is especially so, we argue, to the extent position of wild democracy expounded and that the nations making the heaviest defended in later sections rests, in part, and most unsustainable demands on the upon this Marxian critique of capitalism. planet are the hyper-consuming capitalist What of Marx’s theory of social change? economies of the democratic West. From While Marx is sometimes interpreted as a this perspective, the ecological reality can staunch materialist who was fixated on the become a political imperative, leading to of history, another reading is available collective environmental decision-making which is more helpful for the current project. where for now there is only collective As (2005: 1) notes, Marx was vulnerability to ecological change as a deeply influenced by Saint-Simon and his consequence of collective inertia. suggestion that “[n]o social order could

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achieve changes that are not already latent evolution from the perspective of one of the within its existing conditions.” Put another moments or examine interactions among way, a society cannot make a radical break them; for example, we might consider how from its past and every significant social our relationship with the rest of nature change must first build the conditions for changes in light of new technology. its emergence in the present society. This This brief description highlights was true in the transition from something of crucial importance to the to capitalism and Marx recognized realization of projects seeking to reinvent “In practice, that it would be necessary for whatever democracy for present conditions. Often major social came next. social theorists focus on one or two ideas transformations are Marx offers his most complete and position them as determinants of elaboration of this idea in – A all others. For example, it is common for far more complex Critique of Political Economy: Volume 1.1 In environmental philosophers to ground and produce all Chapter 15, Marx provides an example of their analysis purely in the sphere of kinds of localized transformation during the development ‘mental conceptions’ (e.g. shifting from contingencies. A of machinery and large-scale technology anthropocentrism to ecocentrism [Devall deterministic stance into the workforce. In the fourth footnote, and Sessions, 2001]). In contrast, we Marx unpacks a series of conceptual contend that a deterministic focus on any fails to capture this elements which, David Harvey (2010: one of the elements identified by Marx complex interplay 189) argues, provide a framework for is insufficient. In practice, major social and misrepresents thinking about “dialectical and historical transformations are far more complex and the requirements for materialism.” Marx (1992: 492, footnote 4) produce all kinds of localized contingencies writes: (Harvey, 2010: 196). A deterministic stance social change.” fails to capture this complex interplay and Technology reveals the active relation of misrepresents the requirements for social man to nature, the direct process of the change. production of his life, and thereby it also While Marx offers tools that are useful lays bare the process of the production of for critiquing capitalism and thinking the social relations of his life, and of the about social change, it is also vital to note mental conceptions that flow from those that his thinking was embedded in the relations. ‘productivist’ growth paradigm that is responsible for so much ecological harm. In this single sentence Marx identifies We can hardly blame Marx for this blind six elements that are in motion during spot, however, because he was writing the shift towards large-scale technology. at a time when the ecological effects of They are: industrialization were only just beginning 1 technology; to show themselves. He wrote in an age 2 the relationship between humans and before , peak-oil concerns, nature; topsoil erosion and biodiversity loss were 3 the actual process of production; factors, among others, that any coherent 4 the production and reproduction of social politics had to address. The earth was not life; yet ‘full’. The Anthropocene had not yet 5 human social relations; set in. 6 mental conceptions of the world. Nevertheless, knowing what we know now, Marxism must undergo a deep These elements are not static but in revision in order to remain relevant in our motion and linked through a process of era of overlapping environmental crises. production that guides human development. First and foremost this means transcending Each element constitutes a moment the ecocidal economics of growth. in the process of social development Promisingly, this theoretical revision is and is subject to perpetual renewal well underway, with a sophisticated body and transformation. We can study this of scholarship on eco-socialism developing

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in recent years (Sarkar, 1999; Foster, 2000; lived without domination in any form; we Baer, 2016). While this literature draws on understand this practice to belong not only traditional Marxism, it also transcends it in to a better future but to the here and now, important ways. The essential argument of where we strive to prefigure our ends in the eco-socialism can be briefly summarized: means we choose to reach them. if capitalism has a growth imperative built into its structure, and limitless In its broadest terms, this is the basic growth is ecologically unsupportable, anarchist vision of an ideal society, and it then capitalism is incompatible with implies that the best strategy for moving (Smith, 2016). towards such a society is for individuals Therefore, if sustainability is to be taken and communities to live the new world seriously, capitalism must be replaced into existence, here and now, without with a post-growth or steady-state employing state support (and probably form (which eco-socialism exemplifies), receiving a lot of state resistance). operating within planetary limits. In the The defining antagonism between most developed regions of the world, this anarchism and Marxism lies, obviously, in ecological equilibrium must be preceded by the differing roles the state is assumed to a phase of planned economic contraction, play in the transition to a post-capitalist or degrowth. Obviously, degrowth by society. Whereas Marxism sees the state definition is incompatible with the growth as being central and necessary to that “If sustainability is imperative of capitalism, so here we have transition, anarchists tend to believe to be taken seriously, an environmental logic to support the the state both should not and could capitalism must social justice logic forcefully presented by not be the tool through which the ideal Marx: capitalism cannot be reformed; it society is established. Other strains of be replaced with has to be replaced. anarchism argue that, if necessary, the a post-growth or state should be captured by anarchists via steady-state form Anarchism the democratic process (or, if necessary, (which eco-socialism Anarchism is a political worldview and through ) in order to initiate the exemplifies), practice that rejects not rules but rulers. process of decentralizing the state out of Anarchism, we argue, is not chaotic but existence. That is, capture the state for the operating within represents a way of reasserting a human- purpose of abolishing the state (Bookchin, planetary limits.” based politics. Its method is to submit 2001a; Bookchin, 2001b).2 every decision and every action to politics. Given that the question of transition Under anarchism, there is no voting for is central to understanding political someone else. People speak as themselves engagement today, this is not a tangential and decisions are made by processes that or inconsequential debate within radical cannot bypass or elude collective models politics. Rejecting the need for the state, of decision-making. The ‘method’ in this anarchists practice what is sometimes case then is a decidedly horizontal one, called ‘’. The best rather than a top-down model. introduction to this topic is Wini Breines’ While anarchism defies a unified seminal 1989 Community and theory, there are a few general principles Organization in the , 1962–1968. that can be stated that help, at the very Breines argues that in the movements least, to delimit a boundary within which of the 1960s, there developed a whole anarchism occurs. One idea recently offered new way of thinking about political by the North American organization that was opposed to the Network seeks to lay out general anarchist vanguardism of the left politics. She principles (https://is.gd/kQAVSm): writes (Breines, 1989: 6):

We understand anarchism, in general terms, The term prefigurative politics is as the practice of equality and freedom in used to designate an essentially anti- every sphere of life – life conceived and organizational politics characteristic of the

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movement […] and may be recognized in are living out your values with integrity counter institutions, demonstrations and and authenticity. the attempt to embody personal and anti- Like classical socialism, classical hierarchical values in politics. Participatory anarchism needs to be revised in light of democracy was central to prefigurative the ecological predicament. Traditionally, politics […] [The guiding task] was to create anarchists saw the state as the primary and sustain within the live practice of the enemy. Today, however, that focus seems movement relationships and political forms too narrow. After all, we could conceive that “prefigured” and embodied the desired of an anarcho-capitalist society that future society. had abolished the state but nevertheless remained shaped by an economics of growth, In prefigurative movements, participants leaving the question of sustainability (and are reweaving the social fabric and therefore justice) unresolved. Anarchism, creating an alternative social world along therefore, must evolve into eco-anarchism the lines of the six spheres identified to remain relevant, and this revision has by Marx. The dynamic interplay within been led by figures such as these spheres provides the foundation (1990) and Ted Trainer (2010). Whereas for the alternative social world that is democratic eco-socialists, as we have seen, being formed. Moreover, as evidenced by tend to argue that a post-growth or steady- Breines, those engaged in prefigurative state economy should be designed and politics believe that the means they use in instituted via the apparatus of the state, the present are intimately connected with eco-anarchists often envision a similar the world that they are striving to create. ‘ideal society’ but argue that it should be Put otherwise, means are deeply connected (or can only be) produced through localized with ends. Consistent with this, movement grass-roots activity, where individuals and communities essentially create the new participants are encouraged to treat one If it turns out you another with respect and pay attention to society themselves, without state support. “ are alone building race, class and gender dynamics within institutions. While such movements have Wild democracy: A biodiversity the new world, or the encountered considerable resistance, of resistance and renewal social movement is there are also examples of prefigurative Despite key differences, there is much for too small to achieve movements which have flourished over those engaged in reinventing democracy to its ambitions, then many years and incorporated hundreds of sympathize with in Marxist and anarchist participants (Cornell, 2011; Lakey, 2012). political theory. First, both recognize, at least you are There is something very attractive, unlike reformist political movements, living out your values even compelling, about the immediacy, that capitalism cannot be reformed but with integrity and directness and lived commitment of must be replaced; secondly, they recognize authenticity. anarchism. To employ the famous that any coherent politics today must ” Gandhian dictum for anarchist purposes: transcend growth economics; and, thirdly, “be the change you wish to see in the both recognize the importance of creating world.” The idea is that if enough people alternative structures and systems within adopt and apply this attitude, the world which society can develop. If we can change will change, without the need for taking or reimagine societal structures in line with state power. Do not make demands of the environmental goals, new ways of living state – it will ignore you. Do not wait for and being will emerge and become possible. the Revolution – it may never arrive (or if Moreover, while Marxists and anarchists it does, it will fail to live up to its ideals). have different views concerning the role Just get active in your local community and of the state in a radical transition, it is not start building the new world today. And if necessary for most people to adopt a one- it turns out you are alone building the new size-fits-all perspective. It is the purpose world, or the social movement is too small of our exploration to carve out such a space to achieve its ambitions, then at least you between (and sometimes against) Marxist

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and anarchist theory. With the background cultural consciousness about the need to theoretical groundwork complete, a transcend capitalism and move beyond preliminary statement of wild democracy the ecocidal economics of growth that can now be made, which weaves together both camps should proceed as allies, at the threads of the preceding analysis. least for the foreseeable future. Certainly, Let us acknowledge, first, that voting it is too early to try to get eco-socialist itself is not much of a burden. It typically ideas through parliament because there is takes less than an hour, once every three or not yet anything near a mandate for such four years, so we propose that even radicals ideas. That would be to put the cart before who have lost faith in representative the horse. Recent elections in Australia democracy should still vote as strategically and overseas are campaigned primarily as possible (which is always a context- on the issue of which party could grow dependent issue) and to take that act as the economy best, while climate change, the ‘starting gun’ of political participation, for instance, is almost never mentioned not the finish line. While some anarchists (Milman, 2016). Obviously, the culture shift will object that voting implicates one in an must get well underway in advance of any The starting point “ illegitimate form of government, others culturally digestible political campaign for of wild democracy like have argued that eco-socialism. is simply that voting voting is a legitimate strategy in attempts In fact, such a culture shift may even does not end one’s civic to keep reactionary candidates like Donald begin (and only begin) in the soil of Trump from office. In this example, while subjectivity – in a politics of the subject duty, which itself is voting is not a moral duty, it might have – implying that we are being called to a radical statement a material impact on people’s lives and resist or refuse the apolitical, consumerist in today’s largely provide a better foundation to advance subjectivities which capitalist culture apolitical cultures.” radical politics (Halle and Chomsky, 2016). has tried to impose on us – and to create With this in mind, the starting point of someone new. That is, we must rewild our wild democracy is simply that voting does not subjectivities in order to be better citizens end one’s civic duty, which itself is a radical of and for an ecozoic era. statement in today’s largely apolitical Therefore, we contend that the primary cultures. For the foreseeable future, at task today, for both eco-anarchists and eco- least, and possibly forever, a citizen’s socialists, is to provoke a cultural revolution most important political contributions in consciousness. First and foremost, this can only take place in the wild, beyond the can take the form of consciousness-raising mechanisms of representative democracy. and educational activities and strategies; Now, having voted (or having but, in line with traditional anarchist conscientiously objected to voting), one is strategies, it should also take the form of again faced with the question: how should resistance and renewal. That is, resisting one contribute now to a radical politics in the most egregious aspects of the status the most strategically effective way? This quo (e.g. by protesting, , civil seems to present a fork in the road, at which disobedience), and also by engaging in eco-anarchists and eco-socialists might acts of prefigurative politics that create or part company: eco-anarchists should set demonstrate small-scale examples of new out to live the new world into existence, post-capitalist modes of existence. while eco-socialists should establish a Not only do those small-scale political party or attempt to influence demonstrations function to begin the existing political parties to push an eco- dauntingly large task of building the new socialist agenda through parliament. world within the shell of the old, they Each side of this divide currently accuses can also be justified on the grounds of the other of pursuing the wrong strategy, being a practical form of education. After and the in-fighting begins. In an attempt all, being exposed to new experiments to stem that infighting, we contend that in living can be one of the most effective there is so much work to be done raising ways to engage people with the issues

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motivating the experiments. Nothing Furthermore, we need to think carefully persuades, inspires or educates quite like about how a successful transition might a real-world example of a new mode of transpire. Eco-anarchists might well argue living and being, even on a small scale. that we will never need a state-driven eco- And eco-socialists and eco-anarchists are socialism, because by the time there is likely to share a great deal in terms of what enough social support for an eco-socialist a prefigurative politics should look like e.g.( agenda to be passed through parliament, non-consumerist, egalitarian, community- the grass-roots social movement should orientated sustainable experiments that already have been able to create the new challenge capitalist economic relations as world. That is a perspective worth taking far as possible). seriously; however, it risks jumping from a From the anarchist perspective, completely capitalist culture to a completely these three (infinitely diverse, context- eco-anarchist culture too sharply. The dependent) practices of education, transition, after all, is likely to take some resistance and renewal, are the most time, and as the eco-anarchist movement defensible strategies to adopt. But we grows, it is quite possible that the emerging argue also that at this early stage of the social movement – midway through, for post-capitalism transition, it makes sense example – could influence parliamentary for eco-socialists to adopt, support and politics (and certainly local politics) in encourage these same strategies, in the ways that actually advance the eco- “There will be no hope of building a social movement that, anarchist cause. We maintain that it would deliberate transition in time, could provide the mandate for be better to achieve anarchism with the beyond capitalism an eco-socialist agenda in parliament. partial and temporary support of the state Indeed, anarchists should not be bothered than not achieve anarchism at all. For these – whether eco- by eco-socialists advocating their bold reasons, if an eco-anarchist movement socialist, eco- legislative agendas because (even if one were to emerge strongly in culture, it may anarchist or another rejects centralized government) the visions find it expedient, at some stage, to use the way – until more of eco-socialism can help people see that state (or some other polycentric system of people see that other other worlds are possible. governance) to advance the eco-anarchist This opening or of the agenda (Ostrom, 2010). worlds are possible. imagination is not an insignificant In this light eco-anarchism and eco- In that light, visions precondition of transformative change. socialism can be conceived of as being two of alternative modes There will be no deliberate transition sides of the same coin of wild democracy. of living should beyond capitalism – whether eco-socialist, On the eco-anarchist side, the political eco-anarchist or another way – until more task is to get active building the new be encouraged people see that other worlds are possible. world, raising consciousness about the in order to help In that light, visions of alternative modes necessity of degrowth, and resisting the ignite people’s of living should be encouraged in order most egregious aspects of the status quo, revolutionary to help ignite people’s revolutionary in order to build a new, engaged, post- imaginations. We need a flourishing capitalist consciousness. On the eco- imaginations.” biodiversity of resistance and renewal.3 The socialist side of the coin, the task is to assist real problem today isn’t so much getting and support in the building of this grass- the alternative vision or visions correct. roots post-capitalist movement through The real problem is figuring out how to similar acts of education, resistance open up people’s imaginations to the very and renewal, while at the same time possibility of alternative modes of existence developing a legislative agenda that, when (Haiven, 2014). Too often today we hear the social movement is strong enough, that it is easier to imagine the end of the could coherently restructure society in world than the end of capitalism. All radical ways that could would more easily permit imaginations must unite to overcome and encourage local, highly self-reliant or deconstruct this tragic, powerful but eco-communities to govern themselves – invisible obstacle – or all else is lost. beyond a centralized state.

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Of course, this form of radical politics One point on our mind throughout has will not satisfy those who believe that been the troubling fact that mainstream nothing but violent revolution can bring culture today tends to be instinctively about a just and sustainable post-capitalist put off by both the terms ‘anarchism’ and society. In response, we argue that the ‘socialism’ – let alone ‘degrowth’! This is approach to transition outlined above is partly owing to a conscious effort by the more coherent and defensible than calls powers that be to undermine any sense of for violent revolution. After all, revolution there being an alternative to capitalism. today should not be conceived of as some This should prompt us to think seriously future event where a mobilized citizenry about how best to share our ideas and storms the Bastille, so to speak – for perspectives with others. Wouldn’t it be Empire has no Bastille to storm anymore. foolish, for example, to ignore the fact Its nodes of politico-financial power are that the term ‘anarchism’ has been so so widely dispersed and decentralized misleadingly presented in mainstream that the system can evade a centralized culture that using it could often do more confrontation of the old revolutionary harm than good, at least to some audiences? kind. The same goes for eco-socialism and Consequently, the new revolutionary degrowth, two terms that also have huge politics must be brought into the moment public relations challenges. If a mass – into the present tense. We should not movement is what is needed and desired “Wild democracy aim to destroy capitalism in the future but by these various radical imaginations, holds that our broad rather stop creating it, here and now, as then recognizing the importance of post-capitalist cause best we can, knowing full well that we are ‘marketing’ or ‘presenting’ our visions too often locked into reproducing it against in the best way possible is an issue that may be best served our wishes. But we must try to break free cannot be dismissed as unimportant or by using a multitude and swim against the tide, no matter tangential. of vocabularies. how futile it seems. Revolution should be It may seem theoretically unnecessary, Indeed, this is part of conceived of as a way of life rather than even lacking in intellectual integrity, why wild democracy a goal to be achieved, and this revolution to think about how best to ‘brand’ one’s makes sense no matter what our prospects political perspectives. Shouldn’t we just is ‘wild’. It defies of success are. be as clear as possible, even if culture and resists singular isn’t ready for us? Plausible though that expression.” Conclusion sounds, such an approach is arguably The purpose of this paper has been to pragmatically or politically naive. We can’t provide an introductory statement of just be right. We also need to be heard, wild democracy. To achieve this, we and that means being cognizant of the drew specifically on resources from both diversity of audiences, and the differing Marxism and anarchism and sought to find vocabularies that may need to be used to points of similarity and cooperation. There maximize our engagement with them. are certainly some factions which will be Admittedly, this is not theoretically or dissatisfied: first, those who advocate conceptually neat – there is a tendency violent revolution as the only coherent to desire a single banner under which the strategy to bring an end to capitalism; Great Transition should march, in the hope secondly, ‘reformists’ who think that of unifying diverse threads of opposition. capitalism can be regulated to advance the But the position of wild democracy holds causes of justice and sustainability; and, that our broad post-capitalist cause may thirdly, those strict anarchists who reject be best served by using a multitude of any political strategy that entails working vocabularies. Indeed, this is part of why through the mechanisms of parliament wild democracy is ‘wild’. It defies and (even if engagement with the state is for resists singular expression. the sole purpose of advancing anarchist In fact, we see this diversity of causes). expressions already in existence today.

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Just think of the range of activities and and responsibilities. We are left with no movements that could easily be considered firmer ground to stand upon than the elements of wild democracy: potential of our imaginations to creatively n transition towns; engage the present as we move forward n the divestment movement; together into an uncertain future. But Although beyond n sharing networks; that is ground enough to proceed without “ n intentional communities and ; despair. Our greatest fear should be that our conventional political n groups; modes of resistance and renewal become classification, wild n the ; conservative or reactionary rather than democracy can be n n manifestations of the economy; progressively transgressive (Robin, 2013). seen already growing n the voluntary-simplicity and tiny-house out of the ever- movements; Notes n deliberative democracy activities; 1 Our analysis is indebted to David Harvey’s widening cracks of a n community energy projects; interpretation of Marx. See Harvey (2010: 189– globalized capitalism 212) and Harvey (2011: 126–30). n activist hubs; in decline.” n artist hubs; 2 Under Marxism, the communist utopia is assumed, eventually, to be without need of a n alternative journalism websites; state. In the words of Engels (1969), eventually n volunteer groups; the state under advanced will n farmers’ markets; “wither way” and be replaced merely with an n reskilling workshops; “administration of things.” n charities; 3 The phrase ‘biodiversity of resistance’ is from n progressive non-profit enterprises and Arundhati Roy. worker ; n the ever-expanding network of radical References environmental and social justice groups Baer H (2016) Toward Democratic Eco-socialism as the that exist across the cultural landscape. Next World System. Available at https://is.gd/YjjFeo (accessed April 2017). The list could go on. Bookchin M (1990) Remaking Society: Pathways to a Green Although beyond conventional political Future. South End Press, Boston, MA, USA. classification, wild democracy, in these Bookchin M (2001a) To Remember Spain: The anarchist and syndicalist revolution of 1936. AK Press, Oakland, CA, various forms, can be seen already USA. growing out of the ever-widening cracks Bookchin M (2001b) The Spanish Anarchists: The Heroic of a globalized capitalism in decline, as yet Years 1868–1936. AK Press, Oakland, CA, USA. unaware of its potential to re-enchant the Breines W (1989) Community and Organization in the New political spirit of our times. Left, 1962–1968: The Great Refusal. Rutgers University None of these movements or approaches Press, New Brunswick, NJ, USA. have all the answers but arguably all of Cornell A (2011) Oppose and Propose: Lessons from Movement them will need to play a role moving beyond for a New Society. AK Press, Oakland, CA, USA. the dystopia of capitalism. Of course, Derrida J (2010) Specters of Marx: The State of , the they risk being easily accommodated and Work of Mourning, and the New International. Routledge, subsumed by the existing order of things. London, UK. The important point is for each of these Devall B and Sessions G (2001) : Living as if movements for change to continually nature mattered. Gibbs Smith, Layton, UT, USA. reflect on the question of strategy: the Dewey J (1981–90) In: Boydston JA, ed. The Later Works: Volume. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, question of how can we best direct our IL, USA: 299. limited energies, time and resources to Engels F (1969) Anti-Duhring. Progress Publishers, advance the necessary causes of justice Moscow, Russia. and sustainability. That question, however, Foster JB (2000) Marx’s Ecology: Materialism and nature. does not allow for a generalizable answer. Press, New York, NY, USA. Political engagement is always relative to Haiven M (2014) Crises of Imagination, Crises of Power: our contexts and relative to our unique Capitalism, creativity and the commons. Zed , set of skills, limitations, connections London, UK.

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