Notes and Further Reading Introduction: The Environment and Peoples of Malaysia Further Reading A specialist geographical description of Malaysia can be found in Charles A. Fisher, South-East Asia: A Social, Economic and Political Geography (London, 1964). Ooi jin Bee, Peninsular Malaysia (New York and London, 1976) covers the peninsula in considerable detail. There are several books dealing with the local peoples. A general cultural survey is N. j. Ryan, The Cultural Background of the Peoples of Malaya (Kuala Lumpur, 1962). A standard introduction to the demog­ raphy of the Malay peninsula is still T. E. Smith, Population Growth in Malaya: An Analysis of Recent Trends (London and New York, 1952) and for Borneo, L. W. jones, The Population of Borneo: A Study of the Peoples of Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei (London, 1966). R. O. Winstedt, The Malays: A Cultural History (Singapore 1947) and later editions, and The Malay Magician (London, 1951) are useful studies, though the approach could be considered dated. Iskandar Carey, Orang Asli: The Aboriginal Tribes ofPeninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur and London, 1976) gives an informa­ tive and personal discussion of the various aboriginal groups. Frank M. Lebar, ed. Ethnic Groups ofInsular Southeast Asia (New Haven, 1972) contains an authorita­ tive discussion on indigenous Borneo peoples. For the Chinese, see Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Malaya (London, 1948;reprinted Kuala Lumpur, 1967), a standard work written by a former Professor of Chinese in Malaya. Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Indians in Malaysia and Singapore (Kuala Lumpur, 1979) is the most recent account of Indian migration and the present state of the Indian community. There are various histories available, some of which will withstand the test of time. R. O. Winstedt, A History of Malaya, revised edition (Singapore 1962) and Malaya and its History (London, 1948) and subsequent editions are still basic reading although considerable new material has appeared since their publication. R. j. Wilkinson, A History of the Peninsular Malays (Singapore, 1923) is also an important early source. A collection of Wilkinson's essays, Papers on Malay Subjects, has been edited by P. L. Burns (Kuala Lumpur and London, 1971). Wang Gungwu (ed.), Malaysia: A Survey (Melbourne, 1964) is a collection of twenty-six essays on different aspects of Malaysia's history edited by a leading Malaysian historian. j. M. Gullick, Malaysia (London, 1969) concentrates on the modern period but is a very competep.t study of certain key topics such as educa­ tion, the urban scene, rural development and so on. The most recent history is C. M. Turnbull, A Short History of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei (Melbourne, 306 NOTES AND FURTHER READING 1980) which takes into account the research available at the time of going to press. The introductory chapters of R. S. Milne and Diane K. Mauzy, Politics and Government in Malaysia (Vancouver, 1978) give an overview of the current political scene. Chapter 1: The Heritage of the Past Notes 1. Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), p. 273. ColonelJ ames Low (1791-1852) was a member ofthe Madras Army stationed at Penang, who was later civil officer of Province Wellesley from 1827 to 1837. Low studied both Thai and Malay, and wrote several academic papers describing his archaeological excavations in Province Wellesley and southern Kedah. 2. Peter Bellwood, Man's Conquest of the Pacific: the Prehistory of Southeast Asia and Oceania (Auckland, 1978), Chapters 5 and 8. 3. F. L. Dunn, Rain Forest Collectors and Traders: A Study of Resource Utiliza­ tion in Modern and Ancient Malaya (MBRAS Monograph, no. 5, 1975), pp. 78-103. The Temuan are a proto-Malay group, numbering around 9,000 mainly found in Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. The settlement studied here was within a day's reach of Kuala Lumpur. 4. F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill (eds) , Chau Ju-Kua on the Chinese and Arab Trade (St Petersburg, 1914; reprinted Amsterdam, 1966), p. 32. 5. Hinduism, which grew out of a much earlier brahmanical religion in India, began to assume identifiable features about the first century of the Christian era. It evolved from a variety of beliefs, some Vedic in nature, and others popular cults. Although Hinduism incorporates a large number of gods and goddesses, a main feature is the concept of a trinity, with Brahma the Creator, Vis'nu the Preserver and Siva the Destroyer. While Brahma gradually receded into the background, the adherents of Visnu and Siva grew, both schools believing that its god represented the absolute. The Buddha, the Enlightened One, was born in about 566 BC. He aban­ doned his life as a prince in order to find salvation through meditation. He taught that salvation lay in achieving nirvana or extinction of desire and freedom from the endless cycle of rebirth. After the Buddha's death divisions developed, and a number of different sects emerged. The two major schools are the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle), which claims to follow the original Buddhist doctrine more closely and from which Theravada grew, and the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, which has incorporated the concept of bodhisattva, one who forgoes nirvana to work for the good of mankind and whose assistance can thus be solicited by prayer and offerings. Mahayana Buddhism lost ground in Southeast Asia after the thirteenth century, when Theravada-Hinayana estab­ lished itself as the more popular sect. Republics and kingdoms had begun to emerge in north India from about 600 BC, and by the fourth century BC a large empire controlled by the Mauryas had emerged. In South India various kingdoms began to develop at the tum of the last century BC. In northern India the classical age is represen­ ted by the Guptaperiod (c. AD 300-700), and in the south by the post-Gupta NOTES AND FURTHER READING 307 period, especially around AD 900-1300 when the Cholas were the dominant power. 6. J. G. de Casparis, Prasasti Indonesia: Selected Inscriptions from the Seventh to the Ninth Century AD, vol. II (Bandung, 1956), p. 20. 7. Alastair Lamb, 'Takuapa: The Probable Site of a Pre-Malaccan Entrepot in the Malay Peninsula', in John Bastin and R. Roolvink (eds), Malayan and Indonesian Studies: Essays Presented to Sir Richard Winstedt on his Eighty­ fifth Birthday (Oxford, 1964), pp. 76-86. 8. O. W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Srivi­ jaya (Ithaca, New York, 1967). 9. Hirth and Rockhill, op. cit., p. 62. 10. Dunn, op. cit., pp. 105-6. 11. G. R. Tibbetts, A Study of the Arabic Texts Containing Material on South- East Asia (Leiden, 1979), pp. 112-14. 12. Wheatley, op. cit., p. 60. 13. Ibid., p. 255. 14. Ibid., p. 28. 15. Ibid., p. 254. 16. O. W. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History (Ithaca, New York and London, 1970). 17. Paul Wheatley, Impressions of the Malay Peninsula in Ancient Times (Singa- pore, 1964), p. 85. 18. Hirth and Rockhill, op. cit., p. 23. 19. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, op. cit., p. 187. 20. Hirth and Rockhill, op. cit., p. 60; Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya, op. cit., p.1. 21. Tibbetts, op. cit., pp. 43, 182; Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, op. cit., p.199. 22. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, op. cit., pp. 38,57,68,84,91; Hirth and Rockhill, op. cit., p. 31. 23. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, op. cit., p. 82. 24. Ibid., p. 200. 25. Ibid., p. 80. 26. Hirth and Rockhill, op. cit., pp. 155 ff. 27. Armando Corte sao (ed.), The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), 2 vols. 28. C. C. Brown, 'Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals',jMBRAS, 25, 2 and 3 (1952), p.12. 29. R. J. Wilkinson, Malay Literature (Kuala Lumpur, 1907), p. 5. 30. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya, op. cit., Chapter 4. 31. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, op. cit., p. 15. Further Reading Recent systematic archawlogical work on early Malaysian history is limited, although several teams have made important contributions. In Borneo, the major studies have been undertaken by the late Mr Tom Harrisson and Barbara Harrisson with assistance from a number of colleagues, including Professor S. O'Connor of Cornell University. A general survey is Tom Harrisson, 'The Prehistory of Borneo', 308 NOTES AND FURTHER-READING Asian Perspectives, 13 (1970), pp. 17-45. A memorial issue, JMBRAS, 50, 1 (1977), gives some personal assessments of Harrisson's work by other scholars in the field. Dr A. Lamb and Mr B. Peacock have also excavated extensively on the peninsula. Their findings, which include some discussion of earlier archaeological work, are scattered through numerous articles, but unfortunately some of the most interesting ones appeared in the Federation Museums Journal, the Brunei Museum Journal, the Sabah Society Journal and the Sarawak Museum Journal, which do not have a good distribution outside specialist libraries. A useful volume is Alastair Lamb, 'Miscellaneous Papers on Early Hindu and Buddhist Settlement in Northern Malaya and Southern Thailand', Federation Museums Journal, New Series, 6 (1961). A basic bibliography is F. L. Dunn and B. A. V. Peacock, 'An Annotated Bibliography of Malayan (West Malay~ian) Archaeology', Asian Per­ spectives, 14 (1973), pp. 43-8, although this only covers the period up until 1969, and does not include Sarawak and Sabah. John Miskie, 'Classical Archaeol­ ogy in Sumatra', Indonesia, 30, October (1980), pp. 43-66 gives an overview of current findings in Sumatra. Peter Bellwood, Man:SO Conquest of the Pacific: The Prehistory of Southeast Asia and Oceania (Auckland, 1978) provides the regional context for Malaysia's prehistory. A useful survey of jungle collecting, based on anthropological, geographical and archaeological studies, is F. L. Dunn, Rain Forest Collectors and Traders: A Study of Resource Utilization in Modern and Ancient Malaya (MBRAS Monograph, no.