Translation Tips

William F. Hoffman, 737 Hartfield Dr., North Aurora IL 60542-8917, E-mail: [email protected]

[Notes to a talk given at the 2001 Fall Conference of the Polish Genealogical Society of America]

GERMAN: A Little Practice with German Handwriting

Print Script Samples In our alphabet Meaning A a A a Adalb„r“ Adalbert Adalbert [Wojciech] Ä ä Ä ä nämli{ nämlich namely, by name B b B b Bauer, b„erƒ‚gt Bauer, beerdigt farmer, buried C c C c Chir”r†, au{ Chirurg, auch surgeon, also D d D d Do`au, und Donau, und Danube, and E e E e Ehemann Ehemann husband F f F f Frˆed‘ˆ{, Taufe Friedrich, Taufe Frederick, baptism G g G g Geo‘†, geb. Georg, geb. George, née H h H h Hauptmann, Jahr Hauptmann, Jahr captain, year I i I i Innung, im Innung, im guild, in the J j J j Jahr, jung Jahr, jung year, young K k K k Käthner, katho‹i| Käthner, katholisch cottager, Catholic L l L l Lehr‹ing, leb„ndˆg Lehrling, lebendig apprentice, alive M m M m Mäd›en, Summer Mädchen, Summer girl, summer N n N n Na{t, Juni Nacht, Juni night, June O o O o Or“^lexiko`, o… t Ortslexikon, oft gazetteer, often Ö ö Ö ö Öster‘„i{, |ö` Österreich, schön Austria, beautiful P p P p Pfar‘„r, pr„ußi| Pfarrer, preussich minister, Prussian Q q Q q Quelle, quittier„n Quelle, quittieren source, give a receipt R r R r Regier”ng^bezirŠ Regierungsbezirk administrative area S s ^ S s ^ S{ein, ist, na{t^ Schein, ist, nachts certificate, is, at night T t T t Tagelö‡ner, Vater Tagelöhner, Vater day-laborer, father U u U u Uhr, unb„kannt Uhr, unbekannt hour, unknown Ü ü Ü ü über’„~en übersetzen to translate V v V v Vater, evangeli| Vater, evangelisch father, Evangelical W w W w Witwe, Witwer Witwe, Witwer widow, widower X x X x Xbrˆ^ or Xbris Xbris abbr. for December Y y Y y Bayer` Bayern Bavaria Z z Z z Zeuge, zwö‹f Zeuge, zwölf witness, twelve

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General German Vocabulary & Abbreviations a. D. = außer Dienst, retired; also can be Anno fallende Krankeit, Fallsucht: epilepsy Domini, in the year of our Lord Fäule: cancer, abcess, sepsis a. d. h. = aus dem Hause, “from the house” Fehlgeburt: miscarriage Alter: age; Altersschwäche: senility Feldwebel: non-commissioned officer *ausgewandert: emigrated *Gärtner: gardener, farmer with a bit of land Auszehrung: tuberculosis Gatte: husband; Gattin: wife b. v. = beide von, “both from” *geb. = geboren, “born, née” Bäcker, Becker: baker Gefreiter: lance corporal Bauer: farmer; Bauernknecht: farmhand Gehirnschlag: stroke Beerdigung: burial *Gemeinde: community, parish begr. = begraben, “buried” Gerber: tanner Bergmann: miner *Geschwister: brother or sister, sibling Bettler: beggar Geschwulst: dropsy, swelling Beulenpest: bubonic plague Geselle: journeyman Bezirk: district gest. = gestorben, “died” Binder: cooper get. = getauft, “baptized” Blattern: smallpox getr. = getraut, “married” Bleichsucht: anemia Gevatter: godparent Blinddarmentzündung: appendicitis Gicht: gout Blut: blood; Blutfluß: hemmorhage; Blut- Gift: poison vergiftung: blood poisoning *Gm. = Gemeinde, “parish” *Borussia: Prussia Gutsbesitzer: estate owner Bräune: dyphtheria, angina Halsentzündung: throat infection Brustkrankheit: pneumonia, tuberculosis Händler: merchant, trader Bürger: burgher, townsman Handwerker: craftsman *bzw.: beziehungsweise, “respectively, or” *Häusler: cottager (& day-laborer) Charge: military rank Hausvater: “father of the house” Chirurg: surgeon *Hebamme: midwife *d. h. = das heißt, “that is, i. e.” *Heimatortskartei: homeland card-file (per dergl., desgl. = dergleichen, desgleichen: “the Thode a register of addresses of over 18 same” million people from Poland, Soviet Uni- Diener: servant on, and other German-speaking terri- Drost: bailiff tories living there in 1939; address: ehel. = ehelich, “legitimate” Heimatortskarteien, Lessingstraße 1, W- ehelich: legitimate 8000 München, Germany) ehemalig: former; ehemals: formerly Heirathserlaubnis: marriage permit Ehemann: husband; Ehefrau: wife Herdstättensteur: hearth-tax Eigenmann: serf, vassal Herzanfall, Herzschlag: heart attack eigenhändig: in one’s own hand Hirt: herdsman Einlieger: free agricultural laborer Hitzschlag: heat stroke Entbindung: delivery (of a child) Hofbesitzer: farm owner entjungfert: deflowered Hofmann: manorial estate administrator, Entkräftung: weakening, debilitation farmer Ergänzungsbezirk: supplemental district Holzhauer, Holzknecht: woodcutter erstgeboren: firstborn *Huber: farmer of a half-sized farm; Hübner, evang. = evangelisch, “Protestant” Hüfner: owner of a full-sized farm

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*i. V. = in Vertretung, “on behalf of,” or in Mägd. = “servant girl, maid” Vollmacht, “as proxy” Mälzer: maltster, brewer Imker: beekeeper männl. = männlich, “masculine” Impfung: vaccination *Marasmus: decrepitude, weakness Jgfr. = Jungrau, “maiden, virgin” Maurer: bricklayer, stonemason Jäger: hunter Meier: farmer, estate overseer Jammer: epilepsy Meldeamt: registration office Jngfr. = Jungfrau, “maiden, miss” Metzger: butcher Junggeselle: apprentice minderjährig: minor, not of legal age *K. u. k. = Kaiserlich und Königlich: Royal *Morgen: unit of land measure (the amount and Imperial (Austrian Empire) an ox can plow in one morning) Kähler: coal merchant Müller, Mueller: miller Kärrner: freight handler, carter nämlich: namely, to wit Kästner: steward, treasurer, carpenter Ober-: upper, over, superior Katasterbuch: book of deeds Ohnmacht: unconsciousness, fainting *Kätner: cottager (with a small house and a Ortsansäßiger: resident of the place, local little land, maybe a few cows) Pächter: renter, tenant (Pacht: lease) Kaufmann: merchant Pate: godfather; Patin: godmother Keßler: kettle-maker, coppersmith *Personalausweis: identity card Kgf. = Kriegsgefangener: “prisoner of war” Pest: plague Kindbettfieber: puerpural fever Pf. = Pfenning, “penny” Kinderlahmung: infantile paralysis Pfarramt: parish office Kirchenbücher: church registers Pfr. = Pfarrer, “minister” Kleinhändler: retail merchant Richter: judge Knecht: farmhand Rose: erysipelas Koch: cook Rößler: horseman; tanner Köhler: charcoal burner Röteln: German measles, rubella Koter: cottager (owned a little land) *Rückwanderer: returning emigrant *Kr. = Kreis, “county” (= Polish powiat) Ruhestand: retirement Kramer, Krämer: one who has a small stall or S. d. = Sohn des, “son of” shop for selling inexpensive goods S. v. = Sohn von, “son of” Kränke: epilepsy Säger: sawyer Krebs: cancer samt. = “together with” Kretschmer: innkeeper Säugling: infant Krüger, Krueger: innkeeper Schäfer, Schaefer: shepherd *Kurland: Courland (now in Latvia) Scharlachfieber: scarlet fever Kürschner: furrier Scharwerker: day-laborer (on a farm) Lähmung: paralysis Schlächter: butcher Landesbezirk: administrative district Schlag, Schlaganfall: stroke *Landsturm: military home guard (for those Schleimfieber: typhus age 43-50) Schmidt: smith *Landwehr: local militia (for those 35-42) Schneider: tailor Landwirt: farmer Schnitzer: woodcarver laut: according to schriftlich: in writing Lazarett: field hospital Schröder, Schroeder: tailor led. = ledig, “single” *Schulz: village magistrate, mayor (= Polish Lehrling, Lehrjunge: apprentice soðtys) Lungenentzündung: pneumonia Schumann, Schuster: shoemaker Hoffman: Translation Tips – 3

Schütze: hunter, military rifleman Vormund: guardian Schwinde: consumption, tuberculosis Wächter: watchman, guard Skorbut: scurvy Wagner: carter *Standesamt: civil registration office Waise: orphan Stellmacher: wheelwright Wärter: caretaker T. d. = Tochter des, “daughter of” Wassersucht: dropsy, edema *Tagelöhner: day-laborer Weber: weaver Täufling: one being baptized weibl = weiblich, “feminine” to[d]tgeboren: stillborn *weil. = weiland, “late, deceased” Trabant: foot soldier Wirt: innkeeper, landlord u. = und, “and” Wochenfieber: puerpural fever u. d. = und des, und der, “and of” Wohnstätte: place of residence unehelich: illegitimate Wwe. = Witwe, “widow” *Untauglichkeitsschein: certificate of unsuita- Wwer. = Witwer, “widower” bility for military service X: Christ; ten; or short for Ksiãdz (Rev.) v. = von, “from” Zeuge: witness Vergiftung: poisoning Ziegler: brickmaker verh. = verheiratet, “married” Zigeuner: Gypsy verl. = verlobt, “engaged” Zimmermann: carpenter Verschollener: one missing, declared dead Zunftmeister: guild master *Vogt, Voigt: bailiff, sheriff (= Polish wójt) Zwang: diarrhea volljährig: of age, no longer a minor Zwilling: twin

LATIN: TITLES INDICATIVE OF SOCIAL STATUS

Polish vital records often contained titles or terms that indicate the social status or rank of the individuals mentioned in them. In many cases, the status described has no real equivalent in English, as the concepts described are foreign to American contemporary culture. In such cases the literal English meaning, or the closest rough equivalent, of the title is provided, even though the full “flavor” of the expression is somewhat diluted.

Terms for Nobles and the Clergy

The following are all adjectives, declined either like magnus (those ending in -us) or like fortis (those ending in -is).

Latin Polish English Used to address: illustrissimus ac jaõnie wielmoþny The Honorable magnate, senator magnificus magnificus wielmoþny Esq., Your an official of the court Honor generosus urodzony “well born” owner of at least one village nobilis szlachetny noble owner of a parcel, or leaseholder spectabilis godny worthy wealthy patrician from a large city honoratus zacny honorable patrician famosus/famatus sðawetny renowned middle class craftsman

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providus/circum- opatrzny provident a poor craftsman spectus honestus uczciwy honest farmer from a small town laboriosus pracowity industrious peasant infidelis/perfidus niewierny, prze- non-believer non-Christian wrotny reverendissimus przewielebny Very Reverend Bishop Ordinary reverendus wielebny Reverend abbot, bishop, suffragan venerabilis dostojny distinguished, pastor venerable honorabilis czcigodny venerable, rural pastor or assistant pastor honorable

Terms for Commoners

Latin Polish Notes cmetho, cmethonis kmieç a generally self-supporting peasant with at least one ðan of land semi-cmetho póðkmieç a peasant farmer on ½ ðan of land hortulanus, zagrodnik a peasant farmer who owned a house with a hortulani small piece of land and garden and usually a small stock of farm animals ogrodnik in some areas used interchangeably with za- grodnik, in some areas implying less land chaðupnik a farmer with at least a house (chaðupa) inquilinus, inqulini komornik a farmer who lived with another kãtnik a farmer or a worker on a large estate famulus, famuli parobek generally landless farm worker or worker on an estate arator, aratoris rataj a zagrodnik who also worked at a large estate farm gbur used in the German partition, a wealthy peasant, frequently free from serf labor obligations colonus, coloni kolonista originally meant “settler” or colonizer, later acquired the meaning of “poor peasant” agricola, agricolæ rolnik a general term in the 19th century to describe a peasant

MONTHS OF THE YEAR

Januarius, Januarii Julius, Julii Februarius, Februarii Augustus, Augusti Martius, Martii September, Septembris, 7bris, VIIbris Aprilis, Aprilis October, Octobris, 8bris, VIIIbris Maius, Maii November, Novembris, 9bris, IXbris Junius, Junii December, Decembris, 10bris, Xbris

The names of the months are actually considered adjectives modifying the unexpressed noun mensis, month. Those ending in -us are declined like nouns of the Second Declension, so that the Hoffman: Translation Tips – 5

genitive singular ends in -i, the ablative in -o. Aprilis, September, October, November and December are declined like nouns of the Third Declension, with the genitive singular in -is, ablative in -i. Observant readers may note that September, October, etc. should mean “seventh month, eighth month,” and so on. In ancient Rome the year was reckoned as beginning with March, so that under that system September was the seventh month, October the eighth, etc. When the calendar was changed the months kept their original days. This makes the abbreviations 7bris, 8bris very confusing, because we would expect them to refer to July and August, when in fact they refer to September and October. When you see these abbreviations, it helps to replace the numeral with the Roman name, i. e., 7 = septem, which reminds us that 7bris refers to September.

DAYS OF THE WEEK

There were several different names for days of the week, using either dies (day) and the name of a god, or feria plus a simple ordinal:

Sunday: dies Solis (day of the Sun), dies dominica, feria prima Monday: dies Lunæ (day of the Moon), feria secunda Tuesday: dies Martis (day of Mars), feria tertia Wednesday: dies Mercurii (day of Mercury), feria quarta Thursday: dies Jovis (day of Jove), feria quinta Friday: dies Veneris (day of Venus), feria sexta Saturday: dies Saturni (day of Saturn), feria septima (or Sabbatum)

RENDERING OF DATES

Dates are usually given in Latin by rendering the year and day in the ablative case, and the month in the genitive, according to the pattern “[in] the —th year, [on] the —th day of the month of —.” Often the priests or clerks, having no great desire to torture themselves, would simply write the name down in numerical form, which we can read easily. But many forms mandated that the date be written out in full. Consider this date:

Anno Domini millesimo octingentesimo quinquagesimo primo, die decimo septimo Octobris

It is certainly a mouthful! But you may actually see dates given this way, so it is wise to be familiar with the pattern. First, anno is the ablative singular of annus, year, and “Anno Domini” (“in the year of [Our] Lord”) is a familiar expression, so at least you know right away that what follows is the year something happened. Reference to the dictionary and a quick review of the ablative endings tell us millesimo is the term for “thousand,” octingentesimo means “eight hundred,” quinquagesimo means “fiftieth,” and primo means “first.” So this happened in the one thousand eight hundred fifty-first year of Our Lord: 1851. Then we note that die is the ablative singular of the Fifth Declension noun dies, “day,” so now we proceed to decipher the month and day. Reference to a dictionary tells us that decimo septimo is an ablative form of the expression meaning “seventeenth.” Octobris is genitive of October; in some cases we might see the word mensis, “month,” preceding Octobris, but it isn’t really necessary and in either case we understand what is being said. With this information we state confidently that the date was “17 October 1851.”

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General Latin Vocabulary & Abbreviations advocatus: lawyer; as an official, a mayor or dies vitae: “day of life,” i. e., age town wójt dioecesis: diocese advena: alien, foreigner; corrupta advena: dispensatio: dispensation for a marriage that non-Catholic foreigner (?) would otherwise be against Church law aetas: age; aetate: at the age of __ Dmni = Domini, “of the lord” ancilla: servant, maid dolor: pain; dolore capitis: head pain; dolore Anno Dni = Anno Domini, “year of our Lord” pectoris: chest pain annorum: “of years,” = age domicilium: domicile, legal residence ao. = anno, “in the year” dominus: lord (= Polish pan, German Herr) apoplexia: stroke ducatus: duchy apothecarius: druggist, shopkeeper E. et O. R. = errore et omissione reservata, arator: farmer, plowman “error and omission reserved” auriga: coachman E. R. = errore reservata, “error reserved” bannis: banns ead. = eadem, “the same” benedixi hoc matrimonium: I blessed this ecclesia: church marriage economus: steward, estate official overseeing ca. = circa “about” farm workers caelebs: single, bachelor ejus: of that one = “his” or “hers” capella: chapel *-ensis: suffix added to the name of a town or caupo: innkeeper village, e. g. cracoviensis = “of Kraków” cerdo: day-laborer, tanner eod. = eodem, “the same”; eod. q. supra = chirurgus: surgeon eodem quo supra: “the same day as above” civis: citizen, burgher (= German Bürger) eques: knight *commendarius: pastor eructatio: vomiting conjuges: married couple, spouses; c. f. l. = faber: smith, craftsman; faber ferri: black- conjugum filius legitimus, legitimate son of smith; faber lignarius: carpenter; faber a married couple murarius: mason, brick-maker consanguinarius: blood relative famella: servant girl consensus: agreement, permission febris nervosa: “nervous fever” cooperator: assistant pastor filia: daughter copulatio: wedding, marriage filius: son coquus (masc.) or coqua (fem.): cook frater: brother cor: heart gemellus, geminus: twin cruditas: dyspepsia, indigestion germanus: with the same parents curator: pastor, as an official, a supervisor; habuit: had; habuit ultra 100 annorum: was curator medici: doctor more than 100 years old custos: guard; a custodian or supervisor haeres: squire, landed proprietor, heir, heiress d. d. = de dato (on this date) heri: yesterday debilitas: weakness hospes: innkeeper decanatus: deanery (subdivision of a diocese) *hujatis: local (? < hujus, “of this [place]”) decessit sine prole (d.s.p.): died without issue ictus: stroke; fulmine ictus: struck by lightning *deflor. = deflorata, “deflowered” ignotus: not known *deft. = defunctus, “deceased” impedimentum: impediment to a marriage denatus: deceased (legal reason against it) *dictus: “said,” i. e., called, known as” incola: inhabitant, day-laborer die: from dies, “on [such-and-such a] day” inquilinus: tenant, landless day-laborer Hoffman: Translation Tips – 7

juvenis: youth, young man, groom primogenitus: first-born *levantes: godparents proles: child, offspring magister: teacher, master; magister civium: propter: due to, on account of mayor; magister ludi: schoolmaster; puella: girl magister stabuli: master of the stable puer: boy majorennis: of legal age puerperium: childbirth manu propria: in one’s own hand *recte: properly, correctly, rightly marita: married woman, wife *relicta: widow; relictus: widower maritus: married man, husband ren. = renatus or renata, “baptized, reborn” materfamilias: “mother of the family” rusticus: peasant, landless laborer medicus: doctor, physician Sacramentis munitis or Sa~tis provisis: the mendicus: beggar Last Rites having been administered mensis: month sartor: tailor mercator: merchant, trader *scultetus: village administrator [Polish soðtys] miles: soldier senectus: old age; propter senectutem: due to *modo: now, alias (used with married names old age or acquired names) senex: old man morbus: illness, cause of death sepultus est: was buried murarius or murator: mason servus: servant N. N. = nomen nescio, “I do not know the sine: without name” socer: father-in-law nat. = natus or nata, “born” soror: sister naturalis: “natural,” i. e., illegitimate spur. = spurius or spuria illegitimate neophytus: convert, one newly baptized st. n. = stilo novo, “New Style” date nomen: name sutor: shœmaker obiit: died; obitus: death; obitus est: he died tabernator: innkeeper obstetrix: midwife testes: witnesses officium: office; ex officio parochiali: from the textor: weaver parish office *thorus: literally “bed,” usually used to *olim: deceased, late indicate legitimate or illegitimate birth opilio: shepherd tussis or tussio: [whooping] cough oppidum: village, small town tutor: guardian organarius parochialis: parish organist uhlanus: cavalryman ortus: birth, origin; ortus solis: east ut supra: as [stated] above pagus: village, district ux. = uxor, “wife”; uxoratus: married palatinatus: palatinate, province (in Polish variola: smallpox województwo) venditor: merchant, vendor parochia: parish; parochialis: parish, parochial vicarius: curate, assistant pastor parochus: parish pastor vid. = viduus, “widower,” or vidua, “widow” paterfamilias: “father of the family” villanus: villager patrina: godmother virgo: virgin, maiden patrini: godparents *voto: marriage, thus 1o voto, “1st marriage,” patrinus: godfather 2do voto, “2nd marriage,” etc. pauper: pauper *vulgo: in the common language, commonly pectus: chest; dolor pectoris: chest pain known as *phthisis: tuberculosis yusd. = ejusdem, “of the same (month or plebanus: priest, pastor, vicar year)”

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RUSSIAN: THE CYRILLIC ALPHABET

Printed Cursive English Polish Lith. Printed Cursive English Polish Lith.

A a A a a a a, ã T t T t t t t B b B b b b b U u U u u u u, ú, ù V v V v v w v F f F f f f f G g G g g, h g, h g X x X x h, kh ch, h ch, h D d D d š d d d C c C c ts c c E e E e (y)e e, ie, je [i]e, ê, é H h H h ch cz è ~ ` ~ ` (y)o o, io, jo [i]o W w W w sh sz š " ' " ' zh þ ÿ } ] } ] shch szcz šè Z z Z z z z z z + = + = — — — I i I i i i y, í Y y Y y y y i J j J j y j j, i : ; : ; ’ — — K k K k k k k | \ | \ e e e L l L l l l l { [ { [ yu, yoo u, iu, ju iu, ju M m M m m m m Q q Q q ya, ia a, ia, ja ia, ja N n N n n n n Archaic Characters O o O o o o o 5 4 É é (i)e e, ie, je (i)e P p P p p p p I 1 Î í i i y, i R r R r r r r 3 2 Ú ú i, y i y, i S s S s s s s > < Ø ø f f f

The Russian language is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, as are a number of other Slavic languages, including Bulgarian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Serbian, and Macedonian. This alpha- bet differs markedly from the Roman alphabet used in most western European languages, in- cluding English, Polish, etc. Shown above is the version of Cyrillic used in modern Russian, including several archaic characters not used since the Russian Revolution, with approximate equivalents in English, Polish, and Lithuanian. Please understand from the start that these “equivalents” are very approximate.

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The Cyrillic alphabet is named after St. Cyril, 827-869, a Christian missionary; he and his brother St. Methodius (825-885) are regarded as the Apostles to the Slavs because they were the first to convert Slavs to Christianity, in Moravia. Traditionally St. Cyril is credited with creating this alphabet, adapted to Slavic phonetics, so that he could produce a written translation of the Scriptures into Old Church Slavonic. The brothers were clergymen of the Eastern Church, in which Greek was the language of the liturgy, and the characters of the Cyrillic alphabet were drawn largely from the Greek alphabet. Special characters were created for sounds typical of the Slavic languages but absent in Greek—w and c are said to have been modeled after Hebrew # and c, respectively. The Cyrillic alphabet has been modified considerably since then, and different Slavic languages use slightly different versions; thus reference to the “Russian” alphabet is to the version used by that language, as opposed to the version used in Belarusian or Ukrainian, for instance. Note that there are 33 characters in the modern Russian alphabet. Before orthographic re- forms introduced after the Russian Revolution in 1917, there were 37. The four characters no longer used are marked separately in the chart on page 9. They still appear in records from before 1917, and thus will be seen in many of the records of interest to genealogical research- ers. Modern dictionaries seldom feature them, thus they require some attention.

1. The Archaic Characters

5 4 É é

This symbol has been replaced in modern Russian by E. Originally the sound represented by 5 was distinct from E, but during the course of the language’s development they both came to be pronounced in a like manner. Note the following examples:

Old Orthography Present Orthography English Phonetics l4t= let lyet n4t= net nyet

I i Í ííí

This symbol had the same sound value as the letter I, by which it was replaced. The I occurred primarily before another vowel, and infrequently in other linguistic environments. The following examples are commonly used lexical items in vital records:

Old Orthography Present Orthography English Phonetics prisutstv1i prisutstvii prisutstvii kre]en1e kre]enie kreshchenie

We often see this symbol in research because it appears in surnames ending in –ski:

Adamsk1j Adamskij Adamski Ol;wevsk1j Ol;wevskij Olszewski The other two archaic characters are less likely to be encountered in the course of genealogical research—one tends to see them mainly in theological contexts—but are offered here for reference purposes:

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> < Ø ø

An equivalent of Russian F (the sound of f), this symbol appeared in words borrowed from Greek. Incidentally, perhaps you’re saying “I thought Greek Θ represented a th sound, and Φ was a ph sound.” Exactly so, in classical Greek. But by Cyril’s time some of the phonetic values of Greek had changed from their classical values; and since then there has been enough time for further alteration. It’s no surprise some letters have come to be sounded differently.

3 2 Ú ú

Deriving from the Greek letter υ, upsilon, this symbol had the same sound value as I.

2. Other Characters Needing Special Attention

+ = + =

One final aspect of the spelling reforms we should note is the modification of the use of the symbol =, known as the “hard sign” (in Russian tv¸rdyj znak). This symbol, formerly a vowel, gradually lost its sound value and was used most frequently after consonants in final word position to indicate they were pronounced as hard consonants rather than soft. This particular function of the symbol was eliminated by the post-Revolution spelling reforms.

Old Orthography Present Orthography Adam= Adam stakan= stakan

This symbol continues to be used in modern Russian, but appears infrequently; when it does appear, it usually follows verbal prefixes, e. g. ob=qsnit;.

: ; : ;

The “soft sign” ; (mqgkij znak) likewise symbolized a vowel sound at one point, but in modern Russian it indicates palatalization or softening of the consonant it follows.

Y y Y y

This symbol still retains its vowel quality. It is difficult to describe in print, but can best be summarized as a short ì sound, somewhat as in English “ship.” It always follows a hard, i. e., non-palatalized, consonant. In Polish it is roughly comparable to the sound of the vowel y. Note that the characters =, ;, and y never begin words, and thus their uppercase forms are encountered only when a word is printed in all uppercase forms, for emphasis. The symbols = and ; do not really correspond to any letter in the Roman alphabet as used in English; when Russian words are transliterated into English, those symbols are usually disregarded. In academic usage the soft sign ; is often represented with an apostrophe, i. e., mat; may be rendered as mat’. [Note: the material in this section, used with permission, is from the book In Their Words: A Genealogist’s Translation Guide to Polish, German, Latin, and Russian Documents: Volume 2: Russian, due to be published by Language & Lineage Press in late 2001 or early 2002. See the Language & Lineage Press Website for details.

Hoffman: Translation Tips – 11

POLISH: TERMS FOR OCCUPATIONS

It is difficult to decide what list of terms can be given in this limited space that might be most helpful to Polish researchers. But I see a lot of requests for translations of terms denoting occupations, so perhaps that’s a good choice. This list of terms for occupations often appearing in records includes many that are archaic, i. e., they are no longer used in modern Polish, or are still used but with different meanings, e. g., koszykarz can now mean “basketball player”! And myõliwiec, once “hunter,” is now refers to a fighter plane or fighter pilot. This list is from In Their Words... Volume 1: Polish, and is reproduced with permission. akuszerka, akuszerki: (f.) midwife czapnik, czapnika: (m.) cap-maker aptekarz, aptekarza: (m.) druggist czeladnik, czeladnika: (m.) journeyman (in a archiwista, archiwisty: (m., declined as if guild) fem.) archivist czynszownik, czynszownika: (m.) a person arendarz karczmy, arendarza karczmy: (m.) who paid rent (czynsz) publican, innkeeper dachówkarz, dachówkarza: (m.) roofer bakaðarz, bakaðarza: (m.) teacher dekarz, dekarza: (m.) roofer bankier, bankiera: (m.) banker doktor, doktora: (m.) doctor bartnik, bartnika: (m.) beekeeper dozorca, dozorcy: (m., declined as if fem. in bednarz, bednarza: (m.) cooper sing.) supervisor, guard biaðoskórnik, biaðoskórnika: (masc.) tanner, druciarz, druciarza: (m.) wiremaker leather-dresser, skin-dresser drukarz, drukarza: (m.) printer bibliotekarz, bibliotekarza: (m.) librarian dziedzic, dziedzica: (m.) country gentleman, biedak, biedaka: (m.) pauper heir, squire biskup, biskupa: (m.) bishop dziekan, dziekana: (m.) deacon, priest blacharz, blacharza: (m.) tinsmith heading a deanery blicharz, blicharza: (m.) bleacher dzierþawca, dzierþawcy: (m., declined as if brãzownik, brãzownika: (masc.) brazier, fem. in sing.) lease-holder brass-founder dzwonnik, dzwonnika: (m.) bell-ringer brukarz, brukarza: (m.) paver ekonom, ekonoma: (m.) estate steward or buchalter, buchaltera: (m.) bookkeeper supervisor budowniczy, budowniczego: (m., adj. used as fabrykant, fabrykanta: (m.) factory-owner, a noun) builder manufacturer burmistrz, burmistrza: (m.) mayor fajciarz, fajciarza: (m.) pipe-maker cegielnik, cegielnika: (m.) brick-maker farbiarz, farbiarza: (m.) dyer ceglarz, ceglarza: (m.) brick-maker felczer, felczera: (m.) doctor’s assistant, army celnik, celnika: (m.) customs officer surgeon chaðupnik, chaðupnika: (m.) cottager, one fornal, fornala: (m.) groom, stable-boy who makes products at home for sale furman, furmana: (m.) driver of farm wagon chðop, chðopa: (m.) peasant or cart cieõla, cieõli: (m., declined as if fem. in sing.) garbarz, garbarza: (m.) tanner carpenter gonciarz, gonciarza: (m.) shingler cukiernik, cukiernika: (m.) candy-maker górnik, górnika: (m.) miner cyrulik, cyrulika: (m.) barber, surgeon

Hoffman: Translation Tips – 12

gospodarz, gospodarza: (m.) farmer (one kucharz, kucharza: (m.) cook (male) fairly well off, owning his own land) kunszt, kunsztu: (m.) craft, trade, artistry gospodyni, gospodyni: (f.) wife of a gospodarz kupiec, kupca: (m.) merchant, shopkeeper grabarz, grabarza: (m.) gravedigger kuõnierz, kuõnierza: (m.) furrier gremplarz, gremplarza: (m.) card-maker lakiernik, lakiernika: (m.) varnish maker grzebieniarz, grzebieniarza: (m.) comb- lalkarz, lalkarza: (m.) doll-maker maker ðatacz, ðatacza: (m.) patcher; ðatacz obuwia: guzikarz, guzikarza: (m.) button-maker cobbler gwóødziarz, gwóødziarza: (m.) nail-maker ðawnik, ðawnika: (m.) assessor, town hafciarz, hafciarza: (m.) silk weaver councillor handlarz, handlarza: (m.) merchant, trader; lekarz, lekarza: (m.) doctor handlarz ryb: fish merchant; handlarz leõnik, leõnika: (m.) forester sera: cheese merchant; handlarz soli: salt listonosz, listonosza: (m.) mailman merchant; handlarz starzyznã: junk lokaj, lokaja: (m.) footman, valet dealer ludwisarz, ludwisarza: (m.) plumber, iglarz, iglarza: (m.) needle-maker founder introligator, introligatora: (m.) bookbinder mãczarz, mãczarza: (m.) miller jubiler, jubilera: (m.) jeweler majster; majstra: (m.) master craftsman, e. kaflarz, kaflarza: (m.) tiler g., majster kunsztu krawieckiego, master kamieniarz, kamieniarza: (m.) stonemason, tailor stonecutter malarz, malarza: (m.) painter kapelusznik, kapelusznika: (m.) fuller marynarz, marynarza: (m.) sailor karczmarz, karczmarza: (m.) barkeeper masztalerz, masztalerza: (m.) stableman kierownik, kierownika: (m.) director mleczarz, mleczarza: (m.) dairyman klucznik, klucznika: (m.) steward, guard mðocarz, mðocarza: (m.) thresher koðodziej, koðodzieja: (m.) wheelwright mðynarz, mðynarza: (m.) miller kolonista, kolonisty: (m., declined as if fem.) mnich, mnicha: (m.) monk settler, colonist, farmer mosiêþnik, mosiêþnika: (m.) brass-worker, komornik, komornika: (m.) tenant farmer bell-maker korcarz, korcarza: (m.) grain merchant mularz, mularza: (m.) bricklayer, mason korzenny: (adj.) having to do with spice or murarz, murarza: (m.) bricklayer, mason roots; kupiec korzenny: spice buyer muzyk, muzyka (nom. pl. muzycy): (m.) koszykarz, koszykarza: (m.) basket-maker musician kotlarz, kotlarza: (m.) boilermaker, muzykant, muzykanta: (m.) musician coppersmith mydlarz, mydlarza: (n.) soap-maker kowal, kowala: (m.) blacksmith; kowal myõliwiec, myõliwca: (m.) hunter podkuwacz: horseshoe maker myõliwy, myõliwego: (m., adj. used as a noun) kramarz, kramarza: (m.) merchant, stall- hunter keeper najemnik, najemnika: (m.) hired man, day- krawcowa, krawcowej: (f., declined as an laborer adj.) dressmaker nauczyciel, nauczyciela: (m.) teacher (male) krawiec, krawca: (m.) tailor nauczycielka, nauczycielki: (f.) teacher ksiãdz, ksiêdza: (m.) priest (female) ksiêgarz, ksiêgarza: (m.) bookseller notariusz, notariusza: (m.) notary kucharka, kucharki: (f.) cook (female) noþownik, noþownika: (m.) knife-maker

Hoffman: Translation Tips – 13

oberþysta, oberþysty: (m., declined as if fem.) pszczelarz, pszczelarza: (m.) beekeeper saloon-keeper pudeðkarz, pudeðkarza: (m.) box-maker, ogrodnik, ogrodnika: (m.) peasant farmer, chest-maker one who owned and worked a garden- puszkarz, puszkarza: (m.) gunsmith sized plot rather than a full-sized farm rabin, rabina: (m.) rabbi ogrodowy, ogrodowego (m.) gardener rachmistrz, rachmistrza: (m.) calculator, okupnik, okupnika: (m.) tenant farmer book-keeper olejarz, olejarza: (m.) oilman rêkawicznik, rêkawicznika: (m.) glover oracz, oracza: (m.) farmer robotnik, robotnika: (m.) worker, laborer organista, organisty: (m., declined as if fem. rolnik, rolnika: (m.) farmer in sing.) organist rybak, rybaka: (m.) fisherman owczarz, owczarza: (m.) shepherd, sheep- rymarz, rymarza: (m.) saddler, harness- farmer (fem. owczarka, owczarki) maker pachciarz, pachciarza: (m.) tenant rytownik, rytownika: (m.) engraver papiernik, papiernika: (m.) paper-maker rzãdca, rzãdcy: (m., declined as if fem.) parasolnik, parasolnika: (m.) umbrella- administrator, steward; rzãdca dóbr maker (Kosielnicy): estate administrator (of, for parobek, parobka: (m.) farmhand instance, Kosielnica) paõnik, paõnika: (m.) belt-maker rzemieõlnik, rzemieõlnika: (m.) craftsman pasterz, pasterza: (m.) shepherd rzezak, rzezaka: (m.) butcher; among Jews, a perfumiarz, perfumiarza: (m.) perfume- kosher butcher, or one who performs maker circumcisions perukarz, perukarza: (m.) wig-maker rzeønik, rzeønika: (m.) butcher piekarz, piekarza: (m.) baker sêdzia, sêdziego (in sing. declined like an adj. pisarz, pisarza: (m.) scribe, clerk, writer or a feminine noun): (m.) judge piwowar, piwowara: (m.) brewer siodlarz, siodlarza: (m.) saddler pðóciennik, pðóciennika: (m.) one who makes sitarz, sitarza: (m.) sieve-maker or sells linen products skarbnik, skarbnika: (m.) treasurer poborca podatkowy, poborcy podatkowego: õledziarz, õledziarza: (m.) herring merchant (m., declined as if fem. in the singular) sðodownik, sðodownika: (m.) maltster tax collector sðuga, sðugi: (m., declined as if fem.) servant pogrzebowy, pogrzebowego: (m., adj. used as (male); sðuga koõcielny: church sexton a noun) funeral director õlusarz, õlusarza: (m.) iron worker, lock- poñczosznik, poñczosznika: maker of hosiery smith postrzygacz sukna, postrzygacza sukna: (m.) sðuþãca, sðuþãcej: (f.) maidservant cloth-shearer sðuþãcy, sðuþãcego: (m.) servant (male), powroønik, powroønika: (m.) rope-maker domestic, manservant, menial pracz, pracza: (m.) laundryman sokolnik, sokolnika: (m.) falconer praczka, praczki: (f.) laundrywoman soðtys, soðtysa: (m.) village administrator proboszcz, proboszcza: (m.) pastor spekulant, spekulanta: (m.) money lender prochownik, prochownika: (m.) maker of õpiewaczka, õpiewaczki: (f.) singer (female) gunpowder õpiewak, õpiewaka: (m.) singer (male) producent, producenta: (m.) manufacturer, sprzedarz, sprzedarza: (m.) dealer, merchant, producer seller przekupieñ, przekupnia: (m.) vendor

Hoffman: Translation Tips – 14

sprzedawca, sprzedawcy: (m., declined as if winogrodnik, winogrodnika: wine-maker fem. in sing.) seller, merchant wðaõciciel, wðaõciciela: (m.) owner õrutownik, õrutownika: (m.) grinder wðoõcianin, wðoõcianina: (m.) peasant farmer stelmach, stelmacha: (m.) wheelmaker, wðoõcianka, wðoõcianki: (f.) peasant farmer carriage maker (female) stolarz, stolarza: (m.) cabinet-maker woskarz, woskarza: (m.) waxmaker straþnik, straþnika: (m.) guard, sentry, woøny, woønego: (m., adj. used as a noun) watchman caretaker, janitor; in older Polish, a legal stróþ, stróþa: (m.) guard officer, beadle strycharz, strycharza: (m.) brickmaker wyrobnica, wyrobnicy: (f.) day-laborer strzelec, strzelca: (m.) rifleman (female) studniarz, studniarza: (m.) well-digger wyrobnik, wyrobnika: (m.) day-laborer sukiennik, sukiennika: (m.) cloth-maker (male) õwiecarz, õwiecarza: (m.) candlemaker wytapiacz, wytapiacza: (m.) founder, smelter õwiniopas, õwiniopasa: (m.) swineherd wytwórca, wytwórcy: (m., declined as if fem.) szewc, szewca: (m.) shoemaker manufacturer, e. g., wytwórca butelek szklarz, szklarza: (m.) glazier (bottlemaker), skrzyn (box-maker), szkolnik, szkolnika: (m.) teacher; among jedwabiu (silk-maker), maõci (maker of Jews, shul attendant or assistant ointments, salves) szmuklerz, szmuklerza: (m.) haberdasher X. in older documents, short for Ksiãdz szpitalnik, szpitalnika: (m.) attendant at a Xiãdz → ksiãdz church, synagogue, or shelter for the zagrodnik, zagrodnika: (m.) farmer aged and needy zakonnica, zakonnicy: (f.) nun szwaczka, szwaczki: (f.) seamstress zakrystjan, zakrystjana: (m.) sexton szynkarz, szynkarza: (m.) tavern owner, zamszownik, zamszownika: suede shoe innkeeper maker tapicer, tapicera: (m.) upholsterer zarzãdca, zarzãdcy: (m., declined as if fem.) targownik, targownika: (m.) peddler, trader manager, administrator tkacz, tkacza: (m.) weaver zastêpca, zastêpcy: (m., declined as if fem.) tokarz, tokarza: (m.) lathe operator substitute, deputy tracz, tracza: (m.) sawyer zdun, zduna: (m.) potter tragarz, tragarza: (m.) porter þebrak, þebraka: (m.) beggar trêbacz, trêbacza: (m.) trumpeter zegarmistrz, zegarmistrza: (m.) watchmaker uczeñ, ucznia: (m.) student zielarz, zielarza: (m.) herbalist urzêdnik, urzêdnika: (m.) clerk, official; zðotnik, zðotnika: (m.) goldsmith Urzêdnik Stanu Cywilnego: Vital Records þoðnierz, þoðnierza: (m.) soldier; þoðnierz Registrar dymisjonowany: discharged soldier waciarz, waciarza: (m.) quilt-maker zwierzchnik, zwierzchnika: (m.) superior, warzelnik soli, warzelnika soli: (m.) salt- lord maker wêdlinarz, wêdlinarza: (m.) pork butcher wekslarz, wekslarza: (m.) money-changer wikariusz, wikariusza: (m.) assistant pastor, vicar, curate winiarz, winiarza: (m.) wine merchant

Hoffman: Translation Tips – 15