A Political Ecology of Water Struggles in Durban, South Africa

A Political Ecology of Water Struggles in Durban, South Africa Submitted by Alexander J. Loftus School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DPhil., University of Oxford Trinity Term 2005 For Thulani and Fiona Abstract This thesis looks at the relationship between water and social power. It attempts to answer two questions: who controls the distribution of water in the South African city of Durban? And how might this distribution be transformed in positive democratic ways? In attempting to answer these questions, the thesis provides insights into post-apartheid South African society and the possibilities for democratic social change. The framework of analysis builds upon work conducted in urban political ecology. In particular, I argue that urban environments, indeed all environments, should be understood as created ecosystems. Recognising this, I suggest that Durban’s waterscape should be seen as produced through capitalist social relations. The waterscape thereby becomes a particular accumulation strategy through which profits may be generated. For Durban’s communities, one of the most direct effects of this capitalist accumulation strategy is that access to water is dependent upon the exchange of money. Whilst this situation has been ameliorated somewhat through the development of a free basic water policy, the policy itself has necessitated a much tighter regulation of domestic supplies and, in effect, a more severe commodification of each household’s water supply. In turn, this has resulted in water infrastructure acquiring power over the lives of most residents. This, I argue, is a result of the social relations that come to be invested within that infrastructure. The possibilities for change that are suggested lie within the struggle for a feminist standpoint and the connection of these situated knowledges of the waterscape with a broader historical and geographical understanding of the terrain of civil society. From such an understanding of civil society, a dialectical critique of hegemony is opened up. Overall, the thesis moves from an analysis of the power relations comprising the waterscape to the development of a critique from which, it is hoped, possibilities for political change might emerge. i Acknowledgments Many of the original plans for this thesis came about during my time at Queen’s University in Canada. There, Spencer Tracy’s enthusiasm for life and for life-changing praxis inspired a large number of the early ideas. So did Tony Weis’s committed and warm-hearted scholar activism. John Holmes, David McDonald and Barry Riddell helped generate a wonderful environment in which, I think, our youthful ideas flourished. Coming to Oxford was something of a shock, but within the quieter surroundings of the School of Geography, the rays of light that have guided this project forward have shone brighter than ever. Amongst those rays of light, Erik Swyngedouw has been an unparalleled inspiration. From early meetings in his garret office, I would emerge with an insatiable energy and enthusiasm for the work ahead. In the latter stages, his careful comments, warm humour and deeply caring mentoring have, I hope, helped me to rectify some, if not all, of the dissertations failings. Tony Lemon has co-supervised with a truly remarkable kindness and patience. His thorough readings of my work and his gentle but critical comments have forced me to clarify myself and rethink many of the points I make. In the final year, Kendra Strauss and Katie Meehan helped to generate the kind of passionate energy for new ideas that was needed to drive the project forward again, and to remind me of the fun that academic debate can actually be. The reading group we formed together was a true joy to be a part of. Katie’s guidance on (feminist) political ecology has been an enormous assistance. Others within the School who have helped me, whether through friendship, inspiration or both are Simon Addison, Karen Bakker, Dave Banfield, Sue Bird, Jessica Budds, Federico Caprotti, Esteban Castro, David Dodman, ii Ana Frelih, Michael Fleming, Tessa Hebb, Maria Kaika, Christine McCulloch, Johann Moyersoen, Jack Langton, Kerem Oktem, Ben Page, Cindy Warwick and Chris White. In the latter stages, St Peter’s College has provided a wonderful haven for academic freedom and debate. Prior to leaving for South Africa, Gavin Williams spent a generous few hours with me in college. Here, new ideas were set free and my enthusiasm for the research grew. The students I have been fortunate to work with in the college over the last year have inspired the project in many different ways. They have also forced me to express myself with greater clarity, and have been good friends too. Both my family and Fiona’s family have been deeply supportive along the way, reminding me of my utopianism in the face of my claim to be a rigorous materialist and keeping my spirits high with their vast love and humour. Whilst in South Africa, the project became a deeply collaborative one. Friends and colleagues at the University of KwaZulu Natal were very generous with both time and ideas. Bill Freund was kind enough to find me a temporary home within the Department for Economic History: his advice, interest and suggestions facilitated the research process enormously. The Centre for Civil Society was another source of inspiration, with its unique blend of scholar-activism achieving so much in prising open new spaces for political debate. Peter Dwyer, Andy Gibbs, Richard Pithouse and Mandisa Mbali I would count as good friends within the Centre. Andy in particular was incredibly generous during his (and our) year in Durban. Amongst others associated with UKZN, Mary Galvin provided critical thoughts on water governance and local government restructuring (as well as looking after the two of us so generously). Tim Gibbs remains a great scholar and true friend. iii Outside of Durban (at the time), Patrick Bond has been and remains a tremendous comrade. His courage and commitment to political debate is exemplary. Greg Ruiters’ pioneering work and reflective understanding of true praxis has also been exemplary in quite different ways. In the early days, his kind and thought-provoking suggestions helped to guide the research in directions that I hope will not disappoint too much. At the HSRC, David Hemson inspired the research in a multitude of ways. His phenomenal energy and commitment to the most diverse struggles, as well as his unstinting kindness moved both Fiona and me deeply. He also introduced us to rural KwaZulu Natal with his typically enthusiastic manner, teaching us much about the water politics of the new South Africa at the same time. Almost by chance, Fiona and I were fortunate enough to meet with a dear comrade of David, Thulani Ncwane, in the early days of our research. Thulani completely transformed the project and for this reason (as well as many others) the thesis is dedicated to both him and Fiona. Without Thulani I fear we might not have grasped many of the nuances to South African politics. Without Thulani, I suspect our dialectical imaginations would have remained fixed, fast and frozen rather than alive and open. Thulani remains the most dedicated political activist I have ever met, as well as one of the most generous and open comrades imaginable. He has received very little recognition for twenty years of commitment to bringing about a better world and although this thesis is probably the last thing he needs, it would seem wrong if it was not part-dedicated to him. Other comrades in Inanda – Themba Mgogo and Sabatha Ngceshu – were also deeply kind to us and remain inspirations. When times have felt bleak here in Oxford, I remember the passionate voices of Themba, Sabatha and Thulani belting out songs from the struggle iv years, as we drove back to Inanda under a beautiful starlit sky. Later that evening, we sat outside a ship’s container in Amaoti, debating Gramsci with Themba, and learning so much from such dear friends. That memory serves as one of the clearest reminders that this project remains a collaborative process. Of course, there has always been a reminder much closer than that, as Fiona has been my closest and dearest comrade (as well as my lover) throughout the journey that has been this DPhil. Together, we have learnt so much from others. Fiona’s imprint runs throughout the entire thesis and her inspired research ideas, imagination and candour in the communities in which we worked opened up many more avenues than a shy boy from Oxford University could ever have on his own. The penultimate chapter more than any, I hope, retains Fiona’s ideas and imagination. v Table of Contents Abstract i Acknowledgments ii Table of Contents vi List of Figures ix List of Tables ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1. Introduction 1 2. Water Debates in South Africa 11 3. Water Provision in Durban 13 4. Choice of Field Sites and Methodology 19 5. Structure of the Thesis 30 Chapter 2: The State of Political Ecology 35 1. The National State System 39 1.1.The State as the Embodiment of a Minerals Energy Complex 39 1.2.The Ending of Apartheid and the Contemporary South African State System 41 1.3.Post-Apartheid Political Economy 44 2. The Local State System 46 2.1.The Local State in Durban 49 3. Reification and the State 55 3.1.State Derivation Debates 55 3.2.Reification and Contemporary Political Economy 58 3.3.The Local State: Structuration within Political Practice 61 4. The State of Political Ecology 64 5. Conclusion 68 Chapter 3: Capital Accumulation in the Production of Durban’s Waterscape 71 1.

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