MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES Published December 14 Mar Ecol Prog Ser

REVIEW

An ecosystem approach to global assessment and management of coastal waters

'United States Deparlment of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmosphenc Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Fishenes Science Center, 28 Tarzwell Drive, Narrangansett, Rhode Island 02882-1199, USA '1818 H Street NW, Room G-6015 Global Environment Faciliiy Secretariat, Washington, DC 20433, USA

ABSTRACT: Since the Rio Summit in 1992 the public has become increasingly aware that coastal ecosystems are under significant threat from poilution, overexploitation, and habitat loss. However, lit- tle Progress has been made in sustained global actions to reverse their degraded state. It has been no smail feat for the world cornrnunity to come to agreement on international instruments identifying envi- ronmental and resource problems, but it is another matter altogether to muster the scientific commu- nity and the political will to enact necessary policy reforms and devote necessary funding to restore and protect valuable manne ecosystems. An ecosystems approach is emerging for the assessment and man- agement of coastal waters around the globe utilizing modular strategies for linking science-based assessments of the changing states of large marine ecosystems to socioeconornic benefits expected from achieving long-term sustainability of their resources. To assist developing countnes in imple- menting the ecosystems approach to marine resources development and sustainability in international waters, the Global Environment Facility and its $2 billion trust fund has been opened to universal par- ticipation that builds on partnerships with the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations EnWonmental Programme, and the World Bank

KEY WORDS: Global assessment - Large manne ecosystems . Management - Sustainability

COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS IN DECLINE tution has been empowered to monitor the changing ecological states of marine ecosystems on a global There is growing evidence of continuing degrada- scale and to reconcile the needs of individual nations tion to coastal waters around the globe from habitat with those of the comrnunity of coastal nations in tak- alteration, eutrophication, toxic pollution, aerosol con- ing appropnate mitigation and managernent actions. taminants, emerging diseases, and excessive fishing The need for an approach to implement the assess- effort (FA0 1995, Epstein 1996, Duda & Cruz 1998, ment and rnanagement of coastal ecosystems in sup- Hedin 1998, Stockholrn Water Symposium EMECS Port of resource development and sustainability at 1998). This evidence has led to recognition that coastal appropriate geographic scales around the globe has ecosystems are being adversely impacted by multiple been recognized from a strategic perspective (Taylor dnving forces and has accelerated efforts by scientists & Groom 1989, Hey 1992). The Intergovernmental and resource stewards to assess, monitor, and manage Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO is en- coastal resources from an ecosystem perspective couraging coastal nations to establish national pro- (Boesch 1998). However, no Single international insti- grams for assessing and monitonng coastal ecosystems so as to enhance the ability of national and regional management organizations to develop and implement effective remedial programs for improving the quality

O Inter-Research 1999 Resale offull article not permitted 272 Mar Ecol Prog Ser 190: 271-287, 1999

of degraded ecosystems (IOC 1992). This encourage- Lakes Basin Ecosystem (Great Lakes Science Advi- ment is underscored by the United Nations (UN) Con- sory Board 1978, Duda 1990), and more recent efforts ference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in developing an ecosystem assessment approach for declaration on the ocean that recommended that the management of the North Sea (NSQSR 1993, Reid coastal nations of the globe: (1) prevent, reduce, and 1999), the Northeast Shelf of the US (Sherman et al. control degradation of the marine environment so as to 1996), the Baltic Sea (ECOPS et al. 1995), and the maintain and improve its life Support and productive Yellow Sea (Lee & Sutinen 1999). The ecosystem capacities; (2) develop and increase the potential of approach recognizes humankind and economic/social marine living resources to meet human nutritional systems as being integral parts of the ecosystem. The needs, as well as social, economic, and development Great Lakes approach led to agreements between the goals; and (3)promote the integrated management and US and Canada to follow longer-term pathways sustainable development of coastal areas and the for sustainable use of ecological resources. The 2 marine environment. decades of experience in struggling to operationalize this ecosystem approach have resulted in manage- ment programs to reverse the trend in coastal degra- ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT dation. APPROACHES The new paradigm has relevance to the manage- ment of large marine ecosystems (LMEs) (Fig. 1). On The development of strategic approaches to achiev- a global scale, 50 LMEs produce 95% of the world's ing the UNCED ocean goals from the ecosystem per- annual marine fishery yields, and within their waters spective is evolving from recent discussion, debate, most of the global ocean pollution, overexploitation, and reporting. The Ecological Society of Amenca and coastal habitat alteration occurs. This phenome- Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Man- non is discussed to date in 9 LME Volumes (AAAS agement concluded that the overarching principle for 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, Sherman et al. 1996, guiding ecosystem management is to ensure the inter- 1998, Kumpf et al. 1999, Sherman & Tang 1999). The generational sustainability of ecosystem goods (e.g. LMEs are regions of ocean space encompassing fish, trees, petroleum) and ecosystem services or pro- coastal areas from river basins and estuaries out to cesses including productivity cycles and hydrological the seaward boundary of continental shelves and the cycles (Christensen et al. 1996). This approach repre- outer margins of coastal current systems. LMEs are sents a paradigm shift from the highly focused short- relatively large regions on the order of 200000 km2 term sector-by-sector resource assessment and man- or greater, charactenzed by distinct bathymetry, agement approach in general practice today by natural hydrography, productivity, and trophically dependent resource stewardship agencies, to the broader more populations. The theory, measurement, and modeling encompassing ecosystem approach that moves spa- relevant to monitoring the changing states of LMEs tially from smaller to larger scales, and from short-term are imbedded in reports on ecosystems with chang- to longer-term management practice (Lubchenco 1994). ing ecological states, and on the Pattern formation Included in the new paradigm is a movement from and spatial diffusion within ecosystems (Holling the management of commodities to the sustainability 1973, Pimm 1984, AAAS 1990, Mangel 1991, Levin of the productive potential for ecosystem goods and 1993, Shernian 1994). In relation to the studies services (Table 1). needed to improve the state of knowledge, it should This approach builds on an earlier application of be noted that for 33 of the 50 LMEs retrospective 'an ecosystem approach' to management of the Great analyses have been conducted on the principal dri- ving forces affecting changes in bio- Table 1. Some of the substantive changes between traditional r esource man- mass yields (Table 2). agement and ecosystem management. From Lubchenco (1994)

Ecosystem management: a paradigm shift GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY From To In 1990, 2 yr before the Rio Summit Individual species Ecosystems I Small spatial scale Multiple scales on environment and drvelopment, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) was Short-term perspective. Lonq-term perspcctivc. - Humans: independent of ecosystcms Humans: integral parts of ecosystems established as a pilot program to test Management divorced from research Adaptive managcment new approaches and innovative ways Managing commodities Sustdininy production potential for aoods rind serviccs to respond to global environmental challenges in 4 focaE areas: (1) climate Sherman & Duda: Assessment and management of coastal ecosystems 273

1. Eastern BeringSea 11. InsularPacCc-Hawaiian 21. North Sea 31. Somali CoastalCunent 41. €an ChinaSea 2. Gulfof Alaska 12. Caribbean Sea 22. Baltic Sea 32. Arabian Sea 42. YellowSea 3. CalifomiaCurrent 13. HurnboldtCurrent 23. Ceilii-BiscaySheif 33. Red Sea 43. KumshioCurrenl 4. Gulf01 Califomia 14. PatagonianShelf 24. IberianCoastal 34. Bay of Bengal 44. Sea 01 Japan 5. Gulfof Mexico 15. Brazil Currenl 25. MedtterraneanSea 35. SouthCh~na Sea 45 OyashioCurrent 6. Southeasi U.S. ContinenlalShelf 16. Nonheasl BrazilShelf 26. Black Sea 36. Sulu-CdebesSeas 46. Sea of Okhotsk 7 Northeast U.S. ContinenlalShell 17. EaslGreenland Shelf 27. Canary Cumnt 37. lndonesianSeas 47. WestBering Sea 8. ScotianShelf 18. lceland SheH 28. Gunof Guinea 38. NonhernAustralian Shen 48. FaroePlateau 9. NewfoundlandShelf 19. Barents Sea 29. BenguelaCurrent 39. GreatBarner Reef 49. Antarctic 10. West GreenlandShelf 20. Nonvegian Shelf 30. AgulhasCurrent 40. NewZealand Shelf 50. PacificCentral Arnerican Coaslal

Fig. 1. Boundanes of 50 large manne ecosystems (LMEs)

change, (2) biodiversity conservation, (3) ozone deple- and programs that are country-driven and based on tion, and (4)international waters. In 1994, the GEF was national priorities designed to support sustainable transformed from its pilot phase into a permanent development. financial mechanism. Its $2 billion trust fund is Open to Under the GEF Operational Strategy related to inter- universal participation (currently 161 countries) and national waters, the explicitly stated goal of the project builds upon the partnership between the UN Develop- grants is 'to assist countries in the ways that human ac- ment Programme (UNDP),the UN Environmental Pro- tivities are conducted in the different economic sectors gramme (UNEP), and the World Bank-which are its so that the particular coastal/marine waters shared by implementing agencies. several countries or a multicountry drainage basin can In restructuring the GEF, participating governments sustainably support new patterns of human activities' sought to ensure that it fully embodied the principles (GEF 1997).Marine-related projects are focused on ser- that were set out in the UNCED conventions as well as iously threatened water bodies including LMEs as an Agenda 21. The GEF serves as a mechanism for inter- organizing framework. The focus of GEF international national cooperation for the purpose of providing new water projects is on the most imminent transboundary and additional grants and concessional funding to Stressors on ecosystems shared by several countries. meet the agreed incremental costs of measures that Consequently, prionty is placed on country-based re- achieve global environmental benefits. In October forms of sectoral policies and activities responsible for 1995, the GEF Council adopted an operational strat- the most serious transboundary environmental prob- egy, which represents the strategic framework for lems (GEF 1997).An ecosystem approach to resources actions of the GEF in its 4 focal areas. According to development, management, and sustainability in coastal the strategy's pnnciples, the GEF will fund projects oceans has been adopted by the GEF. The GEFrsinter- 274 Mar Ecol Prog Ser 190: 271-287, 1999

Table 2. List of 33 large manne ecosystems (LMEs) and subsystems for which The GEF projects are developed ini- syntheses relating to primary, secondary, or tertiary dnving forces controlling tially in multi-year horizons. In practice vanability in biomass yields have been completed for inclusion in LME some may become decadal projects sup- volumes ported pnncipally by the coastal states. The incremental investments by the GEF Large marine ecosystem Volume no. Authors are intended to leverage funds contn- US Northeast Continental Shelf 1 M. Sissenwine buted by the participating countnes and P. Falkowski partners in the public and private sectors 6 S. Murawski to initiate and maintain a science-based US Southeast Continental Shelf 4 J. Yoder Gulf of Mexico 2 W. Richards & M. McGowan approach to improve the prospects for 4 B. Brown et al. achieving long-term sustainability of 9 R. Shipp marine resources. Countries provide California Current 1 A. MacCall 4 M. Mullin 'inkind' national contributions, cash, and 5 D. Bottom policy/institutional reforms to projects, to Eastern Benng Shelf 1 L. Incze & Schumacher be augmented by both funds and techni- 8 P. Livingston et al. West Greenland Shelf 3 H. Hovgdrd & E Buch cal assistance from the more developed Norwesian Sea 3 B. Ellersten et al. donor countnes. Many countnes, in- ~arent;~ea 2 H. Skjoldal & F. Rey cluding Canada, Denrnark, France, Ger- 4 V. Bonsov many, Japan, Norway, Sweden, the North Sea 1 N. Daan Baltic Sea 1 G. Kullenberg United Kingdom, and the United States, Iberian Coastal 2 T. Wyatt & G. Perez-Gandaras are already heavily engaged in bilateral Mediterranean-Adnatic Sea 5 G. Bombace aid programs with developing countries Canary Current 5 C. Bas Gulf of Guinea 5 D. Binet & E. Marchal aimed at improving the manne environ- Benguela Current 2 R. Crawford et al. ment, habitats and fishenes, tounsm, Patagonian Shelf 5 A. Bakun mining, and petrogenic energy develop- Canbbean Sea 3 W. Richards &J. Bohnsack South China Sea-Gulf of Thailand 2 T. Piyakarnchana ment. East China Sea 8 Y.-Q. Chen & X.-Q. Shen Sea of Japan 8 M. Terazaki Yellow Sea 2 Q. Tang USE OF MODULAR STRATEGIES FOR Sea of Okhotsk 5 V. Kusnetsov et al. Humboldt Current 5 J. Alheit & P Bernal ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT Pacific Central Arnencan 8 A. Bakun et al. Indonesia Seas-Banda Sea 3 J. Zijlstra & M. Baars Sustainability of resources and growth Bay of Bengal 5 S. Dwivedi 7 A. Hazizi et al. of economies are topics vital to countnes Antarctic Manne l and 5 R.Scully et al. in the developing world. Published com- Weddell Sea 3 G. Hempel mentary from scientists in the early Kuroshio Current 2 M. Terazaki Oyashio Current 2 T. Minoda 1990s underscores the need for socioeco- Great Barner Reef 2 R. Bradbury & C. Mundy nomic considerations to be an integral 5 G. Keileher Part of applying the ecosystem approach 8 J. Brodie to the assessment and management of Sornali Current 7 E. Okernwa South China Sea 5 D. Pauly & V. Christensen LMEs across the globe. While some sci- Vol. 1 AAAS (1986) entists are concerned with the lack of Vol. 2 AAAS (1989) consistent success in the management of Vol 3 AAAS (1990) marine resources (Ludwig et al. 1993), Vol 4 AAAS (1991) others Stress the utility of science-based Vol. 5 AAAS (1993) Vol. 6 Sherrnan et al. (1996) assessments as part of manne resource Vol. 7 Sherman et al. (1998) management practices (Rosenberg et al. Vol. 8 Sherman & Tang (1999) 1993). These views, while divergent, fo- Vol. 9 Kumpf et al. (1999) cus on the in~portanceof introducing im- I I proved assessment and management strategies, particularly in developing re- national waters focal area is assisting recipient coun- gions of the world, including Asia, Africa and Latin tries around the globe in supporting incremental costs America, where coastal ecosystems are of even greater for innovative projects to improve the assessment and value than in Europe or North Amenca. In these areas management of LMEs and increase the socioeconoinic subsistence fishing for protein and income must be benefits to be derived from their resources. sustained for the support of coastal societies that have Sherman & Duda: Assessment and management of coastal ecosysterns 275

few economic alternatives. The degradation of coastal and plankton-productivity surveys when coupled with waters in developing countnes, as descnbed by Duda socioeconomic data and data from NOAA's Status and & Cruz (1998), indicates that urgent attention to im- Trends Program provide evidence of 'overfishing' proved management is necessary. rather than any environmental regime shift or de- Given the enormous Stress on these ecosystems, graded environment as a major cause for the decline. management cannot wait for science to catch up with a Although the LME study revealed a growing near- full understanding of ecosystem structure and func- coast problem of nutnent enrichment and an increas- tion. The best presently available science is needed to ing frequency and extent of harmful algal blooms, the assess the effects of changing ecosystem conditions. In capacity of the ecosystem to produce fish was not both Europe in the North Sea and North America in diminished for species not sublected to heavily tar- the northwest Atlantic, scientists have collected infor- geted fishing (Sherman et al. 1996). As a result, pelagic mation for 40 yr or more describing the decline in stocks of mackerel and herring are at unprecedented ecosystem integnty, but it was just not convincing high biomass levels estimated at 6 million metric tons enough until the later half of the 1990s to reverse gov- (NOAA 1998).Three of the modules that are science ernment policies encouraging overexploitation. How based (productivity, fish and fishenes, and pollution many decades of data are needed to do so for other and ecosystem health) are designed to produce assess- continents? Basic information must be coiiected so that ment information on which to recommend manage- management regimes may be based on sound science. ment decisions. Related socioeconomic and gover- The challenge is how to do this with lirnited funding, nance analyses are linked with the assessments to lirnited capacity, and decision-making under uncer- evaluate management options for resource sustain- tainty, and how best to divide the complex processes of ability (Edwards & Murawski 1996, Murawski 1996). monitonng, assessment, and management into achiev- able modules for simplicity and applicability. Toward this goal, a body of experience is being PRODUCTIVITYMODULE developed in LMEs on practical applications of a mod- ular approach to ecosystem assessment and manage- Productivity can be related to the carrying capacity ment. The modules are consistent with the premise of of the ecosystem for supporting fish resources (Pauly & Christensen et al. (1996) that ecosystem management Chnstensen 1995, Pauly et al. 1998, Williams 1998). is driven by explicit goals, executed by policies, proto- Recently it has been suggested that the maximum cols, and practices, and made adaptable by monitoring global level of primary productivity for supporting the and research, based on the best available understand- average annual world catch of fishenes has been ing of the ecological interactions and processes neces- reached, and further large-scale increases in yields of sary to sustain ecosystem composition, structure, and unmanaged fishenes from marine ecosystems are function. The 5 modules focus on ecosystem (1) pro- likely to be at the lower trophic levels in the marine ductivity, (2) fish and fishenes, (3) pollution and food chain (Beddington 1995, Pauly & Chnstensen ecosystem health, (4) socioeconomic conditions, and 1995). This appears to be corroborated by changes in (5) governance. the species composition of the catches of fisheries from From a global perspective. information based on the the East China Sea LME (Chen & Shen 1999). Mea- application of the modular strategy can provide a surement of ecosystem productivity can also serve as a framework for comparative inferences among LMEs as useful indication of the growing problem of coastal to global changes. Biological and physical processes eutrophication (NSQSR 1993). In several LMEs, exces- within the LMEs are reflective of 'internal' dynamics sive nutrient loadings of coastal waters have been rather than boundary conditions and have proven use- related to algal blooms that have been implicated in ful in comparing effects of changing environmental mass mortalities of living resources, emergence of conditions on LMEs in different parts of the globe pathogens (e.g. cholera, vibrios, red tides, paralytic (Bakun 1993, 1999). shellfish toxins) and explosive growth of non-indige- The National Marine Fishenes Service of NOAA has nous species (Epstein 1996). experience in the application of the 5-module LME The ecosystem Parameters measured in the produc- strategy within the US Northeast Shelf ecosystem. tivity module are zooplankton biodiversity and infor- Results have provided substantial evidence of exces- mation on species composition, zooplankton biomass, sive fishing mortality as the pnncipal 'dnving force' water column structure, photosynthetically active radi- leading to the depletion of the biomass of cod, had- ation (PAR), transparency, chlorophyll a, NOI, NO3, dock, flounder, and other demersal fish stocks (Sis- primary production, and environmental variability. senwine & Cohen 1991, Murawski 1996). The time- The plankton of LMEs can be measured by deploying senes information from catch data, bottom trawl surveys, continuous plankton recorder Systems from commer- 276 Mar Ecol Prog Ser

cial vessels of opportunity (Glover 1967). Technically tion on changes in biodiversity and abundance levels advanced plankton recorder towed bodies can be fit- of the fish community (Pope 1977, Ntiba 1998). Stan- ted with Sensors for temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, dardized sampling procedures, when deployed from nitratehitrite, petroleum, hydrocarbons, light, biolu- small calibrated trawlers, can provide important infor- minescence, and primary productivity (Aiken et al. mation on diverse changes in fish species. The fish 1999). providing the means to monitor changes in catch provides biological samples for stock assess- phytoplankton, zooplankton, primary productivity, ments, stomach analyses, age, growth, fecundity, and species composition and dominance, and long-term size comparisons (ICES 1991), data for clarifying and changes in the physical and nutnent characteristics of quantifying multispecies trophic relationships, and the the LME, as well as longer-term changes relating to collection of samples to monitor coastal pollution. Sam- the biofeedback of the plankton to environmental ples of trawl-caught fish can be used to monitor patho- change (Colebrook 1986, Dickson et al. 1988, Cole- logical conditions that may be associated with coastal brook et al. 1991, Williams 1993). pollution. The trawlers can also be used as platforms for obtaining water, sediment, and benthic samples for monitoring harmful algal blooms, virus vectors of dis- FISH AND FISHERIES MODULE ease, eutrophication, anoxia, and changes in benthic communities. Changes in species composition within the fish com- munities of LMEs have resulted from (1) excessive exploitation (Sissenwine & Cohen 1991), (2) shifts in POLLUTION AND THE ECOSYSTEM HEALTH the environmental and/or climate regime (Bakun 1993, MODULE 1999) or (3) coastal pollution (Mee 1992, Bombace 1993). These 3 sources of vanability in fisheries yield In several LMEs, pollution has been a principal dri- are operable in most LMEs. They can be described as ving force in changes of biomass yields. Assessing the primary, secondary, and tertiary driving forces in fish- changing status of pollution and health of the entire eries yields, contingent on the ecosystem under inves- LME is scientifically challenging. Ecosystem 'health' is tigation. For example, in the Humboldt Current, a concept of wide interest for which a single precise Benguela Current, and California Current LMEs, the scientific definition is problematical. Methods to assess primary driving force influencing variability in fish- the health of LMEs are being developed from modifi- enes yield and ecosystem productivity is the changing cations to a series of indicators and indices described upwelling strength (MacCall 1986, Crawford et al. by several investigators (Costanza 1992, Karr 1992, 1989, Alheit & Bernal 1993, Bakun 1993). Fishing and Norton & Ulanowicz 1992, Rapport 1992, Costanza & pollution effects are secondary and tertiary effects on Mageau 1999). The overriding objective is to monitor fisheries yields. In continental shelf LMEs, including changes in health from an ecosystem perspective as a the Yellow Sea and Northeast US Shelf, excessive fish- ineasure of the overall performance of a complex sys- eries effort has been the cause of large-scale declines tem (Costanza 1992). The health paradigm is based on in catch and changes in the biodiversity and domi- the multiple-state compansons of ecosystem resilience nance in the fish community (Sissenwine 1986, Tang and stability (Holling 1973, 1986, 1993, Pimm 1984, 1993). In these ecosystems, pollution and environmen- Costanza 1992) and 1s an evolving concept. tal perturbation are of secondary and tertiary influ- Following the definition of Costanza (1992), to be ence. In contrast, significant coastal pollution and healthy and sustainable an ecosystem must maintain eutrophication have been the principal factors driving its metabolic activity level, must maintain its internal the changes in fishenes yields of the Northwest Adri- structure and organization, and must be resistant to atic [Bonlbace 1993), the Black Sea (Mee 1992), and external stress over time and space scales relevant to the near coastal areas of the Baltic Sea (Kullenberg the ecosystem. These concepts were discussed by pan- 1986). Overexploitation and natural environmental els of experts at 2 workshops convened in 1992 by changes are of secondary and tertiary importance. NOAA (NOAA 1993). Among the indices discussed by Changes in the biodiversity of the fish community can the participants were 5 that are being considered as generate cascading effects up the food chain to apex experimental measures of changing ecosystem states predators and down the food chain to plankton compo- and health: (1) biodiversity; (2) stability; (3) yields; nents of the ecosystem (Overholtz & Nicolas 1979, (4) productivity; and (5) rtisilience. The data from Payne et al. 1990). which to denvc the experimental indices are obtained The fish and fisheries module includes fisheries- from time-series monitoring of key ecosystem para- independent bottom trawl surveys and acoustic sur- meters. An effort to validate the utility of the indices 1s veys for peliiqic species to obtain time-series informa- under development (Solow 1994, Solow & Sherman Sherman & Duda: Assessment anid rnanagement of coastal ecosystems 277

1997). The ecosystem sampling strategy is focused on emergent diseases (Epstein 1993) are included in the parameters relating to the resources at nsk from over- pollution module. exploitation, species protected by legislative authority (marine mammals), and other key biological and phys- ical components at the lower end of the food chain SOCIOECONOMIC MODULE (plankton, nutrients, hydrography). The parameters of interest include zooplankton composition, zooplankton The socioeconomic module 1s characterized by its biomass, water column structure, PAR, transparency, emphasis on practical applications of its scientific find- chlorophyll a, NOz, NO,, primary production, pollu- ings in managing the LME and on the explicit integra- tion, marine mammal biomass, marine mammal com- tion of economic analysis including valuations of position, runoff, wind Stress, seabird community ecosystem goods and Services with the science-based structure, seabird Counts, finfish composition, finfish ecosystem structure and function assessments to en- biomass, domoic acid, saxitoxin, and paralytic shellfish Sure that prospective rnanagement measures are cost- poisoning (PSP) (Sherman 1994). The experimental effective. Economists and policy analysts will need to parameters selected incorporate the behavior of indi- work closely with ecologists and other scientists to vidual~,the resultant responses of populations and identify and evaluate management options that are communities, and their interactions with the physical both scientifically credible and economically practical. and chemical environrnent. The selected Parameters Published reports addressing the developing para- provide a basis for comparing changing health status digm of ecosystem management based on economic within and among ecosystems. valuations of ecosystem goods and services include the Fish, benthic invertebrates and other biological indi- findings of an expert panel of the Ecological Society of cator species are used in the pollution and ecosystem America (Christensen et al. 1996), reports by NOAA health module'to measure pollution effects on the (Baker 1996, Griffis & Kimball 1996),reports of the US ecosystem including the bivalve monitonng strategy of Congressional Research Service (Lubchenco 1994, 'Mussel-Watch', the pathobiological examination of Zinn & Corn 1994), and SIMCOAST modeling efforts fish (Goldberg 1976, Farrington et al. 1983, ICES 1988, of McGlade (1999). Examples of processes, goods, and O'Connor & Ehler 1991, White & Robertson 1996) and services expected frorn healthy ecosystems are listed the estuarine and nearshore monitoring of contami- in Table 3. nants in the water column, substrate, and selected Special consideration should be given to improved groups of organisrns. The routes of bioaccumulation knowledge of how the natural system generates eco- and trophic transfer of contaminants are assessed, and nomic values. Many valuable services provided by nat- critical life history stages and selected food-chain ural systems are not traded in markets or included in organisms are examined for a variety of parameters planning evaluations, so extra care must be made to that indicate exposure to, and effects of, contaminants. ensure that they are not sacrificed through ignorance. Contaminant-related effects measured include dis- The services provided by coastal wetlands as nursenes eases, impaired reproductive capacity, and impaired for fisheries, natural pollution filters, and storm buffers growth. Many of these effects can be caused by direct are well-known examples that have particular rele- exposure to contaminants, or by indirect effects, such vance to coastal reclamation activities. Other examples as those resulting from alterations in prey organisms. are more subtle, including the importance of predator- The assessment of chemical contaminant exposure and prey relationships and the possibility of losing unrec- effects on fisheries resources and food-chain organ- ognized 'keystone' species in a valuable ecosystem. isms consists of a suite of parameters, including bio- Expenence indicates that growing economic values on chemical responses that are clearly linked to contami- aesthetic and recreational/tourism amenities are to be nant exposure coupled with measurements of organ expected in the LMEs. A variety of sources of economic disease and reproductive status that have been used in value arising from the natural diversity of the LME previous studies to establish links between exposure should be identified and assessed in regard to existing and effects. The specific suite of parameters measured uses and potential management innovations (Hoag- will Cover the Same general responses and thus allow land et al. 1.999). for comparable assessment of the physiological status Each project should include a generalized character- of each species sampled as it relates to chemical cont- ization of the ways in which human activities affect the aminant exposure and effects at the individual species natural marine system and the expected 'sensitivity' and population level (Svanberg 1992, Turgeon et al. of these forcing functions to various types and 1992, Varanasi et al. 1992). In addition, the implemen- levels of human activity. Population dynamics, coastal tation of protocols for assessing the frequency and development, and land-use practices in the system's effect of harmful algal blooms (Smayda 1991) and drainage basin are clear examples. Work which inte- 278 Mar Ecol Prog Ser 190: 271-287, 1999

Table 3. Ecosystem goods and services. Healthy ecosystems underway by the People's Republic of China (Tang perform a diverse array of functions that provide both goods 1989) arid South Korea (Lee & Sutinen 1999, Zhancr and services to humanity. Here, the term goods refers to items ~i,1999), arid also the ~~lfof ~~i~~~ =ME by given monetary value in the market place, hvhereas the ser- vices from ecosystems are valued, but rarely bought or sold. Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Cameroon and From Lubchenco (1994) Togo (UNIDO 1997). The governments of South Africa, Namibia and Angola are conducting joint assessments Ecosystem processes include: of the resources of the Benguela LME to guide the Hydrologic flux and storage development of a management regime for the shared Biological productivity resources of the ecosystem to ensure their long-term biogeochemical cycling and storage sustainability, particularly with regard to food security. Decomposition The Great Barrier Reef ecosystem is also being man- Maintenance of biological diversity aged from an holistic ecosystem perspective (Bradbury Ecosystem 'goods' include: & Mundy 1989, Kelleher 1993, Brodie 1999) along with Food the Northwest Australian Continental Shelf ecosystem Construction materials (Sainsbury 1988) under management by the state and Medicinal plants federal governments of Australia, and the Antarctic Wild genes for domestic plants and animals manne ecosystem under the Cornmission for the Tourism and recreation Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Ecosystem 'services' include: (CCAMLR) and its 21 nation membership (Scully et al. Maintaining hydrological cycles 1986). Movement toward ecosystem management is Regulating clirnate emerging for the North Sea (NSQSR 1993), the Barents Cleansing water and air Sea (Eikeland 1992), and the Black Sea (Hey & Mee Maintaining the gaseous composition of the atmosphere 1993). Fisheries assessments are also now being con- Pollinatiny crops and other important plants sidered within the context of ecosystems management Generating and maintaining soils Storing and cycling essential nutnents (McGlade 1999). Absorbing and detoxifying pollutants Providing beauty, inspiration, and research INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT IN APPLYING THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

grates the efforts of natural and social scientists should A framework is now emerging for linking science- concentrate further on resolving apparent effects (such based assessments of the changing states of coastal as eutrophication-associated red tide events or chang- ecosystems to guiding environmentally sound eco- ing fish population structures) that are confounded by nomic development of ecosystem resources and man- cycles or complex dynamics in the natural system agement practices. The framework is being developed itself. Progress is possible, too, in achieving better through a series of regional efforts aimed at cross-sec- characterizations of the way in which human forcing is toral integration of assessments of coastal productivity, mediated by alternative management options. Empha- fish and fisheries, and pollution and ecosystem health, sis should be placed on isolating and quantifying those with socioeconomics and governance modules (Suti- forcing activities (sewage discharge, agricultural run- nen et al. 1998). The application and testing of the off, fishing effort) likely to be expressed most promi- modules and simplified approaches to the modules are nently in effects on the natural system. Other consider- being supported, in part, by grants from the GEF to ations in ecosystem valuation analyses involve trade- governments of countries bordering large marine offs in multi-use Systems among finfish/shellfish and ecosystems in Asia and Africa. aquaculture/capture fishenes, as weli as vanous options The GEF Operational Strategy (GEF 1997) recom- to be considered in habitat restoration (Levin 1999). mends that countnes address their nearshore oceans in a joint manner utilizing LMEs as a framework for analysis, technical assistance, capacity building, and GOVERNANCE MODULE establishment of management regimes. The Opera- tional Strategy recommends that countnes undertake a The governance module is evolving (Juda 1999, transboundary diagnostic analysis (TDA) to provide McGlade 1999). Case studies are now underway on the science-based assessments for priority setting on ecosystems to be managed from a more holistic per- threats to the ecosystem and root causes. It also recorn- spective in projects supported by the GEF, including mends a process for producing a Strategic Action Pro- the Yellow Sea ecosystem, where the principal effort is gram (SAP) of activities to address socioeconomic con- Sherman & Duda: Assessment and management of coastal ecosystems 279

siderations as Part of improving governance regimes plankton community of the Gulf of Guinea are con- for joint management, intersectoral management ducted at 6 wk intervals using plankton recorder sys- nationally, and subnationaYcommunity management tems deployed from large container vessels transiting strategies. GEF is essentially helping countnes test the the region. The samples are being processed in a use of simplified modules previously utiiized in LMEs plankton Center established with GEF funds in Tema, and applying them to developing country situations. Ghana, in collaboration with the Sir Alister Hardy The modules strengthen the linkage between science Foundation of the UK. and management and facilitate assessment and man- Restoration of mangrove areas along the coast and agement of the environments and resources of entire assessments of the pnncipal sources of coastal pollu- ecosystems including the drainage basins and estuar- tion have been initiated. Plans for the management of ies that are integral to supporting the diversity of transboundary coastal resources have been completed LMEs. by each of the countries (Ceda 1997, Adam 1998, Ibe 1998a, Ibe & Zabi 1998, Mondjanagni et al. 1998a,b). Several studies have suggested options for increasing MODEL SYSTEMS the long-term sustainability of coastal resources and increasing socioeconomic benefits to the people of the The Gulf of Guinea LME project was initiated with region (Ibe et al. 1998). An Accra declaration has been GEF support in 1995. During the pilot phase from signed by the environmental ministers from each of the 1995 to 1999, the 6 participating countnes (Benin, 6 countnes indicating joint intentions for taking steps Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Togo) to promote the long-term sustainability of the Gulf of have used the GEF grant to strengthen national infra- Guinea resources (Ibe 1998b). structure in staffing positions and engaging non-gov- Operational methodologies are being developed to ernment support. A network of 250 people is engaged ensure that near coastal and drainage basin effects on in implementing the project. Arnong the successfuiiy the LME proper are included in the overarching strat- completed activities is a cooperative survey of the bot- egy for a systems approach to management encom- tom fish stocks using a chartered Nigenan vessel with passing (1.)drainage basin, (2) near coastal, and (3) off- representatives of each of the participating countries shore coastal components of the LME. taking Part in the trawling and data reporting opera- Two model systems being adapted for filling this tions. Funds were used to complete a report on the ma- pressing need for improved assessment strategies are: jor rnultidecadal shfts in the abundance of fish stocks the Batangas Bay rnodel in the Philippines and the Xia- in the ecosystem, caused pnncipally by environmental men Municipality rnodel in China. Both models were perturbations affecting the annual upweliing cycle and developed as demonstration projects in Integrated temperature regime of the ecosystem (Fig. 2). In addi- Coastal Management (ICM) as Part of the GEF-funded tion to the cooperative trawl survey, surveys of the Regional Program for the Prevention and Management

Fig. 2. Sea-surface temperature anomalies for 1964 to 1990 from ship of opportunity data in the area 2 to 8' W, 4"N to the coast. (-1 (-1 Monthly anomalies ("C); (-) filtered anomalies >12 mo. From Binet & Marchal (1993) 280 Mar Ecol Prog Ser 190: 271-287, 1999

of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas (PG-ENRO addressed by the government agencies serving as 1996). The approach provides a framework for man- resource Stewards and representatives of the diamond agement of the coast of the Batangas Bay region of the and fishing industries. Similar conflicts between arti- Province of Batangas in the Philippines. It includes sanal fisheries and large-scale commercial operations guidelines for the implementation of a core program of: are high on the priority list for resolution of trans- (1) integrated waste management, (2) water pollution boundary problems. Planning for the project is follow- abatement, (3) habitat improvement, (4)conservation ing along the lines of transboundary issues for resolu- of stressed mangrove and coral reef areas, (5) coastal tion including: (1) environmental and productivity tourism development, and (6) improvements of the forecasting, (2) fish and fishenes sustainability, and municipal fisheries (PG-ENRO 1996). The linkage (3)pollution and ecosystem health improvement issues between LMEs and ICM activities will be implemented (UNDP 1999a). as a demonstration of a Fast Track-ICM/LME project to Cutting across each of the issues are analyses be conducted around the margins of the Yellow Sea by addressing socioeconomic benefits to be derived from China and Korea. a long-term strategy for encouraging resource sustain- Another example of the interest expressed for plan- ability. Other considerations are being given to im- ning and implementing GEF international waters pro- proving resource sustainability measures through jects is under development for the Benguela Current examination of various governing bodies implement- LME by Angola, Namibia, and South Afnca. These ing management regiines for shared transboundary countries are completing a synthesis and assessment of fishing resources. The probability for success in mov- information on fisheries, environmental variability, off- ing toward management regimes that promote long- shore oil and gas exploration and production, marine term resource sustainability is enhanced by the diamond mining, coastal Zone developments and engagement of the 3 countries (Angola, Namibia, socioeconomics as well as a 12 mo study of trans- South Africa) in cooperative science-based assess- boundary issues to be addressed over the next 5 yr. ments of the changing states of the Benguela Current Among the issues of particular concern are the large- LME. Joint activities will include developing better scale variability in upwelling events affecting the predictions of environmental events, improved sys- abundance of pelagic fisheries (Fig. 3), and the con- tems for producing annual resource assessments, shar- flicts between marine diamond mining and rock lob- ing results, and providing advice to governments on Ster fishing interests in South Africa and Namibia over options for improving fish and fisheries resource devel- the use of near-coastal shelf areas. It is now technically opment, use, and sustainability (Fig. 4). feasible to conduct mining operations from specially equipped vessels up to 14 km offshore. Areas tradi- tionally fished for lobster are close to the coast within COMPLEMENTARITY AMONG INTERNATIONAL 5 km. However, lobster populations migrate offshore AGREEMENTS into deeper water during certain months, and hence are vulnerable to mining impacts. Resolutions for Fundamental global norms for conservation of resolving actual and potential conflicts are being manne resources and preservation and protection of the marine environment are established in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),which entered into force in 1994. Detailed rules and stan- Anchovy(southrrn Benguela) dards at the global level exist to control pollution from z 2 - 8 ships, including at-sea disposal of wastes, and for o Anchovy (norchern Benguelo) 0 - whales (International Whaling Commission 1994), the - one fishery whose target species truly migrate world- E 5 wide. Otherwise, the rules on marine pollution and X a I- fishenes are regional, in keeping with the scale of L ..U LMEs. Chubmockerel , ., It is critical to appreciate and make use of the com- U plementarity between general global conventions and norms and specialized agreements of a geographic or activity-specific nature. Global norms, through general pnnciples and objectives, establish Parameters for all Fig 3. Catches of the anchovy EngrauUs japnnicus from northern Benguela and southern Benguela. and of the chub national and collective action. These are translated into mackerel ScomDerjaponicus from the Benguela Current LME. more specific goals and country-specific commitments From Crawford et al. (1989) through specialized agreements. Recognizing the need Sherman & Duda: Assessment and management of coastal ecosystems 281

GENERIC ROOTCAUSES based activities. The GPA includes a comprehensive approach to address- ing coastal degradation that has at its Insdqunrr rap:irii) Podr Iwal In:+dcquiic dcrclopmcnr frrmruurh rt ihr ~mplcrncniuiiunol lnadcqurtc plrnning In.ulliricni puhlic source land activities and it should (hum:in and rcgioto:~lmd arailrhlr rcyuliii>~ :ll all lc~elr in\oliimeuI inrrx~irunurr)and nalinnrl lcu\liiiniblr r.nvirnnrnrnisl Jlainicnrnir of mrrirtcmiiii and application and elaboration in particu- variahilil!. ccos!\lem hcnlih urili,:

the GEF Operational Strategy was developed with the southern hemisphere, some of which are noted in a expenence of these 3 seas in mind, and several GEF- World Bank funded review of Afncan river basin orga- funded initiatives aim at linking freshwater pollution nizations (Rangeley et al. 1994). With GEF Support, the input, habitat and fishenes in LMEs (e.g. Baltic, Black southern hemisphere is contributing new expenence Sea-Danube Basin, Patagonia Shelf-Plata Basin). through multi-country initiatives focused on site-specific A common global understanding of how to approach priorities in shared freshwater basins, coastal zones, complex international waters issues has been devel- and LMEs. oped incrementally over the last 2 decades. Some solu- Expenences from these joint regional activities sug- tions are worked out sectorally at the global level, such gest several lessons: as ship-related pollution, general policies on wetlands, Donor-driven rather than country-driven institu- or movement and disposal of hazardous chemicals. tional arrangements have proved ineffective and Others are handled more comprehensively on a site- recipient countries must take ownership of activities. specific regional basis. While the conventions spell out Water quality must be considered together with norms, targets, and measures to be applied, action water quantity and ecological considerations in any plans and programs define operational strategies. The sectoral development project if sustainable develop- intent of UNCLOS, the GPA, and the 1997 Watercourse ment is to be achieved. Convention is for the global solution to be imple- Ecosystem-based approaches, which encompass mented piece by piece in logical, site-specific, regional overfishing, habitat loss, and biological diversity issues cooperative efforts as, for example, in the North Sea in addition to water quality/pollution abatement, are and the Rhine basin, or for Lake Geneva, the Danube needed for improving management of transboundary and the Black Sea, and the Wider Caribbean, as well water systems. as the Senegal River and the Canary Current LME. Interministenal and subnational government in- Non-binding soft law complements binding legal volvement is necessary in these joint, multi-country re- arrangements, helping countries overcome barners to gional initiatives if actual changes in sectoral activities action. Examples range from Agenda 21 Chapters 17 causing the transboundary problems are to be acheved. and 18 and the GPA to the action program for Small This growing body of experience also demonstrates Island Developing States. The great value of non-bind- that facilitators or third parties are often necessary to ing documents is that they work around the edges of bring nations together to address the issues, help them binding commitments to elaborate, guide, and influ- establish a realistic list of prionties on a strategic, ence action. They may provide a more detailed blue- waterbody basis, attract international community at- print, and they may sow the seeds of future binding tention and a coordinated response, and keep the ini- commitinents (Belsky 1992). tiative from becoming bogged down. Facilitators may Completing this common global understanding are be strong voices in academic or NGO communities or important links to other global framework conventions those in donor or international finance institutions who such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the UN can provide funding for multi-country cooperation. Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the UN Commission on Sustainable Development. In fact, as recognized by the GEF Council, these initiatives SUSTAINING COASTAL OCEANS provide a new opportunity for cooperating nations to link many different programs and instruments into The degradation of our planet's water ecosystems is regional comprehensive approaches to address inter- no surprise. Over the years, more and more informa- national waters. Joint multi-country initiatives tackling tion on the declining status of freshwater and marine transboundary freshwater, coastal, and marine issues biodiversity has become available. What is new is that are essential for achieving the goals of these important the situation has declined so much in both the northern conventions. hemisphere and the southern hemisphere that contin- ued economic and social benefits from these systems are at risk Gradually, shared river basins, coastal NORTH-SOUTH COOPERATION areas, and LMEs have become degraded and benefits they have provided may not be sustained into the The world community has at least 3 decades of expe- future. Gradually, national problems are growing into rience in Europe and North America with regional larger ones to the point where they become regionally conventions on transboundary water and environmen- and globally significant. tal issues. Joint activities to address water quantity dis- The rush by countries to exploit fish stocks by over- putes go back even further. Valuable lessons-posi- subsidizing industrial fishing fleets is socially, econom- tive and negative-have also been learned in the ically, and environmentally unsustainable and places Sherman & Duda: Assessment and management of coastal ecosystems 283

the future of fishing communities at risk. The global Once again, science-based assessments have a role as economy spends $124 billion each year to land $70 bil- the governance mechanism utilizes monitoring/assess- lion worth of fish (Duda & Cruz 1998). The fish stocks ment modules to ensure programs and policies are sus- in many LMEs are in drastic decline, with 3 quarters of taining the marine resources. marine fishenes fully fished, overexploited. depleted, Pilot efforts are underway to determine the effective- or slowly recovering from collapse, and 95 % of these ness of the simplified modules necessary to sustain fish are caught in the 50 LMEs that encircle the earth's LMEs in developing nations, particularly those border- continents. Open access without effective manage- ing the Gulf of Guinea, Benguela Current, and Yeilow ment regimes means that too many modern boats are Sea. With the post-UNCED recognition of global en- chasing too few fish as the profit motive overshadows vironmental degradation, it is time for a renewed the collective good. This feeds tendencies to overfish, national impetus to address the sustainability and de- under-report the catch, and poach. velopment of marine resources and ecosystems. It is Even with modernization of fleets and the marine now incumbent on industrial nations, international equivalent of 'forest clearcutting', the world's fish finance institutions, and the UN System to take leader- catch per Person has declined from peaks in the 1980s ship in forming new partnerships among governments, to the levels of the 1960s, before the great fleet mod- business interests, academia, and the public, to make ernization occurred (GEF 1998). The decline in fish the necessary reforms and to provide incentives to stocks since 1983 is evident, with the increase in total resolve their transboundary problems. Their responsi- catch corning from a fetv low-value species that are bility does not end there. They will be calied on to pro- used for feed and fertilizer instead of direct human vide additional finance and technology to catalyze the consumption. Over 40% of the world catch is ineffi- participation of developing nations in sustaining trans- ciently converted to oil and meal to feed livestock, boundary marine resources as Part of UNCED's global poultry, and cultivated fish; subsidized fleets fish lower commitment to sustainable development. and lower on the food chain with adverse ecosystem impacts on biodiversity. This global environment prob- lern prornises to penetrate societies dependent on LITERATURE CITED coastal and marine ecosystems, and its transboundary aspects are growing. Stocks are being harvested by AAAS (1986) Vanability and manageinent of large marine more than one country's fleet. The importance of ecosystems. AAAS Selected Symposium 99. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, CO migratory fish stocks is increasingly apparent, with at AAAS (1989) Biomass yields and geography of large manne least 75 % of the global marine fish catch spending all ecosystems. AAAS Selected Symposium 111. Westview or Part of their life cycles in near-shore waters (Duda & Press, Inc, Boulder, CO Cruz 1998). AAAS (1990) Large marine ecosystems: patterns, processes The call has gone out through global and regional and yields. AAAS Symposium. AAAS Press, Washington, DC treaties to adopt new joint management regimes so that AAAS (1991) Food chains, yields, models, and management sustainability of our marine resources can be assured of large manne ecosystems.Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, for future generations. Simplified approaches are nec- CO essary where information and management capacity AAAS (1993) Large marine ecosystems: stress, mitigation, are inadequate. An LME-integrated coastal manage- and sustainability. AAAS Symposium. AAAS Press, Wash- ington, DC ment approach now being tested in Asian coastal wa- Adam KS (1998) Towards integrated coastal zone manage- ters is a response to this need (Sherman 1998). In addi- ment in the Gulf of Guinea: a framework document. Les tion, the GEF Operational Strategy and its Support for Editions du Flamboyant, Cotonou the 10 projects related to LMEs in the developing world Aiken J, PoUard R, Wiiliams R, Griffiths G, Bellan I (1999) Measurements of the upper ocean structure using totved place a premium on mobilizing sound science to pro- profiling systems. In: Sherman K, Tang Q (eds) Large vide information for improved management practices. marine ecosystems of the Pacific Rim: assessment, sustain- The transboundary analysis used by the GEF can ability, and management. Blackwell Science, Inc, Malden, simply be framed as the productivity, fish/fisheries, MA. p 346-362 and pollutiodecosystem health modules used for Alheit J, Bernal P (1993) Effects of physical and biological changes on the biomass yield of the Humboldt Current LMEs in North America. Likewise, the SAPs focus on ecosystem. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM, Gold BD (eds) the socioeconomic and governance modules for LMEs. Large marine ecosystems: stress, mitigation, and sustain- These modules are important. They serve to leverage ability. AAAS Symposium. AAAS Press, Washington, DC, country commitments for implementing necessary pol- p 53-68 Baker DJ (1996) What do ecosystem managernent and the icy, legal, and institutional reforms so that socioeco- current budget mean for federally supported environmen- nomic benefits from environmental services of the tal research? Ecol Appl 6(3):712-715 ecosystem can be sustained for future generations. Bakun A (1993) The Cahfornia Current, Benguela Current and 284 Mar Ecol Prog Ser

Southwestern Atlantic Shelf ecosystems: a comparative ap- Costanza R (1992)Toward an operational definition of ecosys- proach to identifying factors regulating biomass yields. In: tem health. In: Costanza R. Norton BG, Haskell BD (eds) Sherman K, Alexander LM, Gold BD (eds) Large manne Ecosystem health: new goals for environmental rnanage- ecosysterns: stress, mitigation and sustainability AAAS ment. Island Press, Washington, DC, p 239-256 Symposium. AAAS Press, Washington, DC, p 199-221 Costanza R, Mageau M (1999) What is a healthy ecosystem? Bakun A (1999) A dynamic scenario for simultaneous regime- In: Sherman K. Kumpf H, Steidinger K (eds) The Gulf scale marine population shifts in widely separated large of Mexico large marine ecosystem: assessment. sustain- marine ecosystems of the Pacific. In: Sherman K, Tang Q ability, and management. Blackweil Science, Inc, Malden, (eds) Large manne ecosystems of the Pacific Rim- assess- MA, P 385-415 ment, sustainability, and rnanagement. Blackwell Science, Crawford RJM, Shannon LV, Shelton PA (1989) Characteris- Inc, Malden, MA. p 2-26 tics and management of the Benguela as a large manne Beddington JR (1995)The pnmary requirements. Nature 374: ecosystem. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM (eds) Biomass 213-214 yields and geography of large manne ecosystems. AAAS Belsky MH (1992) Interrelationships of law in the manage- Selected Symposium 111. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, ment of large manne ecosystems. In: Sherrnan K, Alexan- CO, P 169-219 der LM, Gold BD (eds) Large marine ecosystems: Patterns, Dickson RR, Kelly PM, Colebrook JM, Wooster WS, Cushing processes, and yields. AAAS Symposium. AAAS Press, DH (1988) North winds and production in the eastern Washington, DC, p 224-233 North Atlantic. J Plankton Res 10:151-169 Binet D. Marchal E (1993) The large manne ecosystern of Duda AM (1990) Cross-rnedia management of toxic pollutants shelf areas in the Gulf of Guinea: long-term vanability in the Great Lakes Basin ecosystem. In: Mc Neil RY, Wind- induced by climatic changes In: Sherrnan K, Alexander sor JE (eds)Innovations in river basin management. Cana- LM, Gold BD (eds) Large manne ecosystems: stress, miti- dian Water Resources Association, Cambridge, Ontario, gation, and sustainability. AAAS Symposium. AAAS P 321-333 Press, Washington, DC, p 104-118 Duda AM, Cruz CJ (1998) Partnerships to sustain interna- Boesch DF (1998) An ecosystern approach: drainage basin tional waters In: Swift SD (ed) Valuing the global envi- and coastal sea as a whole system. Synthesis. In. Proceed- ronment: actions and investments for a 21st century. ings of the Stockholm Water Symposium of 10- 15 August Global Environment Faciiity, Washington, DC. p 110-133 1997, With rivers to the sea: interaction of land activities, ECOPS, ESF, European Commission DG XII, and Institute for fresh water and enclosed coastal seas. Joint Conference, Baltic Sea Research (1995) Joint Baltic Sea ecosystem 7th Stockholm [Vater Symposium, 3rd International Con- studies: a science plan for an interdisciplinary ecosystem ference on the Environmental Management of Enclosed analysis in the Baltic Sea. Report of 4 International Baltic Coastal Seas (EMECS). Stockholm International Water Sea Workshops-18-19 March 1993, 4-10 November Institute (SIU'I), Stockholm, p 149-150 1993, 6-8 June 1994, and 22-25 January 1995 Helcom, Bombace G (1,993)Ecological and fishing features of the Adri- Helsinki atic Sea. In: Sherman K, .4lexander LM, Gold BD (eds) Edwards SF, Murawski SA (1996) Potential benefits from effi- Large marine Pcosystems: stress, mitigation, and sustain- cient harvest of New England groundfish. In: Sherrnan K, ability AAAS Symposium. ,$AAS Press, Washington, DC, Jaworski NA, Smayda TJ (eds) The Northeast Shelf p 119-136 Ecosystern: assessment, sustainability, and rnanagement. Bradbury RH. Mundy CN (1989) Large-scale shifts in biomass Blackwell Science, Inc, Cambridge, MA, p 511-526 of the Great Barner Reef ecosystem. In: Sherman K. Eikeland PO (1992) Multispecies managernent of the barents Alexiinder Lh4 (eds) Biomass yields and geography of sea large marine ecosystem: a framework for discussing large rriarin~ecosystems AAAS Selected Symposium 111 future challenges. The Fridtjof Nansen Institute, Pol- Westview Press. Inc, Boulder, CO, p 143-167 hogda, Lysaker Brodie J (1999) ~Managementof thc Great Barrier Reef as a Epstein PR (1993) Algal blooms and public health. World large marine ecosystem. In: Sherman K, Tang Q (eds] Resour Rev 5(2):190-206 Large manne ecosystems of the Pacific Rim: assessment, Epstein PR (1996)Emergent Stressors and public health iinpli- sustainability, and management. Blackwell Science, Inc. cations in large marine ecosystems an overview In: Sher- Malden, bIA, p 428-437 man K, Jaworski NA, Smayda TJ (eds) The Northeast Ceda (Center for Environment and Development in Africa) Shelf Ecosystem: assessment, sustainability, and manage- 1997 C:oastal profile of Nigeiia. Cedd, Cotonou ment Blackwell Sci~nce,Inc, Cambridge, hlA, p 417-438 Chen Y, Shen X (1999) Changes in the biomass of the East Farnngton JW, Goldberg ED, Risebrough RW, Martin JH, China Sea ecosystem. In: Sherman K, Tang Q (eds) Large Bowen VT 11983) US 'Musselwatch' 1976-1978: an over- marine ecosystems of the Pacific Kim: assessment, sustain- vielv of the trace metal. DDE, PCB, hydrocarbon and arti- ability, and rndnagement Blackwell Science, Inc, Malden, ficial radionuclide data. Environ Sci Technol 17:490-396 \1A. p 221 -239 FA0 (Food and Agricultural Organization of the 'United Christrnsen %L, Bartuska AM, Rrown JH, Carpenter S, Nations) (1995) FA0 yearbook: fishery statistics: catches D'Antonio C, Francis R, Frcinklin JF, MacMahon JA, Noss and landings. fishcries Series no. 48, Statistics Series no. RF, ParsonsDJ, Peterson (:H, Turntbr LIG, Woodmdnsee 134, Vol 80 F40, Fisheries Dept, Rome RC (1996) Rrport of the Ecological Soci~tyof America GEF (Global Enirironment Facilily) (1997) GEF Operationdl comrnittt-e on thc scientitic basis for ecosystem Indnage- Programs. Global Environment Facility, Washmgton, DC mrnt. Ecol .4ppl 6(3):665-691 GEF (1998) Vdluing the global ~nvironment:dctions and Colebrook JkI (1986) Environmental influences on lonq-term investm~ntsfor a 21st century. Global Environment Facil- variiihility in manne plankton. Hydrobiologia 142.309-325 ity, Wasliinyton, L)C Colcbrook Jhl, Warner ..\JJ Proctor CA,Ilunt 11G, Pritchard P, Glover RS 11967) The continuous plankton recorder survcy of John !\\%'C;, Joycc D, Bdrnard R 11991) 60 years of the con- the Korth Xtlantic. Syrnp Zool Soc Lond 19:189-210 tinuous Plankton Kccorrler Surv~y:a celebration. Ttie Sir Goldberq ED (1976) The health of the oceans. UNESCO Alistrr Hardg Foundation for Oc~aiiScience, Plymoirtti Press, Pdris Sherman & Duda: Assessment an d management of coastal ecosystems 285

Great Lakes Science Advisory Board (1978) The ecosystem Karr J (1992) Ecological integrity: protecting earth's life sup- approach. Scope and implications of an ecosystem ap- port Systems. In: Costanza R, Norton BG, Haskell BD (eds) proach to transboundary problems in the Great Lakes Ecosystem health: new goals for environmental manage- Basin: special repori to the International Joint Com- ment Island Press, Washington, DC, p 223-228 rnission. Great Lakes Science Advisory Board, Washing- Kelleher G (1993) Sustainable development of the Great Bar- ton, DC ner Reef as a large manne ecosystem. In: Sherman K, Gnffis RB, Kimball KW (1996) Ecosystem approaches to Alexander LM, BD Gold (eds) Large manne ecosystems: coastal and ocean stewardship. Ecol Appl 6(3):708-711 stress, mitigation, and sustainability. AAAS Symposium. Hedin L (1998) From landscapes to the sea: challenges to AAAS Press, Washington, DC, p 272-279 understanding how hurnans influence aquatic ecosystems. Kuilenberg G (1986) Long-term changes in the Baltic Ecosys- In: Proceedings of the Stockholm Water Symposium of tem. In: Sherman K, Alexander LiM (eds) Vanability and 10-15 August 1997, With nvers to the sea: interaction of rnanagernent of large marine ecosystems. AAAS Selected land activities, fresh water and enclosed coastal seas. Symposium 99. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder. CO, p 19-32 Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), Stock- Kumpf H, Steidinger K, Sherman K (eds) (1999) The Gulf of holm, p 33-45 Mexico large manne ecosystem: assessment. sustainabil- Hey E (1992) A healthy North Sea ecosystem and a healthy ity, and rnanagement. Blackwell Science, Inc, Malden, North Sed fishery: two sides of the Same regulationl hl.4 Ocean Dev Int Law 23:217-238 Lee SG, Sutinen JG (1999) Large marine ecosystems, socieco- Hey E, Mee LD (1993) Black Sea. The ministerial declara- nomic and governance: implications for Korea. Korea Obs tion: an important step. Environ Pollut Law 2315:215-217, 30(1):9-58 235-236 Levin CA (1993) Approaches to forecasting biomass yields in Hoagland P, Jin D, Thunberg E, Steinback S (1999) Economic large manne ecosystems. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM, activity associated with the Northeast Shelf large manne Gold BD (eds) Large marine ecosystems: stress, mitiga- ecosystem: application of an input-output approach. tion. and sustainability. AAAS Symposium. AAAS Press, Manne Poiicy Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- Washington, DC, p 36-39 tion and Social Sciences Branch, NEFSC/NMFS, Woods Levin SA (1999) Fragile dominion: complexity and the com- Hole, MA mons Perseus Books, Reading, MA Hohng CS (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological sys- Lubchenco J (1994)The scientific basis of ecosystem manage- tems. Institute of Resource Ecology, University of Bntish ment: framing the context, language, and goals. In: Zinn J, Columbia, Vancouver Corn ML (eds) ecosystem management: Status and po- Holling CS (1986) The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems: tential. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session, Committee Print. US local surprise and global change. In: Clark WC, Munn RE Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Docu- (eds) Sustainable development of the biosphere. Cam- ments, Washington, DC, p 33-39 bndge University Press, London, p 292-317 Ludwig D, Hilborn R, Walters C (1993) Uncertainty, resource Holiing CS (1993) Investing in research for sustainability. Ecol exploitation, and conservation: lessons from history. Sci- Appl3:552-555 ence 260:17-36 Ibe C (ed) (1998a) Perspectives in integrated coastal areas MacCall AD (1986) Changes in the biomass of the California management in the Gulf of Guinea. Center for Environ- Current system. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM (eds) Vari- ment and Development in Africa (Ceda), Cotonou, Ibe C ability and managernent of large manne ecosystems. (Regional Coordinator) (1998b) GOG LIVE Newsletter, AAAS Selected Symposium 99. Westview Press, Inc, Boul- No. 8, 10/9?-3/98. Centre de Recherches Oceanologi- der. CO, p 33-54 ques, Abidjan, Ibe C, Zabi SG (eds) (1998) State of the Mangel M (1991) Empincal and theoretical aspects of fish- coastal and manne environment of the Gulf of Guinea enes yield rnodels for large manne ecosystems. In: Sher- Center for Environment and Development in Afnca (Ceda), man K,Alexander LM, Gold BD (eds) Food chains, yields, Cotonou inodels, and management of large marine ecosystems. Ibe C, Oteng-Yeboah AA, Zabi SG, Afolabi D (eds) (1998) Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, CO. p 243-261 Integrated environmental and hing resources manage- McClade J (ed) (1999) Advanced ecological theory: principles ment in the Gulf of Guinea: the large manne ecosystem and applications. Blackwell Science, Ltd. Oxford approach. Proceedings of the Ist Symposium on GEF's Mee L (1992) The Black Sea in crisis: a need for concerted LME Project for the Gulf of Guinea. Abidjan 26-30 Janu- international action. Ambio 21(4):1278- 1286 ary 1998. Institute for Scientific and Technological Infor- Mondjanagni AC, Adam KS, Langley P (1998a) C6te d'Ivoire mation, CSIR, Accra -profil environnemental de la Zone cötiere. Centre pour ICES (1988) Results of the 1985 baseline study of contami- l'environnement et le developpement en Afrique (Ceda), nants in fish and shellfish Cooperative Research Report Cotonou No. 151. lCES, Copenhagen Mondjanagni AC, Adam KS, Langley P (1998b) Profil de la ICES (1991) Report of the multispecies assessment working Zone c6tiere du Benin. Centre pour l'environnement et le group. ICES, CM 1991/Assess 7 developpement en Afrique (Ceda), Cotonou International Whaling Commission (1994. The revised man- Murawski SA (1996) Can we manage our multispecies fish- agement procedure (RMP) for baleen whales. Rep Int enes? In: Sherman K, Jaworski NA, Smayda TJ (eds) Whal Comm 44:145-152 The Northeast Shelf ecosystem: assessment, sustainabil- 10C (International Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO) ity, and management. Blackwell Science, Cambndge, (1992) Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). An ini- h4A, P 491-510 tiative of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Comrnis- NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmosphenc Administration) sion (of UNESCO). IOC. UNESCO, Paris (1993) Emerging theoretical basis for monitonng the Juda L (1999) Consideration in developing a functional changing states (health) of large manne ecosystems. sum- approach to the governance of large marine ecosystems. mary report of two workshops: 23 April 1992, National Ocean Dev Int Law 30(2):89-125 Maiine Fishenes Service, Narragansett, Rhode Island, and 286 Mar Ecol Prog Ser 190: 271-287, 1999

11-12 July 1992, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Sainsbury KJ (1988) The ecological basis of multispecies fish- NOAA Technical Memorandum, NEFSC. Woods Hole, MA eries, and management of a demersal fishery in tropical NOAA (1998) Status of fishery resources off the northeastern Australia. In: Gulland JA (ed) Fish population dynamics, United States for 1998. NOAA Technical Memorandum 2nd edn. J Wiley & Sons, New York, p 349-382 NMFS-NE-115. Northeast Fishenes Science Center. Woods Scully RT, Brown WY, Manheirn BS (1986) The convention for Hole, MA the conservation of Antarctic manne living resources: a Norton BG, Ulanowicz RE (1992) Scale and biodiversity pol- model for large marine ecosystem management. In: Sher- icy: a hierarchical approach. Ambio 21(3):244-249 man K, Alexander LM (eds) Variability and management NSTF (North Sea Task Force) (1991) Scientific activities in the of large manne ecosystems. AAAS Selected Symposium framework of the North Sea Task Force. North Sea Envi- 99. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, CO, p 281-286 ronmental Report No. 4. North Sea Task Force, Os10 and Sherman K (1994) Sustainability, biomass yields, and health Paris Comrnissions, International Council for the Explo- of coastal ecosystems: an ecological perspective. Mar Ecol ration of the Sea, London Prog Ser 112:277-301 NSQSR (North Sea Quality Status Report) (1993) Os10 and Sherman K (1998) Large manne ecosystems: assessment and Pans Commissions, London. Olsen and Olsen, Fredens- management from drainage basin to ocean. In: Proceed- borg ings of the Stockholm Water Symposium, August 10-15, Ntiba iMJ (1998) Trawl survey strategies and applications for 1997. With rivers to the sea: interaction of land activities, assessing the changing state of fish communities in large fresh water and enclosed coastal seas. Stockholm Interna- marine ecosystems. In: Sherman K, Okemwa EN, Ntiba tional Water Institute (SIWI), Stockholm, p 151-166 MJ (eds) Large marine ecosystems of the Indian Ocean: Sherman K, Tang Q (eds) (1999) Large manne ecosystems of assessment, sustainability, and management. Blackwell the Pacific Rim: assessment, sustainability, and manage- Science, Inc. Cambndge, MA, p 23-43 ment. Blackwell Science. Inc, Malden, MA O'Connor TP, Ehler CN (1991) Resuits from the NOAA Sherman K, Jaworsh NA. Smayda TJ (eds) (1996) The north- National Status and Trends Program on distnbution and east shelf ecosystem: assessment, sustainability, and man- effects of chemical contamination in the coastal and estu- agement. Blackwell Science, Inc, Cambndge, MA arine United States. Environ Monit Assess 17:33-49 Sherman K, Okemwa EN. Ntiba MJ (eds) (1998) Large manne Overholtz WJ, Nicolas JR (1979) Apparent feeding by the fin ecosystems of the Indian ocean: assessment, sustainability, whale Balaenoptera physalus, and humpback whale, and management. Blackwell Science, Inc, Malden, MA Megoptera novaeanglae, on the American sand lance, Sissenwine MP (1986) Perturbation of a predator-controlled Amrnodvtes amencanus. in the Northwest Atlantic. Fish continental shelf ecosystem. In: Sherman K, Alexander ~uiius ?7:285-287 LM (eds) Vanabiiity and management of large manne Pauly D, Christensen V (1995) Primary production required to ecosystems. AAAS Selected Symposium 99. Westview sustain global fishenes. Nature 374:255-257 Press, Inc, Boulder, CO, p 55-85 Pauly D, Christensen V, Dalsgaard J, Froese F, Torres F Jr Sissenwine MP, Cohen EB (1991) Resource productivity and (1998) Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279: fishenes management of the northeast shelf ecosystem. In: 860-863 Sherman K, Alexander LM, Gold BD (eds) Food chains, Payne PM, Wiley DN, Young SB, Pittmann S, Clapham PJ, yields, models, and management of large marine ecosys- Jossi JW (1990) Recent fluctuations in the abundance of tems. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, CO, p 107-123 baleen whales in the southern Gulf of Maine in relation to Smayda T (1991) Global epidemic of noxious phytoplankton changes in selected prey. Fish Bull US 88:687-696 blooms and food chain consequences in large ecosystems. PG-ENRO (Environment and Natural Resources Office of the In: Sherman K, Alexander LM. Gold BD (eds) Food chains, Provincial Government of Batangas) (1996) Strategic envi- yields, models and management of large manne ecosys- ronmental management plan for the Batangas Bay region. tems. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, CO. p 275-308 MPP-EAS Technical Report No. 3. GEF/UNDP/IMO Re- Solow AR (1994) Detecting change in the composition of a gional Programme for the Prevention and Management of multispecies community. Biometncs 50556-565 Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas, Quezon City, Solow AR, Sherman K (1997) Testing for stability in a preda- Philippines tor-prey System. Ecology 78(8):2624-2627 Pimm SL (1984) The complexity and stability of ecosystems. Stockholm Water SymposiumJEMECS (1998) Proceedings: Ndture 307:321-326 with nvers to the sea: Interaction of land activities, fresh Pope JG (1977) Collecting fisheries assessment data. In: Gul- water and enclosed coastal seas. Stockholm International land JA (ed) Fish population dynamics J Wiley & Sons, Water Institute (SIWI), Stockholm New York, p 63-82 Sutinen J and 15 coauthors (1998) A framework for monitor- Rangeley R, Thiam B, Andreson A, Lyle C (1994) International ing and assessing socioeconomics and governance of river basin organizations in Sub-Saharan Afnca. Technical large marine ecosystems. Final Report to NOAA on Con- Report No. 250. World Bank, Washington, DC tract No. 40NNF700378. University of Rhode Island and Rapport DJ (1992) What is clinical ecology? In: Costanza R, Northeast Fishenes Science Center, Kingston, RI Norton BG, Haskell BD (eds) Ecosystem health: new goals Svanberg 0 (1992) Toxic effects monitonng in Baltic Sea for environrnental management. Island Press, Washing- coastal areas. In: McKenzie DH, Hyatt DE, McDonald VJ ton, DC, p 223-228 (eds) Ecological indicators, Vol 1. Proceedmgs of the Inter- Reid PC (1999) North Sea ecosystem: Status report. In: national Symposium on Ecological Indicators, October Kumpf H. Steidinger K, Sherman K (eds) The Gulf of 16-19, 1990, Fort Lauderdale, Elsevier Science Publishers Mexico large manne ecosystem: assessment, sustainabil- Ltd, Essex, p 413-423 ity, and management. Blackwell Science, Inc. Malden, Tang Q (1989) Changes in the biomass of the Yellow Sea MA, P 476-489 ecosystems. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM (eds) Biomass Rosenberg AA, Fogarty MJ, Sissenwine MP, Beddington JR, yields and geography of large manne ecosystems. AAAS Shepherd JG (1993) Achieving sustainable use of renew- Selected Symposium 11 1. Westview Press, Inc, Boulder, able resources. Science 262:828-829 CO, p 7-35 Sherrnan & Duda: Assessrnent and rnanagement of coastal ecosystems 287

Tang Q (1993) Effects of long-terrn physical and biological McKenzie DH, Hyat DE, McDonald VJ (eds) Ecological perturbations on the contemporary biornass yields of the indicators, Vol 1 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, Essex, Yellow Sea ecosystern. In. Sherman K, Alexander LM, p 461-498 Gold BD (eds) Large marine ecosystems: stress, rnitiga- White HH, Robertson A (1996) Biological responses to toxic tion, and sustainability. AAAS Symposium. AAAS Press. contaminants in the Northeast Shelf large marine eco- Washington, DC, p 79-93 systern. In: Sherman K, Jaworski N. Smayda T (eds) Taylor P, Groom AJR (eds) (1989) Global issues in the United The Northeast shelf ecosystern: assessrnent, sustainability Nations framework. MacMillan, London and management. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA, Turgeon D, Bricker SB, O'Connor TP (1992) National status , P 259-283 and trends program: chernical and biological monitoring Williams N (1998) Overfishing disrupts entire ecosystems of US coastal waters. In: McKenzie DH, Hyat DE, McDon- Science 279:809 ald VJ (eds) Ecological indicators, Vol 1. Elsevier Science Williams R (1993) Evaluation of new techniques for monitor- Publishers Ltd, Essex, p 425-457 ing and assessing the health of large marine ecosystems. UNDP (United Nations Development Proqrarnme) (1999a) In. Rapport D (ed) NATO advanced research workshop strategic action plan for the integrated management, sus- evaluating and monitoring the health of large-scale tainable development and protection of the Benguela Cur- ecosystems. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, p 257-272 rent large marine ecosyste". UNDP, ~indhoek- Zhang CI, Kim S (1999) Living marine resources of the Yellow UNDP (1999b) Benguela Current large manne ecosystem Sea ecosystem in Korean waters: status and perspectives. program: transboundary diagnostic analysis. UNDP, Wind- In. Sherman K,Tang Q (eds) Large marine ecosystems of hoek the Pacific Rim: assessment, sustainability and manage- UNIDO/UNDP/NOAA/UNEP (1997) Gulf of Guinea large ment. Black\vell Science. Inc. Malden, MA. p 163-178 rnarine ecosystern project. Second Meeting of the Steering Zinn J, Corn ML (eds) (1994) Ecosystem rnanagernent: status Comrnittee, Cotonou (Benin) 11-12 March 1997. Report and potential: surnrnary of a workshop convened by the GEF/GOG-LME/Sc-2 Gulf of Guinea Regional Coordina- Congressional Research Service, March 24 and 25, 1994; tion Centre, Abidjan Washington, DC. In: Ecosystem management: status and Varanasi U, Stein JE, Johnson LL, Collier TK, Casillas E, potential. 103rd Congress, 2nd Session, Committee Pnnt. Myers MS (1992) Evaluation of bioindicators of contami- US Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Docu- nant exposure and effects in coastal ecosystems. In: ments, Washington, DC, p 1-14

Editorial responsibility: Otto Kinne (Editor). Submitted: June 29, 1999; Accepted: September 28, 1999 Oldendorf/Luhe, Germany Proofs received from author(s): November 18, 1999