The Bandiagara Emirate: Warfare, Slavery and Colonization in the Middle Niger, 1863 - 1903
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THE BANDIAGARA EMIRATE: WARFARE, SLAVERY AND COLONIZATION IN THE MIDDLE NIGER, 1863 - 1903 By Joseph M. Bradshaw A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of History–Doctor of Philosophy 2021 ABSTRACT THE BANDIAGARA EMIRATE: WARFARE, SLAVERY AND COLONIZATION IN THE MIDDLE NIGER, 1863 - 1903 By Joseph M. Bradshaw Between 1863 and 1903, the Middle Niger, a region under the arch of the Niger River in present day Mali and Burkina Faso, was colonized by two armies. The first army was a Futanke- led army commanded by the Sufi reformer al-Hajj Umar Tal and later led by his nephew, Tijani Tal. The Futanke-led army invaded the region after their war against the Bamana Kingdom of Segu, drew the Umarian Empire into a conflict with the Caliphate of Hamdullahi. The Futanke and the Masinanke of Hamdullahi shared a common faith, language and culture, and both had fought wars under the umbrella of ‘jihad’ against non-Muslims and Muslims whose practice they considered unorthodox. But despite the rhetoric of Futanke and Masinanke leaders, the instability of wars from 1861-90 necessitated the building of alliances that diminished the instrumental value of racial and religious exclusion. In 1893 a new French-led military regime established itself in the Middle Niger. The French, in turn, used warfare and enslavement as tools of empire, creating a military territory called the “French Sudan.” The French regime initially worked through Futanke proxies but soon demonstrated a clear preference for local chiefs and racial politics. As the French army conquered territory non-Futanke were placed directly under the administration of nearby posts. While my approach is drawn from instrumentalist theories of ethnicity, this study takes a broad view of social differentiation. Rather than centering my discussion around constructions of race, class or ethnicity, I examine how diverse categories of difference were tools of both African and European elites. I argue that military elites selectively emphasized and ignored longstanding practices of social differentiation to achieve their political and economic goals in the region. I further argue that political realism governed the strategies Futanke and French elites pursued as they conquered and ruled the diverse inhabitants of the Middle Niger in the latter half of the nineteenth century. I propose that historians of warfare in Africa should consider how elites ignored categories difference to form effective alliances, even though they may have emphasized the differences of their enemies. Copyright by JOSEPH M. BRADSHAW 2021 For Jonah v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For me the path to completing this study was long and meandering. I was a first generation student and a non-traditional student. I grew up in a working class family in eastern Oklahoma and western Arkansas. As a kid the possibility of ever attending college seemed incredibly remote. I am indebted to more people than I can name here. As an undergraduate student my interest in Africa was nurtured by Assan Sarr. Assan encouraged me to apply to Michigan State and he was a close confidant as I adapted to the rigors of graduate school. At Michigan State I found a wonderful group of teachers and colleagues. My interest in African History has always been quite varied, and I was pleased find a community of scholars who could help me explore a wide array of scholarship. Nwando Achebe, Peter Beattie, Laura Fair and David Wheat all kindly listened to me pitch dissertation topics, syllabi and a variety of side projects as I found my way to this study. My colleagues Jodie Marshal, Dave Glovsky, James Blackwell, and Andrew Barsom, engaged me in productive debates both in class and over beers. During my research period travel to Mali was not eligible for federal funding and I was fortunate to receive funding from the history department and graduate school at Michigan State University. I am particularly grateful to Walter Hawthorne and Pero Dagbovie for supporting my research and believing in my project. More than any other scholar I am indebted to David Robinson. This dissertation would not be possible without his scholarship, and I would not have been prepared to write it without his mentorship. Gnissama Diarra and Mahamoudou Abdoulaye were both a true friends throughout the research and writing process. During my research in Bamako Gnissama carried me both vi physically and emotionally. Gnissama graciously agreed to cart me around on the back of his moto even though I wore out the shocks. When my spirits were low, when I was too hot, hungry or tired, he helped push me forward. With his help I was able to read much more material in Mali’s archives than I would have otherwise. Mahamoudou Abdoulaye accompanied me into the field in 2015. Our first full day in Mopti was a whirlwind of sightseeing and introductions, but our trip was soon overshadowed by an attack on a nearby hotel. I was initially terrified. My friend Sadio Samassekou moved us into his family’s home and I was reassured by local police and the friends we sat with for afternoon tea. I am immensely grateful for the generosity of Sadio Samassekou and his family, and the courage of Mahamoudou Abdoulaye. During my brief fieldwork in Mopti and Bandiagara, I was able collaborate with three notable local experts on the region’s history Ali Kampo, Bechiru Tijani Tal, and Annapelle Ouelegam. While the security situation in the region prevented a second round of field work in central Mali, my initial conversations with these local historians informed my arguments and shaped the direction of later archival research. I pray that my work honors the history they shared with me. As I wrote, John Hanson, Mauro Nobili and Jean Schmitz were all kind enough offer guidance and support. But the most generous and patient reader of my work was Hillary Nienhouse. Cup, you are the kindest soul I know. I’ve dedicated this work to my son Jonah, I am so proud of the man he became. To all the others who helped this study in ways big and small, thank you for making a difference in my life. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 Conflicts and Contradictions in the Middle Niger ...................................................................... 1 Political Realism, Instrumentalism and Warfare in the nineteenth Century Middle Niger ........ 5 Historiography ............................................................................................................................ 9 The Geographic Setting ............................................................................................................ 17 An Emirate ................................................................................................................................ 20 Sources and Methodology......................................................................................................... 23 Overview of Sources and Methodology ............................................................................... 23 Colonial Sources ................................................................................................................... 26 Reconnaissance Sources ....................................................................................................... 26 Diplomatic Sources: .............................................................................................................. 29 Reflective Sources: ............................................................................................................... 30 Positionality of the Author Relative to the Study ..................................................................... 33 Structure .................................................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................. 37 Constructions of Difference and Military Coalitions 1818-64 ................................................. 37 Enslaving and Conscripting Blacks in Hamdullahi .................................................................. 40 Towards the Futanke Conquest of Hamdullahi, 1855-62 ......................................................... 46 Hamdullahi Divided on the Eve of Umarian Conquest ............................................................ 49 Futanke Alliances during the Futanke-Masinanke Wars .......................................................... 53 Masinanke Alliances ................................................................................................................. 55 Conclusions, Comparing Conscription and Alliance ................................................................ 58 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................. 64 Warfare and Slavery during the Futanke Conquest and Occupation of the Middle Niger, 1864- 80..............................................................................................................................................