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To Interaction Captures the Technology Shift from Mainframes to Worksta InternetRolf Oppliger Security: Firewalls HE PARADIGM SHIFT FROM ALGORITHMS to interaction captures the technology and shift from mainframes to worksta- tionsT and networks, from number-crunching to embedded systems and graphical user interfaces, Bey and from procedure-oriented to object-based and distributed programming. The radical notion that interactive systems are more powerful problem- solving engines than algorithms is the basis for a new paradigm for computing technology built around the unifying concept of interaction. The emerging use of the TCP/IP communications perhaps, best be described as a collegial environ- protocol suite for internetworking has led to a global ment, where the users and hosts were mutually system of interconnected hosts and networks that is trusting and interested in a free and open exchange commonly referred to as the Internet. During the of information. In this environment, the people on last decade, the Internet has experienced a tri- the Internet were the people who actually built the umphant advance. Projections based on its current Internet. As time went on, the Internet became more rate of growth suggest there will be over one million useful and reliable, and these people were joined by computer networks and well over one billion users others. With fewer goals in common and more peo- by the end of the century. Therefore, the Internet is ple, the Internet steadily twisted away from its orig- seen as the first incarnation of a national information inal intent. infrastructure (NII) as promoted by the U.S. govern- Today, the Internet environment is much less col- ment. legial and trustworthy. It contains all the dangerous But the initial, research-oriented Internet and its situations, nasty people, and risks that one can find communications protocol suite were designed for a in society as a whole. In this new environment, the more benign environment than now exists. It could, openness of the Internet has turned out to be a dou- 92 May 1997/Vol. 40, No. 5 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM Security problems may still hound the Internet, but existing tools and firewall technologies can strengthen our protective measures. ble-edged sword. Since its very beginning, but espe- mass medium for the NII or the global information cially since its opening and commercialization in the infrastructure. Several studies have independently early 1990s, the Internet has become a popular tar- shown that many individuals and companies are get to attack. In November 1988, Robert T. Morris, abstaining from joining the Internet simply because Jr. launched the Internet Worm that flooded thou- of security concerns. At the same time, analysts are sands of hosts [10]. Since then, reports of security warning companies about the dangers of not being incidents, such as attempted and successful system connected to the Internet. intrusions and other exploitations of various weak- In this conflicting situation, most will agree the nesses on host systems on the Internet, have grown Internet needs more and better security. In a work- exponentially. More recently, thousands of passwords shop held by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) were sniffed on back in 1994, scaling and security were considered to the Internet, and be the two most important problem areas for the sequence number Internet as a whole. guessing attacks But security, particu- were used for IP larly Internet secu- spoofing. Charac- rity, are vague teristically, the terms that may ondvulnerabilities that were exploited by these attacks mean various had been known for a very long time. As a matter things to dif- of fact, security experts ferent people. In are warning against essence, Internet passwords trans- security can only be achieved by provid- mitted in the ing the following two classes of security ser- clear since the vices: very beginning of (inter)net- • Access control services protect computing and net- working, and working resources from unauthorized use. Morris described • Communication security services provide authentica- sequence number tion, data confidentiality and integrity, as well as attacks for BSD nonrepudiation services to communicating peers. Unix 4.2 when he was Electronic commerce on the Internet or World- with AT&T Bell Laboratories Wide Web, for example, fundamentally depends in 1985 [5]. on communication security services being Today, virtually everyone on the Internet is vul- deployed on a large scale. nerable, and the Internet’s security problems are the center of attention, generating much fear through- In this article, we focus on the various security tech- out the computer and telecommunications industry. niques available to provide Internet security in terms Concerns about security problems have already of both access control and communication security begun to chill the overheated expectations about the services. In particular, we discuss firewall technology Internet’s readiness for full commercial activity, pos- and the security protocols that have been proposed sibly delaying or preventing it from becoming a for the Internet, transport, and application layer. We COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM May 1997/Vol. 40, No. 5 93 conclude with some analogies that help us better to be forwarded or not. The screening router filters understand the advantages and disadvantages of the IP packets, based on information that is available in various techniques.1 packet headers, such as protocol numbers, source and destination IP addresses and port numbers, connec- Firewall Technology tion flags, and eventually some other IP options. In days of old, brick walls were built between build- A proxy server is a server process running on a ings in apartment complexes so that if a fire broke firewall system to perform a specific TCP/IP func- out, it would not spread from one building to tion as a proxy on behalf of the network users. A another. Quite naturally, these walls were called proxy server is, in essence, an application-layer gate- “firewalls.” way; a gateway from one network to another for a Today, when a network is connected to the Inter- specific network application. The user contacts a net, its users are enabled to reach and communicate proxy using a TCP/IP application, such as telnet or with the outside world. At the same time, however, ftp, and the proxy server asks the user for the name the outside world can reach and interact with the of the remote host to be accessed. When the user network. In this dangerous situation, one (or several) responds and provides a valid user identification and intermediate system(s) can be plugged between the authentication information, the proxy contacts the network and the Internet to establish a controlled remote host, and relays IP packets between the two link, and to erect an outer security wall or perimeter. communication points. The whole process can be The aim of this perimeter is to protect the network made transparent to the users. The identification and from network-based threats and attacks, and to pro- authentication information that a user provides may vide a single choke point where security and audit be used for user-level authentication. In the simplest can be imposed. Again, these intermediate systems case, this information consists of a user identification are called firewalls, or firewall systems [1, 4]. and password. However, if a firewall is accessible In short, a firewall builds a blockade between an from the Internet, it is recommended to use strong internal network that is assumed to be secure and authentication mechanisms, such as one-time pass- trusted, and another network, usually an external word or challenge-response systems. (inter)network, such as the Internet, that is not The advantages of screening routers are simplicity assumed to be secure and trusted. The general rea- and low (hardware) costs. The disadvantages are soning behind firewall usage is that without a fire- related to the difficulties in setting up packet filter wall, a network’s systems are more exposed to rules correctly, the costs of managing screening inherently insecure Internet protocols and corre- routers, and the lack of user-level authentication. sponding services, as well as probes and attacks from Router vendors are working on solutions for these hosts elsewhere on the Internet. In a firewall-less problems. In particular, they are working on graph- environment, network security is solely a function of ical user interfaces for editing packet filter rules. each host on the network, and all hosts must, in a They have also come up with a standardized user- sense, cooperate to achieve a uniformly high level of level authentication protocol to provide a Remote security. The larger the network, the less manageable Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS). it usually is to maintain all hosts at the same level of The advantages of proxy servers are user-level security. As mistakes and lapses in security become authentication, logging, and accounting. The disad- more common, break-ins can occur not only as the vantages are related to the fact that for full benefit, result of complex attacks, but also because of simple an application-layer gateway must be built specifi- errors in configuration and inadequately chosen cally for each application. This fact may severely passwords. Given that situation, a firewall is to pre- limit the deployment of new applications. More vent unwanted and unauthorized communication recently, an all-in-one proxy package called SOCKS into or out of the network, and to allow an organiza- has become available. SOCKS basically consists of a tion to enforce a network security policy on traffic proxy to be run on a firewall system, as well as a flowing between its network and the Internet. package of library routines to be linked into network A firewall system usually consists of screening application programs. routers and proxy servers. A screening router is a Screening routers and proxy servers are usually multiported IP router that applies a set of rules to combined in hybrid systems, where screening each incoming IP packet, and decides whether it is routers mainly protect against IP spoofing attacks.
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