Auckland's Urban Sprawl, Policy Ambiguities and the Peri

Article Auckland’s Urban Sprawl, Policy Ambiguities and the Peri-Urbanisation to Pukekohe Cristian Silva School of Architecture and Planning, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; [email protected]; Tel.: +64-9232829 Received: 10 November 2018; Accepted: 17 December 2018; Published: 21 December 2018 Abstract: Urban sprawl has been discussed extensively with regard to its negative impacts. On this basis, regulations have been put in place to control sprawling suburbanization, including the establishment of restricted areas for expansion defined by administrative urban boundaries. Overall, these measures have not been at all successful, considering that city-regions continue to expand inorganically, often reinforcing urban sprawl patterns. As clear evidence of the weaknesses of planning regimes of control, these unsuccessful attempts are partly explained by a series of policy ambiguities that contradict the meaning of planning as a prescriptive discipline. This ambiguity is justified by the need to frame flexible regulations that allow adaptation to unforeseen events over time. In this paper, using the case of Auckland, New Zealand, it is demonstrated that instead of planning flexibility, there is planning “ambiguity” accompanied by weak opposition from rural regimes, which deliberately contributes to urban sprawl. This is relevant considering that the inorganic encroachment of rural lands diminishes the huge environmental potential of the peri-urban space of Auckland, its ecosystem services, and agricultural activities—all elements that encourage the creation of more environmentally sustainable peripheral landscapes as a counterpoint to traditional sprawling suburbanization. Keywords: urban sprawl; planning policy; peri-urbanization; rural lands; Auckland; Pukekohe 1. Introduction Urban sprawl has been discussed mainly in terms of population growth, suburban inertia and improvements to transport infrastructure [1]. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that urban sprawl is not merely an outcome of population growth and improvements in transportation, but also the expression of conceptual and instrumental planning ambiguities that do not acknowledge the environmental assets situated at the peri-urban space, and their value in preventing the impacts of sprawl or modifying its unsustainable character [2]. In the case of Auckland and other city-regions, control of urban sprawl has relied on restrictions to urban growth [3], accompanied by narratives of urban sustainability [4], livability [5], compactness [6], urban regeneration [7] and increments of suburban density [8]. However, these attempts are undermined by more structural drivers of suburbanization, such as the persistent desire to live near the countryside [9], high rates of car dependency [10], housing affordability [11], lack of control of the land market [12], and the underestimation of rural assets [13]. Indeed, suburban sprawl is somehow enhanced rather than reduced by regulatory frameworks. This situation is clearly evident in most cities, where persistent urban sprawl contradicts politically correct anti-growth narratives. Auckland is no exception, considering that policy intensions are explicit in promoting more environmentally sustainable urban growth, but suburbanization is consolidating traditional sprawling patterns. This disparity between policy intensions and suburban sprawl is particularly significant in Auckland, as most of its peri-urban space is composed of highly productive agricultural lands that Urban Sci. 2019, 3, 1; doi:10.3390/urbansci3010001 www.mdpi.com/journal/urbansci Urban Sci. 2019, 3, 1 2 of 20 Urban Sci. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21 landsclearly that contribute clearly contribute to the country’s to the country’s economy economy and its rural and identity.its rural identity. More specifically, More specifically, it has become it has becomecritical incritical the southern in the southern area of Aucklandarea of Auckland near the near small the town small of town Pukekohe, of Pukekohe, where where extremely extremely fertile fertilesoils and soils valuable and valuable environmental environmental assets assets are already are already scheduled scheduled for housing for housing intensification intensification [14]. [14]. It is important to emphasize that Auckland’s suburban space is privileged by a varied natural landscape thatthat includes includes several several port port areas, areas, waterfronts, waterfronts, large large parks, parks, lakes, forests,lakes, forests, beaches beaches and farming and farmingspaces with spaces animal with husbandry animal husbandry and horticulture. and horticulture. However, the However, urban morphology the urban and morphology infrastructural and infrastructuralresponse to this response variation to isthis almost variation absent, is almost and the absent, built environmentand the built environment is characterized is characterized by detached byhouses, detached domestic houses, carports domestic (usually carports for two (usually cars or for more), two roads,cars or street more), lights, roads, car street saleyards, lights, fast-food car sale yards,outlets, fast-food shopping outlets, malls shopping with large malls car-parking with large areas car-parking and inner areas highways and inner (Figure highways1). These (Figure are the 1). Thesemost commonare the most spatial common elements spatial across elements the city, withacross the the exception city, with of the the exception Central Business of the Central District Business(CBD). Planning District regulations(CBD). Planning do not regulations specify what do the not urban specify form what should the be,urban and form therefore should a relatively be, and thereforehomogenous a relatively morphology homogenous is configured, morphology with slight is configured, variations with on architectural slight variations nuances on architectural of different nuanceskinds [15 of]. different kinds [15]. Figure 1. A view of the Ellerslie-Panmure Highway, a typical suburban connection in the suburb of Panmure (Google Street view retrieved in November 2018). Considering what is argued by the Auckland Unitary Plan (i.e., the leading planning document delivered byby the the Auckland Auckland Council), Council), land land prices prices around around Pukekohe Pukekohe allow forallow the provisionfor the provision of affordable of affordablehouses. Further, houses. infrastructural Further, infrastructural improvements improvements and the weak and opposition the weak of opposition rural regimes of rural that regimes support thatland-use support changes land-use in response changes to in proximity response to to the proxim city alsoity affectto the decision-making city also affect decision-making [13]. In this paper, [13]. it is Indemonstrated this paper, it that is demonstrated Auckland’s urban that sprawlAuckland’s relies urban on these sprawl planning relies ambiguities on these planning and the ambiguities asymmetric andrelationship the asymmetric between urbanrelationship and rural between regimes urban of control, and rural whereby regimes flexible of control, restrictions whereby on rural flexible space restrictionsbarely restrain on inorganicrural space urban barely expansion. restrain inorganic On this basis, urban it isexpansion. suggested On that this more basis, sustainable it is suggested urban thatdevelopment more sustainable of Auckland—rather urban development than simply of Auckland—rather relying on anti-growth than simply narratives—might relying on anti-growth include narratives—mightthe urban–rural dynamics include the that urban–rural operate upon dynamics the transformation that operate of upon peri-urban the transformation spaces and consider of peri- urbanthem asspaces a rich and source consider of environmental them as a rich assets source that canof environmental inform a more appropriateassets that can planning inform approach. a more appropriateFinally, it is planning suggested approach. that in the Finally, context it ofis policy-ambiguity,suggested that in understandingthe context of urbanpolicy-ambiguity, sprawl and understandingthe peri-urban spaceurban from sprawl the gatewaysand the peri-urban of political space ecology, from environmental the gateways services, of political natural ecology, capital, environmentalgreen infrastructure services, and urbannatural agriculture, capital, green inter infr alia,astructure may contribute and urban to the agriculture, improvement inter of alia, planning may contributeframeworks to andthe inspireimprovement solutions of inplanning urban design,frameworks landscape and inspire planning solutions and architecture in urban design, for the landscapeconfiguration planning of more and sustainable architecture peri-urban for the configuration landscapes. of more sustainable peri-urban landscapes. In the the theoretical theoretical section, section, I Idiscuss discuss the the ambiguity ambiguity around around the the notion notion of of“urban “urban sprawl” sprawl” and and its determinantsits determinants in order in order to highlight to highlight the lack the lackof atte ofntion attention to its to rural its ruraldimension. dimension. I also Idiscuss also discuss some internationalsome international studies studies in which in which suburban suburban rurality rurality has been has beenaddressed addressed through through both bothpolicy-based policy-based and morphological approaches to planning. I then present the methodology, including the context of analysis, the case study,

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