Chapter Six The Early Republic, 1775 to 1820

Revolutionary War and Early National Period Federal Period 1775 to 1789 1789 to 1820

1775 1775-1783 1789 1800 1812-1814 1817 |||||| Colonial Revolutionary Constitution Population War Baltimore Gas population War ratified reaches of Lighting Company reaches 1 million 1812 nation’s first 700,000 gas utility

AN ECOLOGY OF PEOPLE AND PLACE SIGNIFICANT EVENTS

Ⅺ PEOPLE ▫ 1775–total population ▫ 1793 to 1794–yellow reaches 700,000 fever ravages region The outbreak of war between Great Britain and its North ▫ 1775 to 1783- ▫ 1800–regional American colonies in 1775 significantly altered people’s Revolutionary War population reaches 1 million lives throughout the region (see Map ▫ 1776-United States ▫ 8). As the War for Independence intensified, Coastal declares indepen- 1800–nation’s first dence modern highway Plain and Piedmont communities increasingly took on a completed; wartime footing. They prepared defenses, mobilized ▫ 1781–Cornwallis Philadelphia- surrenders army to Lancaster turnpike communities, and dedicated resources to maintaining General George ▫ 1804–work begins on the war effort. Washington and the Chesapeake and Comte de Rocham- Delaware Canal The first years of the war were marked by confusion and beau at Yorktown, ,to end ▫ 1808–federal govern- hardship. Although opinions about the war were fighting in North ment abolishes divided, all Chesapeake Bay people suffered from short- America importation of slaves ▫ ages caused by the British blockade begun in 1776. ▫ 1789–U. S. Consti- 1812 to 1814–War Conditions improved when the British were forced to lift tution is ratified of 1812 renews hostilities with Great the blockade following France’s entrance into the war ▫ 1790–Bank of Britain on the American side in 1779. And some Chesapeake established ▫ 1813–first commer- Bay merchants even benefitted from the war. Sailing ▫ 1791–Maryland and cial steamboat on from ports throughout the region, they took advantage Virginia provide land Chesapeake Bay and funds for new waters begins service of new opportunities for plunder and the opening of national capital ▫ 1814–British troops markets of rival powers formerly officially closed to ▫ burn Washington and 1792–nation’s capital besiege Baltimore them. Loyalist skippers–employed by established firms moved to newly based in larger ports such as Baltimore, Annapolis, and established District of ▫ 1816–University of Norfolk–plied a burgeoning trade with New York and Columbia (later Virginia established Washington, D.C.) ▫ other British held ports. Entrepreneurial captains of 1817–nation’s first ▫ 1792–Cape Henry gas utility chartered; rebel vessels sailing from smaller ports carried cargoes Lighthouse built Baltimore Gas to Philadelphia, Boston, and other American held har- Lighting Company ▫ 1793–construction bors. Many of these men made fortunes as privateers ▫ 1819–construction begins on the United begins on Fort (sailors on armed, private ships licensed by their gov- States Capitol Monroe ernment to attack enemy ships). Roaming the waters of

An Ecology of People and Place 77 Map 8: The Early Republic, 1775 to 1820

● Lancaster

● Yo r k Ferncliff Wildlife and Su Wildflower Preserve sq ue ha nn a Gilpin's R i Falls ve Sion Hill r ● IA Elkton LVAN ● NSY Principio PEN D YLAN Furnace MAR

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a t v Long Green Creek i n r u R and Sweathouse Branch e v o i y Natural Area R M c r e a P t h s t c a e Catoctin Ridge t h u ● o a Baltimore C o Frederick n ps ● o c S o Riv e Chestertown M r er v Harper's Ferry Gap i Fort McHenry Kent R

Sugar Loaf Island k Mountain n Colonial a Annapolis t Waterford p

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● N

Leesburg Wye House A

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Riversdale L

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Oak Hill Washington DC R

Tulip Hill E Patowmack ● A

Manassas Gap ● D ke R

Oatlands Canal ● Bladensburg M in

a P t tico Alexandria a n Choptank n u Bannecker t a o u Indian N x M Thorofare Gap Belt Woods e Reservation n Mount n u t ● Warrenton ● R Vernon R Cambridge l l i u v

e r B Battle Creek e r v Thornton Gap Cypress Swamp i ac River R ● Salisbury h Calvert iver a o

Potom Cliffs Preserve d V n s oke R

I n R a i n G a e t I N h n R D ocom I N A P S u a LA o p Y p AR M Culpeper a M h e annock Caledon g Smith d R i Potomac Ri R i State Park ver Island R a ver pi e r Fredericksburg e da Ri v Spence's Point u n l B MA Stratford RYL NIA AND IRGI Montpelier Hall V Forest Camden Rappahannock R Tangier Island M C at ta iver h ● Charlottesville po ni e R s iv e a Virginia Rockfish Gap Monticello P r a p Coast mu Green Springs n e ke Reserve y a R Mattaponi Indian ive k r Reservation e

s B n i r Richmond Pamunkey ta e n iv ● Indian a u Bremo J Reservation y o s R a m M e e s Rive r Y m o e a rk g J Williamsburg R id i Cape iver John Tyler House v e r R Charles e lu Yo r k t ow n B attox R James River Gap Fort Monroe ● J Poplar am Cape ppom Petersburg e Forest A s Norfolk Henry Riv er ● ● Charles Seashore Lynchburg C.Steirly Natural Area Cape Henry Natural Area Portsmouth Lighthouse Great Dismal Swamp

LEGEND National Historic Landmark © National Natural Landmark ¥ City or Town ■ Natural or Cultural Feature Canal Bay Plain 0 5 10 25 50 miles Piedmont 0 5 10 40 80 kilometers North

78 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC KEY LOCALES

NATIONAL HISTORIC Virginia Richmond City Landmarks LANDMARKS Benjamin Banneker SW-9 Dr. John Brockenbrough Intermediate Boundary House [1818] District of Columbia Stone [1792], Arlington Virginia State Capitol Landmarks County [1785-1792] Cleveland Abbe House [1805] Bremo Historic District [early House [1790] 19th century], Fluvanna Newton D. Baker House Monumental Church [1814] [1794] County Virginia Governor’s Mansion Cape Henry Lighthouse Decatur House [1819] [1811-1813] [1792], Virginia Beach Georgetown Historic District Virginia State Capitol Fort Monroe [1819-1834], [18th-19th centuries] [1785-1792] Hampton City Hiram W. Johnson House [ca. Wickham-Valentine House Green Springs Historic District 1810] [1812] Lafayette Square Historic [18th-19th centuries], District [18th-20th Louisa County centuries] Law Office Octagon House [1800] [1786-1789], Fredericksburg City Sewall-Belmont House [1820, 1929] Monticello [1770-1789], Albemarle County Tudor Place [ca. 1815] Mount Vernon [1792-1799], United States Capitol [1793- Fairfax County 1865] Oak Hill, James Monroe House United States Marine Corps [1820-1823], Loudon County Commandant’s House [1803] Oatlands [1800], Loudon County Washington Navy Yard [1800- 1910] Poplar Forest [1808-1819], Bedford County White House [1792, 1815] Patowmack Canal Historic Maryland District [1786-1830], Fairfax County Chestertown Historic District [18th-19th centuries], Kent Spence’s Point [1806], County Westmoreland County Colonial Annapolis Historic John Tyler House [1780, District [17th-18th 1842], Charles City County centuries], Annapolis, University of Virginia Historic Anne Arundel County District Riversdale [early 19th [19th-20th centuries], century], Prince George’s Charlottesville City County Waterford Historic District Sion Hill [19th-20th [18th-19th centuries], centuries], Harford County Loudon County Tulip Hill [1756, 1790], Williamsburg Historic District AnneArundel County [1633-1779], Williamsburg City Wye House [1784, 1799], Talbot County Alexandria City Landmarks Baltimore City Landmarks Alexandria Historic District [18th-19th centuries] First Unitarian Church [1818] Gadsby’s Tavern [1752, 1792], Homewood [1803] Alexandria City Minor Basilica of the Woodlawn [1803-1805] Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary [1806-1863] Peale’s Baltimore Museum [1814] Saint Mary’s Seminary Chapel [1808] Star-Spangled Banner House [ca. 1793]

An Ecology of People and Place 79 of commercial agriculture based on plantations staffed by craftsmen, com- mission agents, and middle managers such as overseers and stewards. Enslaved Africans were the principal laborers for almost every aspect of this economy. Reaching beyond plantation boundaries, slaves furnished the skilled and unskilled labor essential for constructing buildings and roads, working fisheries, building ships, and toiling in the region’s mills and embryonic iron industry (see Figure 26). The Chesapeake Bay economy was closely integrated into the emerging Figure 26: Fragment of an Industrial Landscape: The smelting political order of the new nation. stack at Principio Iron Furnace, Havre de Grace, Maryland, in Established landowners and powerful 1997. (Photograph courtesy of the ) families competed with entrepreneurs in the Bay and ranging far out into open a widening network of international ocean waters, Chesapeake privateers trade. These were only two factions in a preyed on the ships of Great Britain and new nation struggling to cope with a her allies. growing and diverse population. Social ferment generated by competition Fighting on the land also ravaged the between contending classes, castes, and region throughout the war. Virginia’s interests shaped the particular sense of royal governor, John Murray Dunmore, identity and purpose developing in the conducted a series of raids on rebel posi- region as the new nation took its place in Hampton Roads, tions throughout Hampton Roads during the world community. Creation of a Virginia the war’s first years. In 1777, a large national identity became a conscious British army commanded by Major and compelling concern as citizens General Sir William Howe moved up searched for ways to express, celebrate, Chesapeake Bay on its way to and strengthen the bonds linking them Philadelphia. The British made three together. other incursions into the region between Although most communities in the 1779 and 1781 before the combined region maintained a rural way of life, American and French armies under the population growth spurred development joint command of George Washington everywhere. New roads connected and the Comte de Rochambeau com- Piedmont communities, and county pelled Lord Charles Cornwallis to surren- seats along overland transportation Yorktown, Virginia der his army at Yorktown on October 19, routes–such as the Virginian villages of 1781. This effectively ended the fighting Charlottesville, Charlottesville, Warrenton, and Lees- Warrenton, and in North America. Leesburg, Virginia burg–grew into town centers. These The conclusion of the War for Inde- county seats were centrally situated– pendence also provided the last act in ideally within a day’s ride of any locale the war for the inland empire of the Ohio in the county (districts of English shires Valley. This conflict had begun in the were known as ridings)–and provided mid-1750s, when Virginia tidewater land courthouses, warehouses, inns, shops, speculators anxious to assert claims to churches, and other institutions serving lands west of the Blue Ridge played a the needs of county residents. central role in starting the global conflict known as the Seven Years’ War. By 1790, Farther east, counties on both shores of many of these speculators had grown the Bay grew more urban. Population rich, not on Ohio lands (which were growth was greatest in older cities such Baltimore, Maryland acquired by Pennsylvania or formed into as Baltimore and Richmond; newer Richmond, Virginia new states like Kentucky), but on a form cities grew slowly, including the new

80 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC blockades maintained by warring pow- ers in Europe resulted in the confiscation of many American cargoes and the clos- ing of ports to American commerce. In response, the United States Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited exports to Europe and limited imports from Great Britain.

Figure 27: Early National Capital Landscape: Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C. in 1832. (Painting courtesy of the Library of Congress) national capital of Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. (See Figure 27), established across the Anacostia River from the formerly bustling port city of Bladensburg in 1791. New construction abounded in city cen- Figure 28: Capital Landscape Afire: ters. Demographically, these regional The Washington waterfront burns, 1814. towns resembled the nation’s other Watercolor by William Thornton. (Painting courtesy of the Library of Congress) developing urban centers, such as New York and Philadelphia. They contained Differences with Great Britain finally an even balance of men and women, as erupted into open war in 1812. The War well as significant numbers of children. of 1812 brought new devastation to In the decades following the Revolution, Chesapeake Bay country. Maryland was economic growth in the region was particularly hard hit in 1814, when British slowed by external forces. Although the troops and naval units attacked several war was over, the British continued to Bay towns, defeated an American army prey on American ships, seizing cargo at Bladensburg, burned Washington’s Bladensburg, Maryland and forcing American sailors into service public buildings (see Figure 28), and in the Royal Navy as seamen. In addition, besieged Baltimore. Today, an entire

MARYLAND’S WAR OF 1812 INITIATIVE. Funded by a National Park Service American Battlefields Protection Program grant, the Maryland Historical Trust and the Maryland Tourism Development Board are working together as partners with the Defense Department and the National Park Service to study, preserve, and interpret twenty-one War of 1812 military sites in Maryland for the benefit of the public. Unlike past studies that have focused exclusively on the sites of land battles, this initiative includes shipwrecks and other submerged resources. Underwater archeologists using written records and the Figure 29: War on Water: Action in Saint Leonard’s Creek, 1814. (Painting attributed to Charles T. results of sonar, electro-magnetic, and other remote sensing Warren. Courtesy of the Calvert Marine Museum) survey techniques have found and begun tests on two of Commodore Joshua’s Barney’s gunboats scuttled in the Patuxent River between the first and second battles of St. Leonard’s Creek in 1814 (see Figure 29). Current plans call for similar surveys at Cedar Point, Tobacco Stick, the Upper Patuxent, Frenchtown, and other sites of naval actions. On land, archeological field crews will use survey and testing techniques to better understand evidence surviving in the ground at several War of 1812 battlefields. Later studies will examine written, architectural, and archeological evidence associated with 159 contemporary non-military sites to form a fuller picture of life in Maryland during this era.

An Ecology of People and Place 81 flotilla of American vessels scuttled to livestock and producing bulk foods such avoid capture lies beneath the waters of as wheat and corn. Still representing the the upper reaches of the Patuxent River. majority of landholdings, small Coastal Plain farms continued to be worked by The pace of development quickened fol- small numbers of slaves. Larger tidewater lowing the end of the war in 1814. plantations remained vast enterprises, Baltimore, for example, rose from a small often employing the labor of large num- town to a major port. By 1820 it had bers of slaves. Slavery did not play a become the nation’s third largest city, major role in many Piedmont locales. with a population of more than 62,000. Many of the farms in the region were Eclipsing rival ports, Baltimore became a owned by new Scots-Irish and German principal shipping point for grain, immigrants. Unwilling or unable to tobacco, and manufactured goods from underwrite the expense of slaves, most of Virginia, Maryland, and the Susque- these people instead relied on their large hanna Valley. families for farm labor. Ⅺ PLACE Increases in agricultural production stim- ulated the growth of population centers Two wars and the rapid expansion of the throughout the region. Piedmont towns population left their mark on in particular became centers of com- Chesapeake lands and waters during this merce. Sustained by local agriculture, period. The shortages and destruction located near valuable timber, water, and caused by war stimulated peacetime mineral resources, and situated along development. Although agriculture con- roads and rivers linking the coast with tinued to dominate the region, emphasis the western interior, many had grown shifted from farming tobacco to raising into sizable communities by 1820. In

GEORGIAN FEDERAL LANDSCAPES PRESERVED: A TALBOT COUNTY PORTFOLIO. Talbot County, on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, possesses a wealth of exceptionally well-preserved cultural landscapes dating to the late colonial and early federal periods. The plantations shown here (see Figures 30-32) are among the many photographed by pioneering camera man H. Robbin Hollyday during the 1930s. A substantial amount of Hollyday’s photographic archive is preserved by the Talbot County Historical Society, in the town of Easton, Maryland.

Figure 31: Wye House, ca. 1930 (Photo- graph courtesy of the Talbot County Historical Society)

Figure 30: Forest Landing Plantation, ca. 1930. Figure 32: Presqu’isle, ca. 1930. (Photo- (Photograph courtesy of the Talbot County Historical Society) graph courtesy of the Talbot County Historical Society)

82 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC addition, fishing, shipbuilding, and trading Figure 33: Lighting the Way: Cape ports along the coast grew into mercantile Henry Lighthouses, ca. 1905. The towns and cities. The orderly grids of 1792 lighthouse is on the right. (Photograph from the Detroit Publishing many of these towns contrasted with the Company courtesy of the Library of Congress) irregular boundaries of farmlands. Tidewater geography was a major advan- tage for the region, too, as it favored the growth of commerce. Islands and estuar- ies provided ready access to fishing grounds and shellfish beds. Although they were shallow, most Coastal Plain waterways were calm, sheltered from plies of valuable trees, young storms, and easily navigated. Ports and pines and a profusion of Figure 34: A 1798 Latrobe sketch of the plantation landings were built along marsh grass, crabgrass, wire- Cape Henry Lighthouse, Virginia. navigable stretches of rivers up to the fall grass, and bluegrasses took (Sketch courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society) line. Perhaps not surprisingly, one of the over when mature oaks, hick- first public programs undertaken by the ories, and other highly marketable trees new national government was the con- were cut. The demands of the local pop- struction of a lighthouse system. The first ulation and a growing export market for of these was Virginia’s Cape Henry Light- lumber increased the pace of timber cut- Cape Henry Lighthouse, house, a ninety-foot-high, stone shaft ting throughout the region. Virginia constructed at the mouth of Chesapeake Axes and saws were not the only engines Bay in 1792 (see Figures 33 and 34). The of change operating in Chesapeake light provided by the oil lamps lit at the forests. Individually requiring from top of this and similar structures both twenty to thirty acres of browsing land improved safety and provided a swift per year, free foraging cattle, horses, and signaling network giving warning of hogs fed voraciously on mast, grasses, approaching storms or enemies. woody plants, young hardwood saplings, The new government also devoted pub- and unfenced crops. Overgrazing was lic monies to canal, road, and turnpike clearly a major problem in many areas of construction. This improved access to the region by 1820. undeveloped lands throughout the In addition, the destruction of forest region, and helped transform most of the canopies when trees were cut down remaining tidewater forests into agricul- exposed ground surfaces to the sun, tural fields. Farther inland, ferries, James River Canal and warming shallow waters, increasing Patowmack Canal, Virginia bridges, roads, and slack water routes around the fall lines blocking major river, such as the James River Canal and the Patowmack Canal, opened more Piedmont forest to the woodsman’s axe. Large scale deforestation accompanied new settlements in Pennsylvania’s lower Susquehanna Valley and the Maryland and Virginian Piedmont. Timber throughout the region was cut by axe and metal saws. It was then proc- essed in water-powered sawmills at mill seats alongside dammed falls and rapids (see Figure 35). Sawn, cut, and milled lumber was used to fence farms, fabricate tools and conveyances, and build, fur- nish, and heat homes. Because of this high demand for lumber and the Figure 35: Upper Marlboro Mill, Maryland, 1827. absence of a program to replenish sup- (Painting courtesy of the Calvert Marine Museum)

An Ecology of People and Place 83 PORTFOLIO: BENJAMIN LATROBE’S CHESAPEAKE. Benjamin H. Latrobe was the young nation’s first academic- ally trained architect. Today, he is best remembered for his innovative civil engineering achievements and as the designer of many of the most hand- some high-style federal and classical revival buildings and structures erected in the mid-Atlantic region. His commit- ment to high-style, however, did not prevent him from accurately depicting the region’s landscape as he traveled through it executing commissions. The sketches published here (see Figures 36-38), and others preserved in the Figure 36: Piedmont Farm Landscape: George Stoner’s farm, near collections of the Maryland Historical Conestoga, 1801. (Sketch courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society) Society, represent a rare record of more humble landscapes rarely depicted by other architects of the era.

Figure 38: Coastal Plain Landscape: Rockett’s Landing on the James River near the head of tidewater, 1796. (Sketch courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society)

Figure 37: Bay Environment: The busy seaport of Norfolk, Virginia. (Sketch courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society)

evaporation, and creating drier condi- kets–occasionally blocked upstream tions. The erosion of soils from forest reaches of free flowing rivers. floors and planting fields into regional rivers increased the amount of sediment Land animals were affected by the in- flowing into Bay waters. Sediment dark- trusive presence of people as well. ened waters and changed the chemical Increased hunting reduced animal popu- composition of many rivers and streams, lations that were already stressed from affecting fish and other animals. habitat changes brought on by intensifying Sediment also covered the eggs of development. Several species disap- spawning fish, amphibians, and reptiles, peared during this period. Hunters signifi- reducing populations in several areas. cantly reduced populations of white- Mill dams began blocking the spawning tailed deer and virtually caused the runs of migrating fish in upland streams, extinction of black bears and beavers in and log jams–caused when timber fell the region, as tanners and furriers strug- into streams or broke from log rafts that gled to meet high market demands for rivermen floated to downstream mar- skins and pelts. To address this problem,

84 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC states began prohibiting commercial ing the largest wheat and tobacco ship- hunting of these and other threatened ping port on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. animal populations. But seemingly River communities such as Alexandria, Alexandria, Petersburg, unthreatened species, such as the Petersburg, and Richmond attracted and Richmond, Virginia canvasback ducks that were plentiful at increasing numbers of French citizens, the Susquehanna Flats, were still avidly West Indians, and other immigrants flee- hunted. Because they were rarely hunted ing revolution and war in Europe. and were considered economically Free and enslaved African Americans unimportant, opportunistic species such made up a large percentage of the popu- as opossums, gray squirrels, raccoons, lation of the Chesapeake Bay region’s and Norway rats prospered. cities. Baltimore was home to the sec- Baltimore, Maryland ond largest population of free blacks in THE CULTURAL the new nation (New Orleans had the LANDSCAPE OF THE largest), and more free blacks lived in Maryland than in any other state. EARLY REPUBLIC Vigorous African American communities of oystermen, sailors, skilled tradespeo- Ⅺ PEOPLING PLACES ple, and farmers grew along the Eastern The early years of the Republic saw Shore. Farther south in Virginia, black demographic upheavals throughout the people comprised the largest percentage region. Fighting during the Revolution of the state’s total population. and the War of 1812 forced many people In contrast, Native American populations, from their homes. Many Loyalists, free mostly limited to tiny rural enclaves in blacks, and escaped slaves left the region unwanted swamp lands and pine bar- following the Revolution. After word of rens and beset by poverty and disease, the Treaty of Ghent ending the War of continued to decline. Trespassers cutting 1812 reached the region in early 1815, a timber and poaching game on their land second wave of African Americans left. went unpunished. Maryland sold off all Many moved to Nova Scotia at the invita- of the remaining Indian lands under its tion of British authorities opposed to supervision on the Eastern Shore, putting slavery and eager to weaken the rival money obtained in sales of Choptank Choptank Indian American economy. Thousands of other Reservation land towards its state’s share Reservation, Maryland Chesapeake Bay people joined the west- of $72,000 raised for the construction of ward movement into Kentucky and Ohio public buildings in the new capital in Valley lands. Hundreds more were killed Washington in 1790. Fewer than five hun- by periodic outbreaks of contagion, such dred Native American people probably as the yellow fever epidemic that ravaged remained in the region by 1820. the region between 1793 and 1794. Yellow fever came to the region via mos- Ⅺ CREATION OF SOCIAL quitoes that arrived on a ship carrying French refugees fleeing revolution in INSTITUTIONS Haiti. Although the family remained at the cen- Yet despite these setbacks, the region’s ter of social life in the region, the setting population grew from 700,000 in 1775 to for family events shifted increasingly more than 1.3 million by 1820. Family from the home to public places. Few sizes were large in both rural and urban new social institutions were publicly areas. Growing numbers of rural family funded, however. The Institute for the The Institute for the members, unable to acquire lands of Insane, built in Williamsburg in 1773, Insane, Virginia their own near home and unwilling to was the only permanent, publicly funded emigrate, congregated in Chesapeake hospital of any type in the region during Bay towns and cities. Commercial seaport this period. Many field hospitals and towns such as Annapolis, Baltimore, infirmaries opened in the region to care Annapolis, Baltimore, and Norfolk, and Chestertown prospered as for casualties during the Revolution and Chestertown, Maryland never before, with the latter soon becom- the War of 1812. Mostly set up in church Norfolk, Virginia

The Cultural Landscape of the Early Republic 85 buildings, schoolhouses, and other French philosophers and German scien- standing structures, these facilities were tists. But not all Chesapeake people hastily improvised and soon closed after openly embraced scientific develop- peace was restored. ment. In 1800, for example, a mob scan- dalized by anatomy lectures demolished Public primary and secondary educa- Baltimore’s newly erected Anatomical Anatomical Hall, tion languished around Chesapeake Bay. Maryland Hall. Undeterred, instructors continued Unwilling to support public schools, regional legislatures tolerated illiteracy the lectures at the County Alms House. rates averaging 20 percent among the English remained the nation’s language white population of the region through- in speech and print. Newspapers such as out the period. And education was Annapolis’s Maryland Gazette and banned for slaves and actively sup- Baltimore’s Maryland Journal played pressed for free blacks. Upper class fami- major roles in setting style and forming lies tended to hire private tutors to opinion in the region. In addition to educate younger children. In Maryland, schools and universities, other centers of Library Company some private academies opened with learning, such as the Library Company of Baltimore, Maryland state assistance by 1820. A classical cur- of Baltimore (organized in 1795), riculum was offered on the formally opened. designed and carefully landscaped cam- The arts flourished in the Chesapeake pus of the College of William and Mary area during this period. Baltimore College of William and and, after 1816, on the equally mani- Mary and the University became a center of high-style painting, cured Piedmont grounds of the of Virginia, Virginia silverwork, and furniture manufacture. In University of Virginia in Charlottesville. 1814, Rembrandt Peale established the Young people of lesser means sought region’s first museum, the Gallery of training in skilled occupations through Fine Arts in Baltimore, to showcase sixty- Gallery of Fine Arts, apprenticeships. Maryland four of his paintings portraying eminent Churches, inns, stores, and courthouses remained centers of public social life during this period. Cities, towns, and vil- lages soon grew around these buildings. Expanding commerce necessitated more travel and increased demands for goods and services. Growing enthusiasm for veterans’ organizations such as the Order of the Cincinnati and secret societies such as the Masonic Order stimulated construction of new meeting halls. And new church construction was fostered Figure 39: Formal Georgian Gardenscape by the temporary disestablishment of the Restored: Kenmore Colonial Revival Garden, Anglican church, widely associated with 1924, Landscape Architect Charles Gillette. the tyranny of the Crown during the (Photograph courtesy of the Garden Club of Virginia) Revolution, and the growth of other Protestant denominations. On the Eastern Shore, Richard Allen, Absalom Jones, and other black ministers played a major role in forming African American congregations.

Ⅺ EXPRESSING CULTURAL VALUES Although the new nation continued to look to Great Britain as its primary model Figure 40: Stratford Hall Colonial Revival Garden Plan, 1932, Landscape Architect for cultural values, Americans were Morley J. Williams. increasingly influenced by the works of (Landscape plan courtesy of the Garden Club of Virginia)

86 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC men of the Revolution. Few people New political parties arose as states in could afford training in European acade- the Chesapeake Bay region held consti- mies and salons, and the resources were tutional conventions in assembly halls in Williamsburg, Virginia also lacking to sustain a school of the Williamsburg, Annapolis, and nearby Annapolis, Maryland arts in the region. Undaunted, people of Philadelphia. Municipal and county every class and caste, intent on express- politicians throughout the region rushed ing themselves, crafted untutored works to build government buildings of their of art and beauty that today we call folk, own. Imposing Federal style assembly primitive, or naive art. halls, courthouses, jails, and other The Georgian and Federal architectural administrative structures, patterned after state buildings such as the Virginia State Virginia State Capitol, styles popular during the period closely Richmond followed British fashion. Formally land- Capitol (begun in 1785), soon rose in scaped gardens, naturalistic English gar- many Chesapeake Bay county seats and dens, and street plans also followed municipal centers. European models (see Figures 39-40). The new federal government, established Agrarian life was idealized by such by the Constitutional Convention and thinkers as Thomas Jefferson as the most supported by a much-increased tax base, natural state, even as the new urban soon began a series of public construc- centers began expanding into the tion programs. A network of all-weather countryside. turnpikes funded by government agen- Although the leading intellectuals of the cies and private companies began to new nation championed philosophies more effectively connect the region with that emphasized the natural rights of the rest of the country. The first of these man, liberty and equality continued to linked the town of Lancaster with the Lancaster, Pennsylvania be denied to African American slaves. City of Philadelphia. Completed in 1800, Federal law prohibited the importation it was carefully graded, paved with cob- of new slaves in 1808, but the institution bles and crushed stone, and carried traf- of slavery persisted in Maryland, fic over the Conestoga and other rivers Delaware, and Virginia. crossing its route on stone arch bridges. Stone edifices were also erected, includ- Cape Henry Lighthouse, ing the already mentioned Cape Henry Ⅺ Virginia SHAPING THE POLITICAL Lighthouse, Baltimore’s Fort McHenry Fort McHenry, Maryland LANDSCAPE (begun in 1794), and Virginia’s Fort Fort Monroe, Virginia Monroe (begun in 1819). State governments began replacing colo- nial provincial administrations soon after Most significantly, a new capital city rose the Revolutionary War broke out in 1775. on lands donated by Virginia and Chesapeake politicians played important Maryland at the fall line of the Potomac roles in the new nation’s government. River. Based on an elaborate plan devel- The author of the Declaration of Inde- oped by the architect Pierre L’Enfant pendence, Thomas Jefferson, and many (see Figure 41), and surveyed by African of its most notable signers came from the region. A Marylander named John Hanson became the first “President of Figure 41: the United States in Congress Assembled” Vision in 1781. Prominent residents served as of an Urban Landscape: representatives to the Continental Pierre Congress during the war, and to the Charles Constitutional Convention that convened L’Enfant’s in Philadelphia in 1787. One of these, an 1791 plan for outspoken Virginian opponent of slavery the city of named , penned the Bill of Washington. (Plan courtesy of Rights. Four of the first six presidents, the National George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Capital Planning Commission) , and James Monroe, also came from the region.

The Cultural Landscape of the Early Republic 87 ALEXANDRIA HISTORIC DISTRICT. Located on the Virginia side of the Potomac River near its uppermost limit of navigation, Alexandria was first established in 1749 as a market town to serve the needs of Fairfax County corn and wheat farmers. Alexandria grew quickly following construction of docks capable of handling ocean-going vessels on lands reclaimed from the town’s marshy riverfront after the Revolution. Formally designated as a Port of Entry–a place administered by customs officials where foreign ships could land, unload, and take on cargoes–the town became one of the new nation’s ten most important ports. Skilled artisans and tradesmen of all sorts rented rooms, apartments, and business space in the many brick and frame rowhouses and free-standing buildings that soon lined Alexandria’s streets. Many African Americans, both enslaved and free, made their homes in riverfront districts known as “the Bottoms” and “Hayti.” Alexandria became part of the newly created District of Columbia in 1789 (it would be returned to Virginia by the Act of Retrocession in 1846). Although Alexandria prospered as the capital’s port, it was gradually surpassed in importance by Baltimore by the 1820s. The coming of the railroad and a sharp rise in the demand for slave labor by cotton farmers farther south stimulated the growth of Alexandria into a major slave trading center by mid-century. Captured by Federal troops at the beginning of the Civil War, the city made it through the conflict largely unscathed. Today, Alexandria boasts a large and well-preserved assemblage of buildings dating to the early na- tional period. Set in an urban land- scape largely unchanged for two centuries, Alexandria’s buildings and streets continue to convey the Figure 42: River Landscape: Alexandria, Virginia from the Maryland shore, May, 1861. Many of the landscape elements depicted in this ambiance of an early nineteenth- vista were in place by the first decades of the nineteenth century. century Chesapeake port town. (Sketch by Alfred Waud courtesy of the Library of Congress)

American mathematician Benjamin of navigating shallow winding waters car- Bannecker, the city was christened ried cargoes through Coastal Plain water- the District of Columbia. Renamed ways. Farther inland, commodities Washington after the first president’s continued to be hauled in wagons drawn death in 1799, the new city grew by horses and oxen. slowly at first. But after its public buildings were burned by a British Both soil exhaustion and increasing army in 1814, the city was quickly local demand for fresh farm produce rebuilt and expanded. convinced many tidewater farmers to switch from cultivating tobacco inten- Ⅺ sively to producing a wider variety of DEVELOPING THE agricultural products. Richmond, CHESAPEAKE ECONOMY Alexandria, and other market towns Agriculture and commerce contin- near the heads of navigation of the ued to dominate the regional econ- region’s rivers provided places where omy during this period. Languishing farmers could market their produce and during wartime, maritime com- purchase merchandise shipped in from merce grew as merchants struggled elsewhere. Farther inland, the upland Figure 43: A Piedmont to expand trade networks and develop Piedmont economy centered on small Townscape Preserved: scale farming, dairying, quarrying, and Waterford, Virginia new markets. Expanded harbor, wharf, from the air, 1989. and warehouse facilities rose up in manufacturing in small rural villages like (Aerial photograph courtesy of Chesapeake Bay ports such as Baltimore Waterford and other crossroads commu- Land Ethics, Inc.) and Norfolk. Maneuverable flat bot- nities (see Figure 43). Water-powered fac- tomed sailing ships and barges capable tories and workshops along regional

88 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC Shipbuilders in Baltimore used timber cut and worked in nearby sawmills to build the ever swifter schooners needed Baltimore, Maryland to compete successfully in the fast grow- ing coastal and transatlantic trade. Artisans in Chesapeake Bay workshops used precisely calibrated machine tools made and powered with water energy to painstakingly craft accurate navigational instruments and other implements essen- tial to maritime commerce. Developments in transportation technol- Figure 44: Millscape: Quarle’s Mill, North ogy established the groundwork for sig- Anna River, Virginia, May, 1865. (Alexander Gardner photograph courtesy of the Library of Congress) nificant advances to come. One of the first iron-chain suspension bridges built rivers and streams transformed locally in America was completed across the farmed crops, milled wood, and smelted Potomac at Georgetown by 1810 (see Georgetown and metal into tools, implements, house- Figure 45). Stone masons and engineers Washington, D.C. wares, furniture, textiles, and other prod- installed modern lock and water control James River Canal and ucts (see Figure 44). systems in the earlier mentioned James Patowmack Canal, Virginia River and Patowmack canals. Opening in Periodically cut off from European mar- 1790, the seven-mile-long James River kets, the new nation struggled to attain Canal bypassing the rapids blocking the economic self sufficiency. No central river at Richmond was the nation’s first agency regulated commerce in the new successful artificial waterway. Shortly nation. Instead, local corporations and thereafter, another company completed municipalities issued currency of their the Patowmack Canal allowing passage own and funded industry, commerce, around the falls of the Potomac River. and internal improvements. The Bank of the Maryland was established in 1790, for Advances were also made in agrarian example, and a Baltimore branch of the technology. Thomas Jefferson invented a Bank of the United States was opened light and strong moldboard plow that three years later. Beset by difficulties, was capable of breaking up hard, entrepreneurs and managers intent on densely packed soils. In 1784, Virginian developing the regional economy strug- John Binns found that mixture of locally gled against shortages caused by war, production fluctuations, and the vagaries of the decentralized fiscal system.

Ⅺ EXPANDING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Most of the region’s factories and work- shops during this era were powered by water. Low head mills, built to allow tide waters to pass over their water wheels on the Coastal Plain, harnessed the power of the ocean. Farther inland, Piedmont watermills harnessed the power of fast flowing, highland streams, using it to grind grain, cut wood, process textiles, and work iron into marketable tools. Inventors in the region made significant Figure 45: New Passages across the Landscape: The chain bridge over the advances in waterpower technology to Potomac River near Georgetown, as it appeared between 1810 and 1840. increase production speed and efficiency. (Sketch courtesy of the Library of Congress)

The Cultural Landscape of the Early Republic 89 mined gypsum into exhausted field soils ever expanding network of new roads increased their fertility. Determined to and turnpikes threading the region, trans- find a way to restore fertility to utterly formed forests into fields. Opportunistic, exhausted soils that failed to regain pro- invasive species such as white pine and ductivity after application of gypsum or red cedar proliferated as stands of old animal manures, fellow Virginian growth timber fell to woodsmen’s axes. Edmund Ruffin began a series of experi- And damage caused by forest fires wors- ments with marl to discover an abun- ened as settlers failed to follow the dant, cheap, effective, and locally ancient Native American practices of available additive. clearing underbrush and dead falls, thus leaving plenty of material to keep fires The Baltimore area became a center of burning. early industrial innovation. Baltimore entrepreneurs inaugurated the first com- Beaver, white-tailed deer, black bear, wild mercial steamboat service on Chesa- turkey, and songbird populations declined peake Bay in 1813. Four years later, as farmers destroyed their habitats and Baltimore Gas Lighting Rembrandt Peale helped organize the hunters thinned their numbers. The Company, Maryland nation’s first public utility, the Baltimore number of domestic animals–including Gas Lighting Company. Baltimore horses, pigs, cattle, sheep, and chickens– mechanical engineer Oliver Evans rose as native species diminished. played a major role in developing a Animals and plants brought from far- more precise form of mechanized mass away places visited by European voy- production, capable of producing finely agers were deliberately and accidentally crafted interchangeable parts, known as introduced into the region. the American System. His treatises on automated manufacturing methods and Other changes caused problems as well. processes attracted a wide readership. As mentioned, erosion caused by defor- Winning widespread recognition by estation and plow agriculture increased automating flour mill production, he the amount of sediment flowing into the went on to invent a high pressure steam region’s rivers and streams. Rivers, har- engine that would later be used to power bors, and bays grew polluted from runoff ships and railroads. from roads and sanitary wastes pro- duced by people and horses crowding Ⅺ TRANSFORMING THE into expanding urban centers. The new urban landscapes were often bleak ENVIRONMENT places, unkempt and treeless. Wood and The population and distribution of plants charcoal soot poured from chimneys and animals changed significantly dur- and smokestacks, beginning to foul the ing this period. Pioneers, traveling on the

LANDSCAPES REAL AND IDEAL: GEORGETOWN IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

Figure 47: Georgetown Real: A gritty view of Georgetown and its Aqueduct Bridge at the end of the Civil War, 1865. Note the almost total absence of trees, something often seen in documentary photographs taken during the period. Figure 46: Georgetown Ideal: A pastoral (William Morris Smith photo- vision of Georgetown, 1855. (E. Sachse and graph courtesy of the Library Company Lithograph courtesy of the Library of Congress) of Congress)

90 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC FURTHER INFORMATION Useful surveys of life in the region during this period include the following: Carol Ashe, Four Hundred Years of Vir- ginia,1584-1984:An Anthology (1985). Richard R. Beeman, The Old Dominion and the New Nation,1788-1801 (1985).

Figure 48: A Military Landscape: Carl Bode, Maryland: A Bicentennial Fort McHenry, 1998. History (1978). (Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service) Robert J. Brugger, Maryland: A Middle Temperament,1634-1980 (1988). air in and around iron furnaces, facto- Suzanne Chapelle, et al., Maryland: A ries, and residential districts. History of Its People (1986). Chesapeake Book of the Ⅺ CHANGING ROLE OF THE Helen Chappell, Dead (1999). CHESAPEAKE IN THE Frederick A. Gutheim, The Potomac WORLD COMMUNITY (1968). War and independence thrust the region Harold B. Hancock, Delaware 200 Years more deeply and directly into world Ago (1987). affairs than at any time previously in its Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Vir- history. Campaigns waged in the region ginia,1740-1790 (1982). during the Revolution and the War of Fort McHenry, Maryland 1812 directly embroiled the Chesapeake Paul Metcalf, ed., Waters of Potowmack Bay region in worldwide conflicts. The (1982). British shelling of Fort McHenry in Lucien Niemeyer and Eugene L. Meyer, Baltimore Harbor on September 13-14, Chesapeake Country (1990). 1814 (see Figure 48) was the last time Edward C. Papenfuse, et al., Maryland: A ships of a foreign navy fired on Chesa- New Guide to the Old Line State peake soil. (1979). Baltimore and Foreign trade stimulated the growth of Morris L. Radoff, The Old Line State: A Chestertown, Maryland deepwater harbor towns such as History of Maryland (1971). Norfolk and Richmond, Virginia Baltimore and Norfolk and of river cities L. Marx Renzulli, Maryland:The Federalist such as Chestertown and Richmond. Years (1972). Shipyards constructed oceangoing ves- Emily J. Salmon, ed., A Hornbook of sels that linked the region to ports every- Virginia History (1983). where in the world. Commodities and immigrants flowing into Chesapeake Bay These are some major ecological cities, towns and ports began changing surveys: every aspect of life throughout the Timothy Silver, A New Face on the region. As the nation’s capital, Washing- Countryside (1990). ton soon became the nucleus of a small James P. Thomas, ed., Chesapeake (1986). but growing diplomatic community that was both worldly and international. David A. Zegers, ed., At the Crossroads: A Natural History of Southcentral Pennsylvania (1994).

Further Information 91 Atlases and geographic surveys Charles A. Miller, Jefferson and Nature depicting large scale patterns in the (1988). development of Chesapeake Bay Gregory A. Stiverson and Phebe R. cultural landscapes during the Jacobson, William Paca: A Biography period include the following: (1976). Lester J. Cappon, ed., Atlas of Early American History (1976). Among the many studies surveying Michael Conzen, ed., The Making of the key aspects of the period’s social life American Landscape (1990). are the following: David J. Cuff, et al., eds., The Atlas of Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Pennsylvania (1989). Revolts (1943). James E. DiLisio, Maryland: A Geography Kathleen Brown, Good Wives, Nasty (1983). Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs Donald W. Meinig, The Shaping of (1996). America: Volume 1: Atlantic America, Dieter Cunz, The Maryland Germans 1492-1800 (1986). (1948). Donald W. Meinig, The Shaping of James Henretta and Gregory Nobles, America. Volume 2: Continental Evolution and Revolution (1987). America,1800-1867 (1993). Terry G. Jordan and Matti Kaups, The Edward C. Papenfuse, and Joseph M. American Backwoods Frontier (1989). Coale, eds., The Hammond-Harwood House Atlas of Historical Maps of Suzanne Lebsock, Virginia Women, 1600- Maryland,1608-1908 (1982). 1945 (1987). John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of Roland C. McConnell, Three Hundred America,1580 to 1845 (1982). and Fifty Years (1985). Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed.,The Settling Vera F. Rollo, The Black Experience in of North America (1995). Maryland (1980). Derek Thompson, et al., Atlas of Mary- Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas’s People land (1977). (1990). Kent T. Zachary, Cultural Landscapes of Donald G. Shomette, Pirates on the the Potomac (1995). Chesapeake (1985). These are among the studies of Bruce G. Trigger, ed., Northeast (Vol. 15, individual, small-scale communities: Handbook of North American Indians, Carville V. Earle, The Evolution of a 1978). Tidewater Settlement System (1975). Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., History of Jack Temple Kirby, Poquosson (1986). Indian-White Relations (Vol. 4, Handbook of North American Indians, Jerome H. Wood, Jr., Conestoga 1988). Crossroads (1975). James M. Wright, The Free Negro in Biographical accounts providing Maryland,1634-1860 (1921). insights into individual lives include the following: Significant examples of the large Silvio A. Bedini, The Life of Benjamin number of recent scholarly studies Bannecker (1999). of slavery in the Chesapeake Bay region during this period include the Frank A. Cassell, Merchant Congressman following: in the Young Republic (1971). Eugene S. Ferguson, Oliver Evans,The Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone (1998). Inventive Genius of the American ——-, and Philip D. Morgan, eds., The Industrial Revolution (1980). Slave’s Economy (1991).

92 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC ——-, and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Ronald Hoffman, A Spirit of Dissension Cultivation and Culture (1993). (1973). Douglas R. Egerton, Gabriel’s Rebellion Walter Lord, The Dawn’s Early Light (1993). (1972). Barbara J. Fields, Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground (1985). Key economic studies include the following: Ronald Lewis, Coal, Iron, and Slaves (1979). Percy W. Bidwell and John I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in the Northern Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint United States,1620-1860 (1925). (1997). Avery O. Craven, Soil Exhaustion as a Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves Factor in the Agricultural History of (1989). Virginia and Maryland, 1606-1860 T. Stephen Whitman, The Price of (1925). Freedom (1997). Lewis C. Gray, History of Agriculture in the William H. Williams, Slavery and Southern United States to 1860 (1932). Freedom in Delaware, 1639-1865 Harold B. Hancock, Delaware 200 Years (1996). Ago: 1780-1820 (1987). Carol Wilson, Freedom at Risk (1994). Paula Johnson, ed., Working the Water Gilbert L. Wilson, An Introduction into the (1988). History of Slavery in Prince George’s James T. Lemon, The Best Poor Man’s County (1991). Country (1972). Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves These works are among the numer- (1986). ous studies addressing the develop- ment of religion during this period: ——-, Agrarian Origins of American Donald G. Mathews, Slavery and Capitalism (1992). Methodism (1965). Sally McGrath and Patricia McGuire, eds., Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion The Money Crop (1992). (1978). Arthur Pierce Middleton, Tobacco Coast William H. Williams, The Garden of (1984). American Methodism (1984). Edward C. Papenfuse, In Pursuit of Profit (1975). Useful insights into period political Glenn Porter, ed., Regional Economic life may be found in these books: History of the Mid-Atlantic Area Since Whitman H. Ridgway, Community 1700 (1976). Leadership in Maryland, 1790-1840 (1979). Analyses of regional scientific and Norman K. Risjord, Chesapeake Politics: technological developments during 1781-1800 (1978). the period may be found in the following: Malcolm J. Rohrbaugh, The Land Office Business (1968). David G. Shomette, Shipwrecks on the Chesapeake (1982). Among the many studies focusing on Brook Hindle, ed., America’s Wooden Age the Revolution and the War of 1812 (1975). in Chesapeake Bay are the following: David A. Hounshell, From the American Philip A. Crowl, Maryland During and System to Mass Production, 1800-1932 After the Revolution (1943). (1984).

Further Information 93 Surveys examining the region’s History of Talbot County, Maryland buildings and architecture include (1984a). the following: ——-, ed., Between the Nanticoke and Pamela James Blumgart, At the Head of the Choptank (1984). the Bay: A Cultural and Architectural History of Cecil County, Maryland Archeological studies include the (1995). following: Michael Bourne, Historic Houses of Kent James Deetz, Flowerdew Hundred County (1998). (1984). ——-, et al., Architecture and Change in William M. Kelso, Kingsmill Plantation, the Chesapeake (1998). 1619-1800 (1984). J. Ritchie Garrison, et al., eds., After ——-, and R. Most, eds., Earth Patterns Ratification (1988). (1990). Henry Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Paul A. Shackel and Barbara J. Little, Culture of the Eastern United States Historical Archaeology of the (1968). Chesapeake,1784-1994 (1994). ——-, Folk Housing in Middle Virginia ——-, et al., eds., Annapolis Pasts (1998). (1975). David G. Shomette, Tidewater Time Capsule (1995). Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700- Theresa A. Singleton, ed., The 1900 (1987). Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life (1985). Terry G. Jordan, American Log Buildings (1985). Among the many studies focusing on Gabrielle M. Lanier and Bernard L. the development of urban life in Herman, Everyday Architecture of the Washington, D.C., are the following: Mid-Atlantic (1997). Bob Arnebeck, Through a Fiery Trial Marilynn Larew, Bel Air: An Architectural (1991). and Cultural History,1782-1945 (1995). Constance M. Green, Washington: A Calder Loth, Virginia Landmarks of Black History of the Capital, 1800-1878 History (1995). (1961). George W. McDaniel, Hearth and Home Frederick A. Gutheim, Worthy of the (1982). Nation (1977). John Reps, Tidewater Towns (1972). The emergence of Baltimore as the Barbara Wells Sarudy, Gardens and region’s largest city is traced in the Gardening in the Chesapeake, 1700- following works: 1805 (1998). Toni Ahrens: Design Makes a Difference: Paul Touart, Somerset: An Architectural Shipbuilding in Baltimore, 1795-1835 History (1990). (1998). Dell Upton, ed., America’s Architectural Gary Browne, Baltimore in the Nation, Roots (1986a). 1789-1861 (1980). ——-, ed., Holy Things and Profane Isaac M. Fein, The Making of an American (1986b). Jewish Community (1971). ——-, and John Michael Vlach, eds., Leroy Graham, Baltimore:The Nineteenth- Common Places (1986). Century Black Capital (1982). Donna Ware, Ann Arundel’s Legacy: The James W. Livingood, The Philadelphia- Historic Properties of Ann Arundel Baltimore Trade Rivalry, 1780-1830 County (1990). (1947). Christopher Weeks, ed., Where Land and Charles G. Steffen, The Mechanics of Water Intertwine: An Architectural Baltimore (1984).

94 CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY REPUBLIC