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SOCIAL DILEMMAS and TRANSPORTATION DECISIONS Rijksuniversiteit Limburg

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SOCIAL DILEMMAS and TRANSPORTATION DECISIONS Rijksuniversiteit Limburg SOCIAL DILEMMAS AND TRANSPORTATION DECISIONS Rijksuniversiteit Limburg SOCIAL DILEMMAS AND TRANSPORTATION DECISIONS Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Rijksuniversiteit Limburg te Maastricht, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, Prof. mr. M. J. Cohen, volgens het besluit van het College van Decanen, in het openbaar te verdedigen, op vrijdag 16 februari 1996 om 16.00 uur door Mark van Vugt geboren te Amsterdam op 9 mei 1967 Promoter: Prof. dr. G. J. Kok Co-promotores: Dr. R. M. Meertens Dr. P. A. M. van Lange (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) Beoordelingscommissie: Prof. dr. J. C. S. Kleinjans (voorzitter) Prof. dr. W. B. G. Liebrand (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) Prof. dr. H. L. G. J. Merckelbach Prof. dr. C. J. H. Midden (Technische Universiteit Eindhoven) Prof. dr. A. van Witteloostuijn Van Vugt, Mark Social dilemmas and transportation decisions ISBN: 08-54-32-57-43 Printed by University of Southampton Design and Print Centre with a grant from the Dutch Railways [Nederlandse Spoorwegen]. to Leo and in memory of Corrie Acknowledgements This booklet is the end product of my PhD project at the University of Limburg in the Netherlands, where I worked from September 1991 until September 1995 in the Department of Health Education. During this period many people have contributed in very different ways to the fulfilment of this rather unstructured task. Although their names are not listed on the cover page, it should be clear that without them this thesis could not have been written. First, I would like to thank Ree Meertens and Paul van Lange for supervising the project. Their advice and ideas concerning the development, planning, and description of the studies were invaluable. Beyond these activities, I am particularly grateful to Ree for giving me the support and freedom to work out my own plans. As for my intellectual development and training in social psychology, I am greatly indebted to Paul who gave me productive lessons in "conceptualizing" my thinking and writing. Having two such supervisors, there was not much doubt about the successful completion of the project. Second, I wish to thank Rob Ruiter for collaborating with me on the fourth experiment. I very much enjoyed working together and found his enthusiasm inspiring. Moreover, this experience made me aware of my personal role transition from being a student to becoming a teacher, which I found to be a rather pleasant change. As with all scientific work, this research was embedded in an international network of colleagues exchanging ideas in regular conferences. The social dilemma and social value orientation conferences that I attended were very helpful in discussing my research with more trained colleagues and formed the basis for my visits to the United States. Of the people I met there, I would especially like to thank Charles Samuelson for arranging my stay at Texas A & M University, and Jeff Joireman for his precise, but kind, feedback on my English. Financially, the project was made possible by the Dutch Ministry of Traffic & Waterways, and several smaller grants from the Dutch Scientific Organization. These institutions are thanked for putting their trust in the enterprise and I hope their trust was justified. How could a four year project be finished successfully without the social and emotional support of family and friends? Henk van der Molen, Hans Brug, and Thijs Lenderink were there for the midweek relaxation sessions, having diner and watching football on television in what could be described as an "ouwe jongens krentenbrood" ["brotherhood"] atmosphere. Although we were together only at the weekends, Hannie van Hooff was my closest support throughout the thesis period. Together we shared the pains and pleasures of our separate and mutual projects. I would like to dedicate this book to Leo and Corrie, because as long as I can remember they have been there to support and care for me, first as parents and later as friends. Although Corrie's death inevitably puts a dark shade over this project, by honoring this book to her I hope to make her loss a bit more bearable. Southampton (UK), December 1995 correspondence: Mark Van Vugt, Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, S017 1BJ Southampton, Kingdom, Email: [email protected] Contents Chapter 1 Overview of dissertation 1.1 Analysis of commuting patterns 1 1.2 Theoretical approaches to analyze and modify commuting patterns 4 1.3 Social dilemma as research paradigm 6 1.4 Mechanisms and principles underlying cooperation in social dilemmas 10 1.5 A social dilemma approach to commuting decisions 13 1.6 Main assumptions, goals, and findings of the research 19 1.7 General discussion 25 Chapter 2 Transforming the commuting situation: Dependence on car versus public transportation 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 Method 46 2.3 Results 47 2.4 Discussion 52 Chapter 3 Transforming the commuting situation: The influence of social value orientations 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Method 60 3.3 Results 65 3.4 Discussion 70 Chapter 4 Self-interested and pro-social motives underlying commuting decisions 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Method 78 4.3 Results 82 4.4 Discussion 88 Chapter 5 Pro-social goals and expectations in the commuting situation 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Method 101 5.3 Results 106 5.4 Discussion 115 Chapter 6 Structural solutions in the commuting situation: A field experiment on the first carpool lane in Europe 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Method 130 6.3 Results 135 6.4 Discussion 146 Chapter 1 Overview of Dissertation "A commitment to securing resources and opportunities for future generations ... is an appropriate way of expressing our belief that the society and culture that matter to us are important enough to survive into the future." - MacLean (1983, p. 194) 1.1 Analysis of Commuting Patterns Origins and consequences of excessive car use Arriving at the end of the twentieth century, the world is being challenged by numerous serious problems it has never faced before. One of the more critical and widespread concerns is the pollution and destruction of our natural environment, at both local and global scales. In recent years, scientists have come to realize that human activities are primarily responsible for these environmental changes, and that these problems can only be mastered by modifying the behavioral patterns of humans (Kempton, Darley, & Stern; 1992; Stern, 1992). Systematic analyses of the behavioral origins of environmental problems reveal that many are related to transportation patterns, and primarily to excessive car use (e.g., Geller, Winett, & Everett, 1982; Lowe, 1990; Stern, 1992). For example, at a global level cars account for more than 13 percent of the carbon dioxide emissions, the major source of the so-called green house effect (Lowe, 1990). More locally, in the Netherlands automobiles are held responsible for about 50% of the smog pollution, which is the main precursor to acid rain (i.e., the suspected cause of the poisoning of forests, lakes and streams). Moreover, along with the massive car fleet come problems related to space, waste, noise and odor annoyance, traffic safety and congestion (Cavalini, Hendrickx, & Rooijers, 1993; Vlek & Michon, 1992). It is expected that this situation will further deteriorate due to a world wide growth in automobile use - for example, Dutch traffic experts have estimated that in 2010 the number of car kilometers in the Netherlands will have amplified with 70% compared to the present level, which will have devastating effects on the environmental quality and accessibility (Dutch Ministry of Traffic & Waterways, 1990). In light of these issues, many efforts have been undertaken, over the past two decades, to decrease private car use and increase alternative forms of transportation, such as public transportation, carpooling, and biking (for overviews, see Geller et al., 1982; Lowe, 1990; Newman & Kenworthy, 1989). So far, however, these attempts that primarily consisted of educational campaigns and financial arrangements have not been very effective. It seems that, even under the current conditions, a vast majority of citizens are not very motivated to diminish their car 2 Chapter 1 use. Why may this be? Intuitively, two explanations may come to mind. It may be that in making transportation decisions, people evaluate the costs and benefits of various travel options, and conclude that, despite the negative effects of cars on the levels of environmental pollution and traffic congestion, it is much more profitable for them to travel by car than, for example, by public transportation or carpool. This explanation seems plausible in light of prior travel mode research, revealing that many of the more important travel concerns (e.g., flexibility, comfort, speed, and privacy) are perceived to be more strongly associated with cars than with other means of transportation (e.g., Flannelly & McLeod, 1989; Van Vugt, Van Lange, Meertens, & Joireman, 1995). Moreover, it may be that individuals do assign great importance to the environmental consequences of their car use, but are faced with many obstacles preventing them from abandoning their cars. Indeed, opinion surveys tell us that citizens are strongly concerned about the quality of the environment (Dunlap & Scarce, 1991); however, this does not seem to be reflected in their preferences and decisions (Snyder, 1993). For example, car owners in the Netherlands hold moderately strong pro-environmental attitudes, and sincerely believe that car use should be decreased in light of future environmental problems. Yet, environmental awareness is only weakly, if all, related to the individual willingness to reduce car use (Doosje & Siero, 1990). What do these findings tell us about the origins of excessive car use, and possible ways to discourage it? First, they indicate that the structure of the decision situation encourages people to use their cars. That is, the individual decision-maker is much better served by choosing for the car, because the positive outcomes (e.g., flexibility, comfort, efficient travel time) accrue to him- or herself, whereas the negative outcomes (e.g., contributions to pollution of environment, traffic congestion) are shared by many other individuals.
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