THEWashington-Rochambeau RevolutionaryRoute S TATEMENT OF N ATIONAL S IGNIFICANCE R EVISED DRAFT REPORT

J ANUARY 30, 2003

T HE N ATIONAL P ARK S ERVICE G OODY, CLANCY & ASSOCIATES, PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE N ORTHEAST AND C APITAL REGIONS R OBERT A. SELIG, PH D, PROJECT HISTORIAN Contents

1 Introduction and Findings

2 Study Legislation, Purpose and Tasks

3 Historical Narrative

4 Significance Themes

5 Historic Use of the Route

6 Resources

7 Bibliographic Essay

8 Study Team and Illustration Sources

C ONTENTS 1 1 Introduction and Findings

(3) It must have significant poten- SUMMARY OF FINDINGS his report evaluates the national significance of the trail tial for public recreational use known as the -Rochambeau Revolutionary Route, or historical interest based on The study team, comprising historic interpretation and professional staff from the NPS which leads from Newport, , to the siege of appreciation. The potential for Northeast and National Capital T such use is generally greater Regions, with assistance from Yorktown, , and back to , Massachusetts. It is a network along roadless segments respected scholars and developed as historic trails and consultants, makes the following of land and water routes traversing nine states and the District of at historic sites associated with findings regarding national the trail. The presence of significance: Columbia over which traveled the American and French armies and recreation potential not related navies, either individually or combined, at different times between to historic appreciation is not (1) The Washington-Rochambeau sufficient justification for desig- Route is of national signifi- June 1781 and December 1782. nation under this category. cance as a domestic cross- cultural experience. Congress authorized the National (1) It must be a trail or route as motorized transportation This report focuses on Crite- Park Service to identify the range of established by historic use and routes may be designated and rion 2, national significance. The Route is significant as: resources and themes associated be historically significant as a marked on site as segments Future documentation will be a) an indispensable component with the route; identify alternatives result of that use. The route that link to the historic trail. prepared to evaluate the of the campaign of 1781: it for NPS involvement with the need not currently exist as a Washington-Rochambeau Route is the route that took the route’s preservation and interpreta- discernible trail to qualify, but (2) It must be of national signifi- against the other criteria, pending combined Franco-American tion; and provide cost estimates its location must be sufficient- cance with respect to any of review of this draft Statement of armies to victory; for any acquisition, development, ly known to permit evaluation several broad facets of Significance. Later phases of the b) a watershed in the develop- interpretation, operation, and of its public-recreation and American history, such as study include developing ment of an American maintenance associated with the historical-interest potential. trade and commerce, explora- management alternatives and identity: in 1781–82, the alternatives presented in the A designated trail should tion, migration and settlement, preparing an Environmental took a study (PL 106-473). Although the generally accurately follow the or military campaigns. To Impact Statement as part of the gigantic step toward study authorization was not historic route, but may deviate qualify as nationally signifi- final report to be submitted to becoming a nation; structured as a proposed National somewhat on occasion of cant, historic use of the trail Congress. The ultimate objective c) a prime illustration of the Historic Trail (NHT) under the necessity to avoid difficult must have had a far-reaching of the study is to determine how American Revolutionary National Trails System Act (16 routing through subsequent effect on broad patterns of best to promote the preservation War as a truly diverse effort; USC 1241 et seq.), the study will development, or to provide American culture. Trails of, public access to, travel within, and apply the criteria of the Act to some route variations offering significant in the history of and enjoyment and appreciation d) a visible expression of the determine the feasibility and desira- a more pleasurable recreation- native Americans may be of the outdoor areas and historic hope for independence and bility of designation as one alterna- al experience. Such deviations included. resources associated with the the gratitude that greeted tive for NPS involvement. To shall be so noted on site. Trail Washington-Rochambeau the returning French army qualify for designation as an NHT segments no longer passable Revolutionary Route. on its march north in the the route must meet three criteria: due to subsequent development summer of 1782.

INTRODUCTION AND FINDINGS 1-1 (2) The Washington-Rochambeau Route is of national signifi- cance as a manifestation of the international war effort. The Route is significant as: a) a symbol of the global character of the American War for Independence; b) the culmination of the crucial contributions of to the achievement of American Independence; c) an example of joint Franco- American cooperation under Washington’s overall leadership; and d) the first true acknowledge- ment of America as a sovereign nation.

Subsequent chapters present the study’s legislative background, a brief historical narrative of the route, a description of the signifi- cance themes in greater detail, a discussion of the historic use and development of the route, and a summary of the types of resources associated with the route. The report concludes with a biblio- graphic essay on historical sources.

1-2 INTRODUCTION AND FINDINGS 2 StudyLegislation, Purpose, and Tasks

Cornwallis in one of the most route taken by General Washing- LEGISLATION The Washington-Rochambeau decisive victories of the American ton and the General comte de Revolutionary Route National Revolutionary War. Following Rochambeau to assess whether Heritage Act of 2000 directed the winter encampments, the French the should Secretary of the Interior—in army returned to Boston, be directly involved in the consultation with preservation Massachusetts, in the summer of preservation and interpretation groups and agencies at the state 1782, along the path it had taken of its resources. and local levels—to submit to the previous year. Congress a study of the 600-mile Should the NPS determine that route followed in 1781 by Forty-two members of Congress, the route is nationally significant American and French armies including seven from outside the and has the potential for public under the command of General project area, joined the bill’s recreation, Congress could and General original sponsors, Representative designate it a National Historic Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, John Larson (CT) and Senator Trail. Designation could enable comte de Rochambeau. The allied Joseph Lieberman, (CT) in the NPS to assist a variety of forces marched through Rhode introducing the legislation. groups, projects and activities A scholars’ symposium on the Island, Connecticut, , associated with the trail’s preservation and interpretation. •Scholars’ symposium Washington-Rochambeau route , , was held at West Point in June 2002. Delaware, and en route PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The study will also identify •Draft determination-of- to Yorktown, Virginia, where they Under the act (now Public Law nonfederal alternatives for significance report engaged and defeated British 106-473) Congress authorized the preserving and interpreting this troops under General Charles National Park Service to study the important part of America’s historical heritage. •Management alternatives, with and without NPS involvement, for preserving TASKS and interpreting the route •Route reconnaissance • Cost estimates •Historical research >Historical narrative •Final report and EIS > Bibliography >Resource inventory •Recognition in place for the 225th Anniversary of the • Public meetings and Washington-Rochambeau The study team briefed the National Conference of State Historic Preservation outreach March in 2006 Officers on the Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route study in Washington, March 2002. At the podium is John Shannahan, State Historic Preservation Officer of Connecticut. •Newsletters

LEGISLATION, PURPOSE & TASKS 2-1 2-2 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 3 Historical Narrative

he arrival of 55-year-old General Jean Baptiste Donatien de infantry, one battalion of artillery, Clinton, but concurred that the about 600 hussars and light fighting forces were not yet Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, with an army of 450 officers infantry in Lauzun’s Legion, plus adequate. The French army support staff—in all, nearly 6,000 wintered in Newport, while the and 5,300 men in Narragansett Bay off Newport, Rhode officers and men. But the troops cavalry wintered in Lebanon, T arrived too late in the campaign Connecticut. Late in May of 1781, Island, on 10 July 1780, marked the beginning of a most successful season and with too many sick to Washington and Rochambeau met embark on any military action. again at Wethersfield, Connecticut, military cooperation that culminated 15 months later in the victory Late in September 1780, Rocham- and decided to join their forces at Yorktown. beau met with General George outside New York for a possible Washington, commander-in-chief attack on the center of British France had supported the colonies The American troops, for their Ternay’s ships carried Rocham- of the . Washing- power in America. While keeping since the summer of 1775, well part—short of men, weapons, food, beau’s troops of the expédition ton favored attacking New York, an eye on General Charles before their final break with Great clothing, training, and money— particulière:four regiments of occupied by General Sir Henry Cornwallis, in Virginia, the French Britain on 4 July 1776, and had were not strong enough to attack formalized the relationship in the British forces and win a two treaties of February 1778. decisive battle. They adopted The decision to send ground forces instead a defensive strategy of across the Atlantic for containment. stationing on the American main- land, however, had only been made The shift in favor of sending in January 1780, following three French troops to America came in unsuccessful French attempts to late January 1780, and on 2 defeat Britain: a failed amphibious February the king approved the assault on the British stronghold at plan, code-named expédition Newport in 1778; another assault particulière. Come May, a fleet of 32 at Savannah, Georgia, in 1779; and transports, seven ships of the line, an equally disastrous attempt at an two , and two smaller invasion of England in the summer warships, commanded by Charles of the same year. Though Louis Henry Louis d’Arsac, chevalier de XVI and his foreign minister, Ternay, a 57-year-old chef d’escadre Charles Gravier, comte de with 40 years’ experience, set sail Vergennes, had placed no high from Brest for the New World. hopes in the invasion scheme, the Besides their regular crews, de seeming inability of France to lighten the pressure on the Rochambeau, Washington, and Continental Army was straining Lafayette at the , the alliance with the . October 1781

HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-1 and American armies would meet Jeremiah Wadsworth, began enough for duty. Since Rocham- Rochambeau’s copy of “General Map of the Camps and Marches of the French on the for an attack collecting the vast amounts of beau had to leave 400 men behind Army commanded by General Rochambeau, 9 June 1781 to 1 December 1782,” is in the collection of the Library of Congress and attributed to Louis Alexandre de on New York “as the only practi- provisions needed to feed the men, as garrisons in Newport and Berthier. The yellow line indicates the land and water routes of the march to and cable object under present circum- their 2,000 or so horses—just for Providence and detach 700 men to from Williamsburg, with deviating green and red branches indicating, variously: stances,” as Washington wrote to the wagon train he drafted 855 the navy, he had around 425 separate sections of the return route; flanking travel by Lauzun’s Legion through Rochambeau on 13 June 1781. A horses, the artillery added another officers and 3,200 enlisted men Connecticut and New York (en route) and through New Jersey (returning); and the route of the wagon train from Scott’s House in Maryland to Williamsburg. march southward had been ruled 500—and more than 600 oxen. On plus at least 500 servants, 239 out, since the summer heat would 11 June, a French convoy carrying wagon conductors, and 15 cooks in • the regiment Bourbonnais under to his musket, equipment weigh- decimate the troops. 592 infantry and 68 artillery his columns. the comte de Rochambeau, to ing almost 60 pounds. Next came replacements arrived in Boston, leave on 18 June; the horse-drawn carriages of the From his headquarters in New- but only about 400 were healthy After Rochambeau’s army sailed • the regiment Royal Deux-Ponts field artillery and the staff baggage burgh, Washington implored the French troops board ships in the from Newport to Providence, the under the baron de Vioménil, to train, followed by the ten regi- various states to fill their quotas harbor at Brest in preparation for First Division of the French forces leave on 19 June; mental wagons, one per company. and to gather supplies for man and the voyage to Newport in May 1780. marched out of Providence on • the regiment Soissonnais under They carried the tents of the beast for the coming campaign. Monday, 18 June 1781, for the comte de Vioménil, to leave soldiers and the luggage of the The Continental Army’s chief Waterman’s Tavern. Three days on 20 June; and officers: 300 pounds for a captain, engineer Louis le Begue de Presle later the volontaires étrangers de • the regiment Saintonge under 150 pounds for a lieutenant. Next du Portail thought the main army Lauzun, about 600 cavalry and light the comte de Custine, to leave on came a wagon for stragglers, the alone would need, among other infantry men, left their winter 21 June. hospital wagons, wagons for supplies, an initial allotment of quarters in Lebanon, Connecticut. butchers, others loaded with 3,106 horses and 2,132 draft oxen They followed a route some 10-15 Each division was led by an supplies, and wheelwrights and during the summer campaign. In miles to the south of the infantry, assistant quartermaster general farriers bringing up the rear. Newport, French quartermaster protecting its flank. Rochambeau, and preceded by workmen who general Pierre François de Béville’s who rode in the First Division, had filled potholes and removed To avoid having to march in the assistants started drawing maps established the following order for obstacles. Dressed in gaiters, wigs, heat of the day, the regiments got and picking campsites. The French the march: and tight-fitting woolen under- up early: reveille was around 2:00 army’s American purchasing agent, wear, each man carried, in addition am and by 4:00 am the regiments

3-2 HISTORICAL NARRATIVE were on their way. Captain Samuel dinner. Captain Richards was Richards of the , among the many spectators who on leave at home in Farmington, in “viewed their manner of encamp- June, recorded that “They marched ing over night, the perfect mech- on the road in open order, until the anical manner of performing all music struck up, they then closed they had to do: such as diging a into close order. On the march, a circular hole & making nitches in quartermaster preceded and at the which to set their camp kettles for forking of the road would be stuck cooking their food.” While general a pole with a bunch of straw at top officers lodged in nearby taverns, to shew the road they were to company-grade officers slept two take.” to a tent near their men. This order, Several former taverns in which with variations, was maintained French officers lodged while on the The next campsite, 12 to 15 miles for the entire march. route still stand in Connecticut. away, was reached between 8:00 to Philipsburg in am and noon, and the soldiers set The early arrival provided an Westchester County. There the Oliver White Tavern (ca. 1750) across the road from the campsite in Bolton, up tents according to their eight- opportunity to meet the locals, French met up with George Connecticut. An upstairs bedroom displays holes in the ceiling and in the walls that are reputed to have been made by French bayonets or sabers. man chambrées. Here they received who came from afar to see the Washington’s 4,000-man meat, bread, and other supplies for French, and for dancing with Continental Army on 6 July 1781. Army marched to the Franco- front of the white flag of his oldest The Continental Army had spent a American camp at Philipsburg. On regiment and saluted General tense and difficult winter around 8 July, Washington reviewed Washington. … Our general Morristown and in the Hudson Rochambeau’s troops, which, received the greatest compliments Highlands. As winter turned into according to the comte de for the beauty of his troops. It is spring, the army barely maintained Lauberdière, “appeared in the true that without doubt those that its strength while Cornwallis was grandest parade uniform. M. de we have with us were superb at marching almost at will across the Rochambeau took his place in our departure from France.” southern colonies. Despairingly, Washington wrote on 9 April: “We are at the end of our tether, and…now or never our deliverance must come.” The campaign of 1781 had to produce results.

Upon learning that the French forces had left Newport, Now protected by local ordinance, the the “beautiful maidens” of Washington on 18 June ordered his site of the French encampment at America, music courtesy troops quartered around West Bolton, Connecticut, has never been developed. of the regimental bands. Point, New York, to leave their winter camp beginning on 21 June On 2 July, the duc de Lauzun and and to join up with Rochambeau’s The encampment of the French troops outside of Trenton, New his legion joined Rochambeau’s forces approaching from Jersey, 1 September 1781. infantry on its march across the Connecticut. The Continental

HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-3 Roadside markers commemorate the “There are two points at which an my views more seriously Washington-Rochambeau Route in offensive can be made against the (than I had before done) to an many states. This Connecticut series was erected by the state with the enemy: Chesapeak and New York. operation to the southward.” assistance of local groups, including The southwesterly winds and the chapters of the Daughters of the state of defense in Virginia will For the time being, all the and the Knights probably make you prefer the two generals could do was of Columbus. Chesapeak Bay, and it will be there wait for news from de Grasse, New York may have been their where we think you may be able to who would determine the primary objective, the two generals render the greatest service. … In point of attack. When they always tried to keep their options any case it is essential that you learned from the fast open. In the same letter of 13 June send, well in advance, a frigate to Concorde on 14 August that in which Washington had inform de Barras where you are to de Grasse was headed for the reminded Rochambeau “that New come and also General Chesapeake with all the York was looked upon by us as the Washington.” As he was weighing ships and troops he had been The following day, Rochambeau only practicable object,” he had the odds of a successful siege of able to gather, they quickly returned the compliment, but he also suggested that “should we be New York, particularly after the shifted gears. and his officers, such as Baron von able to secure a naval superiority, Grand Reconnaissance of 21–23 Closen, were in for a surprise. “I we may perhaps find others more July, Washington’s thinking too Fortunately the tactical had a chance to see the American practicable and equally advisable.” turned to Cornwallis: on 1 August situation in the south had army, man for man. It was really he wrote in his diary that he “could changed as well: Cornwallis painful to see these brave men, Following the death of Admiral scarce see a ground upon wch. to had done exactly what almost naked with only some de Ternay, the comte de Barras had continue my preparations against Washington and Rocham- Some road segments along the Washington- Rochambeau route remain intact and, except for trousers and little linen jackets, arrived in May to take command of New York, and therefore I turned beau would have wanted tree growth obscuring what was open farmland, most of them without stockings, the French fleet in him to do. In late June, retain the topography and alignment that allied but, would you believe it? Very Newport. Sufficient to Cornwallis had already armies experienced in 1781-82. cheerful and healthy in provide transport and briefly occupied appearance. A quarter of them artillery for the French Williamsburg, but on 19 “Matters having now come to a were negroes, merry, confident, army, this fleet was not July, he began his march to crisis and a decisive plan to be and sturdy. … Three quarters of the strong enough, nor Yorktown and Gloucester, determined on, I was obliged...to Rhode Island regiment consists of intended to, attack the where he started digging in on give up all idea of attacking New negroes, and that regiment is the British navy. 2 August 1781. This was York; and instead thereof to most neatly dressed, the best under known in Philipsburg on 14 remove the French Troops and a arms, and the most precise in its The only person who August when the decision was detachment from the American maneuvres (sic).” could provide that naval made to march south. Army to the Head of Elk to be superiority was Admiral Everything was falling into transported to Virginia for the Naked and hungry, yet confident de Grasse in the place, but there was no time to purpose of co-operating with the and cheerful — such were the Caribbean, but the lose. De Grasse would only force from the against allies with whom Rochambeau had decision of where he stay until 15 October, and as theTroops in that State.” joined his forces for an attempt on would sail was his alone. Washington wrote in his diary, New York. On 28 May, Rochambeau, From among the troops assembled who never liked the idea Andrew Corsa (1762-1852)— at Philipsburg, Washington chose But the attack on Sir Henry of attacking New York, Guide to Washington and the Rhode Island Regiment, the Clinton never materialized. While wrote to de Grasse that Rochambeau during the First New York Regiment, the Light Grand Reconnaissance, 21-23 July 1781. 3-4 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES the right column (i.e., the infantry) Freeman’s Journal reported on 5 departed on the 19th. The Con- September that “the appearance of tinental Army followed no formal these troops far exceeds any thing marching order. Marching along of the kind seen on this continent, the Hudson, the two armies met and presages the happiest success only at river crossings, such as to the cause of America.” from Stony Point to King’s Ferry on the 24th, or on the Delaware at That same day, 5 September, Trenton on 2 September. Washington and Rochambeau learned of the arrival of de Grasse Deception and secrecy had been in the Chesapeake. But Williams- vital for the success of the plan, burg and Yorktown still lay more and in both armies as few officers than 200 miles south, and three as possible were informed of the more weeks passed before the siege decision to march to Virginia. of Yorktown began on 28 Boats were built ostensibly for the Cannonier, Auxonne Artillery September. Grenadier, Soissonnais regiment purpose of crossing over to Staten Infantry Regiment, the Second Island from the Jersey shore, ovens New Jersey were issued, letters Washington rode on to Continental Artillery, the Artificer were built in Chatham, contracts were written and sent via the most Wilmington while Rochambeau Regiment and the Corps of Sappers for foodstuffs to be delivered in dangerous routes with the express spent the night of 5/6 September in Grenadier, Royal Deux-Ponts regiment and Miners, which, together with intent that they be captured, and Chester. The next day, Rocham- his Guard, amounted to about different rumors as to the purpose beau encamped with his First Washington and his entourage 1,500 officers and men. To these of the troop movement were Division in Wilmington, while hurriedly crossed into Delaware to troops were added the New Jersey spread. Even though “some were Head of Elk, where most of the Line and Hazen’s Canadian indeed laughable enow’,” as Continental Army was already Regiment, about 600 officers and Washington’s private secretary encamped. At Christiana they men, who were ferried from New Jonathan Trumbull, Jr., wrote, they encountered the Second New York Jersey across the Hudson to join achieved their purpose of keeping Regiment of some 420 officers and Washington. The Second New York Clinton in New York and men under Colonel Philip Van Regiment caught up with the Cornwallis in Yorktown guessing Cortlandt, which had just arrived Continental Army at Trenton. long enough for the allied armies from Stony Point, New York, with to disengage. thirty flatboats “so large that it On 18 August, the two armies— took a wagon and eight horses to 4,200 French and 2,000 Americans Once Trenton was reached, there draw them.” plus support personnel—headed could no longer be any doubt that south. The left column of the Cornwallis was the target of the The Second New York Regiment French army, artillery and military campaign, and as the French and Moses Hazen’s Regiment— chest, left Philipsburg on the 18th, marched through , the which had floated down the Dela- Grenadier, Bourbonnais regiment Fusilier, Saintonge regiment

HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-5 ware from Philadelphia then up year absence, Washington and a reached Annapolis on the 18th. Strength of Rochambeau’s forces the Christiana River with Colonel small group of aides rode ahead Embarking on 15 vessels sent by de after the Siege of Yorktown Lamb’s Second Continental Artil- and reached his estate on 9 Grasse, they set sail for the James REGIMENT COMMANDING OFFICERS & MEN lery—spent the next two days, 7 September; Rochambeau and his River, arriving near Jamestown on Bourbonnais marquis de Montmorency-Laval ca. 70 officers and 1,025 men, and 8 September, “Constantly staff arrived the following day. On the 24th and reaching incl. 221 detached and 105 sick imployed in Loading and trans- 12 September, the two Williamsburg on 25 September. Soissonnais comte de Saint Maisme ca. 70 officers and 1,044 men, porting ammunition together with commanders continued their Three days later, on 28 September, other stores to the Head of Elk.” journey, which ended with the two armies set out for and incl. 28 detached and 68 sick a visit to Admiral de Grasse on his reached Yorktown. Concurrently Saintonge comte de Custine ca. 70 officers and 1,030 men, Washington had hoped to find flagship, the Ville de , on 18 the duc de Lauzun’s cavalry, which incl. 47 detached and 69 sick enough vessels at Head of Elk to September. The commanders were had separated from the wagon Royal Deux-Ponts Christian comte de Deux-Ponts ca. 70 officers and 1,029 men, transport both armies to Yorktown, ready for the siege to begin, but train, took up siege positions at incl. 218 detached and 129 sick but only twelve sloops, eighteen their troops were still far behind. Gloucester Point across the river Auxonne Artillery, de la Tour, de Chazelle, ca. 52 officers and 545 men, schooners and a few dozen smaller On 11 September, Dr. James from Yorktown. Miners and Workers de la Chaisse incl. 227 detached and 48 sick vessels were waiting there. They Thacher of Scammel’s Light Lauzun’s Legion duc de Lauzun ca. 45 officers and 550 men were barely enough for most of the Infantry set sail from Head of Elk Pressed for time, knowing that de incl. 8 sick Continental Army, Rochambeau’s for the Chesapeake on the Glasgow, Grasse would only stay through 15 total: ca. 377 officers and 5,223 men, incl. 741 detached and 427 sick grenadiers and chasseurs, and for with four other officers and sixty October, Washington had decided the infantry of Lauzun’s Legion, men. The remainder of the troops, to open the siege without the Source: Inspection reports for 9-12 November 1781, Fonds Vioménil. Académie François Bourdon, Le Creusot, France. about 3,000 men in all. Anxious to between 3,800 and 4,000 men, supplies carried on the French The strength for Lauzun’s Legion, stationed in Gloucester, is taken from a review of 1 October 1781 reach after a six- marched through and army’s wagon train, which had set in Colonies D2c32, Archives Nationales, Paris, France. out from Annapolis on 21 10, located 400 yards in advance of officer met at the home of Strength of the Continental Army September. Traveling via Bladens- the British inner defense line on Augustine Moore to negotiate on the Washington-Rochambeau Route burg, the train crossed the Potomac the extreme right of the siege line. surrender terms. Around 2:00 pm OFFICERS REGIMENT COMMANDING OFFICER & MEN into Virginia at Georgetown—a On 14 October, Allied artillery on 19 October 1781, the British Commander-in-Chief’s Guard Captain Caleb Gibbs 70 process that required two days. bombarded Redoubts 9 and 10 troops with their American Rhode Island Regiment Lt.-Col. Jeremiah Olney 360 Passing through Colchester, most of the day, preparing them for Loyalists and German auxiliaries First New York Regiment Col. Goose Van Schaick 390 Dumfries, Fredericksburg—here American and French assaults. marched out of Yorktown to lay Second New York Regiment Col. Philip Van Cortlandt 420 they crossed the Rappahannock— That evening, Colonel Alexander down their arms. Combined New Jersey Regiment Col. Mathias Ogden 330 Bowling Green, and Hartfield, the took Redoubt No. 10 wagons reached Williamsburg on while the French carried No. 9. The On 27 October, the troops of the Canadian Regiment (Congress’s Own) Brevet Brigadier Moses Hazen 270 6 October. capture of these redoubts enabled marquis de Saint-Simon, who had Light Infantry Regiment Lt.-Col. Alexander Scammel 380 the besiegers to finish the Second sailed from the Caribbean with the Second Continental Artillery Col. John Lamb 200 The First Parallel was dug on Parallel and to construct the Grand fleet of Admiral de Grasse, began to Corps of Sappers & Miners Captain James Gilliland 50 6 October, and on the 9th French American Battery which, re-embark. On 4 November Artificer Regiment Lt.-Col. Ebenezer Stevens unknown and American siege guns opened combined with the French de Grasse’s fleet sailed out of total: approximately 2,500 fire on the British defenders. The batteries, formed a continuous line Lynnhaven Bay for Fort Royal in Source: Charles H. Lesser, The Sinews of Independence. Monthly Strength Reports of the completion of the Second Parallel within point-blank range of the Martinique, where it arrived on Continental Army (, 1975), p. 208. Unit strength figures—rounded to the nearest 10— are was blocked by a portion of the British inner defense line. 26 November. The Continental for 26 September 1781; no strength reports for August have survived. The figures for the closest surviving report are given for the Artillery and Sappers & Miners (July 1781) and for the British outer works—two detached On 18 October, two British officers, Army, too, left for New York almost Commander-in-Chief’s Guard (June 1781). earthen forts called Redoubts 9 and an American officer and a French immediately after the siege was

3-6 HISTORICAL NARRATIVE over. By 20 November, Head of Elk trenches of the enemy, and with was reached; they crossed the equal intrepidity and vigour of Hudson at King’s Ferry on attack, stormed some of their 7 December and moved into winter redoubts.” quarters. The French spent the winter of 1781-82 at sites in and History did not bestow the epithet around Williamsburg. Hampton “the Great” on Louis XVI, but the provided lodging for Lauzun’s year 1782 saw a series of festivities Legion until February 1782, when, in which a grateful America cele- at the request of General Nathanael brated the birth in October 1781 of Greene, it relocated to Charlotte Louis-Joseph-Xavier-François, the Court House on the long-awaited dauphin and heir to border. the throne of France. Two winter quarters in New Yorktown proved England and in once and for all to Virginia, 1,300 Americans that the miles of marches French could fight through nine of the as well as anyone. thirteen colonies, a Out of the victory month of fighting, arose the “new” and thousands of Frenchman whose personal virtues were encounters along extolled by Israel the way had Evans, a military brought the French chaplain, who Marker along the Washington- and American Rochambeau Route in while still on the Connecticut. peoples closer battlefield of together than they Yorktown spoke “of that harmony, had ever been before. that emulation, and that equal love of danger which subsisted among Rochambeau’s march north from the allied troops, as if the same July 1782 provided Americans an generous fire of true glory glowed opportunity to give thanks to their in their bosoms, or one patriot soul country’s ally, for when the French animated them to the cheerful per- infantry sailed out of Boston formance of every military duty, Harbor on Christmas Day 1782, and to encounter every danger. King George III and Parliament Witness the emulation of those had acknowledged the United French and American troops, who States “to be free Sovereign and at the same time entered the independent States.”

The Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route.

HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-7 The Two Generals

Born in 1725 into a wealthy Auvergne in 1759, and distin- succeed. An opportunity arose consent, than I have to put my New York by the time French family that could trace its guished himself the next year in when his older half brother hands in yours for money,” he troops were sent to America. ancestry in the Vendôme to the the Battle of Klostercamp during Lawrence, Virginia’s adjutant wrote to Bryan Fairfax on 20 July Washington’s reputation had year 1378, Jean-Baptiste Donatien the Seven Years’ War, where his general and owner of Mount 1774. His fel- grown as an de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, regiment lost 58 of 80 officers and Vernon, introduced him to some low delegates effective leader was George Washington’s senior more than 800 men as it turned of the colony’s most influential in the Second of great strength, by seven years. Destined for the defeat into victory. Promoted to families, such as the Belvoirs and Continental integrity, and priesthood, he left ecclesiastical maréchal de camp (major general) Fairfaxes, who arranged for him Congress perseverance. His orders after the death of his older in recognition of his bravery in to become surveyor of Culpeper unanimously skills in military brother and embarked on the February 1761, he became County in 1749. elected the strategy had been military career appropriate for a inspector general of the French Virginian to most apparent at member of the high aristocracy. infantry in March. Washington’s military career command the the battles of began in 1754 when he became Continental Princeton (1776) A cornet in Barring another Colonel of the Virginia Regiment Army on 15 and Trenton the cavalry war, Rochambeau sent into the Ohio Valley to June 1775; he (1777). Regiment of had reached the oppose French incursions. The was 43 years Saint-Simon zenith of his career following year he participated in old. In 1778 France in 1742, he just as Washington General Edward Braddock’s disas- joined the war on became was settling down trous campaign. Although not For the next the side of the colonel of his to the life of a implicated in the defeat, he seven years Americans and own infantry squire. Following resigned his commission in 1758 of the war, the following year regiment in the death of his to marry Martha Dandridge, one Washington Commander-in-chief General George embarked on an Washington 1747, soon father when he was of Virginia’s wealthiest widows, led the Con- ambitious plan to after he had eleven, Washington the following year. Ten years tinental Army in a series of bat- invade Great Britain. Rochambeau, reached the grew up on the earlier, Rochambeau had married tles and skirmishes with the 54 years old and father of two minimum periphery of Thérèse Tellès da Costa in 1749. much more formidable British children, was appointed to com- age of 21. Virginia’s landed army and navy. After the siege of mand the first wave of assault. Severely aristocracy, with The outbreak of the American Boston, he commanded his troops After cancellation of the plan, wounded in limited financial Revolution found Washington on through the New York, New King Louis XVI appointed him to the battle of Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, resources and few the side of the rebels: “I think the Jersey, and Philadelphia cam- command ground forces being comte de Rochambeau Lawfeld in prospects. Washing- Parliament of Great Britain hath paigns, before wintering and sent across the Atlantic to assist July of the same year, ton learned early that he had to no more right to put their hands training at (1777-78) the Continental Army in its he took over the Regiment rely on himself if he wanted to into my pocket, without my and returning north, outside of struggle with Great Britain.

3-8 HISTORIC NARRATIVE The king could not have made the ancien régime in December The victory at Yorktown had not a more fortunate choice. When 1791. Opposed to an offensive ended the war and it was another the two generals met for the first war against the anti-French two years before the last British time at Hartford in September coalition, he resigned his forces left the territory of the 1780, they took an immediate commission in May 1792. In United States. In his Farewell liking to each other. The quiet, 1794, during the Terror period of Address in Annapolis, Washing- patient, matter-of-fact Rocham- the , Rocham- ton expressed his happiness “in beau approached his task in beau was arrested and the confirmation of our Indepen- America in the calm and imprisoned for six months in the dence and Sovereignty” and his methodical way of a professional notorious Conciergerie, known as pleasure for “the opportunity soldier, never challenging the the “vestibule of the guillotine.” afforded the United States of overall leadership of The duc de Lauzun had already becoming a respectable Nation. Washington and always keeping been executed, as had other ... Having now finished the work an eye on the reason for his pres- former officers of the king’s assigned me, I retire from the ence in America: the defeat of armies. Rochambeau escaped the great theatre of Action.” Great Britain. The equally same fate only because the reserved Washington, often execution of Robespierre that Washington returned to Mount judged as cold by outsiders, in year ended the Terror. Vernon on Christmas Eve 1783, turn deferred when necessary to after an absence of more than the military expertise of his A few years later, First Consul eight years, to enjoy the life of a French ally while reserving the Napoleon Bonaparte introduced country gentleman. But it was A statue of Rochambeau marks the site where the French final decision to himself. At his generals to Rochambeau as not long before he was called troops landed in Newport, Rhode Island, in July 1780. Yorktown they reaped the his, the comte’s, pupils. Among back to that “great theatre of rewards of their collaboration. the officers was now Louis- Action” he thought he had left Alexandre de Berthier, the for good. In 1789, the American Rochambeau returned to France cartographer of the Washington- people elected Washington the in the spring of 1783. Elected to Rochambeau route, and other first president of the United the Assembly of Notables in veterans of the American war. States. As he had shaped the 1789 as a liberal, he voted to sup- Rochambeau replied to Continental Army and led it to port the demands of the Third Napoleon: “The pupils have far victory, he now helped shape the Estate. Commanding officer of surpassed their master.” young nation and lead it through the Army of the North in Sep- Rochambeau died in May 1807. its first difficult years, serving tember 1790, he was appointed two terms. He died at Mt. Vernon the last Marshal of France under in December 1799.

A 1933 first-day cover issued for the Connecticut Tercentenary, commemorates the Washington-Rochambeau meeting that launched the campaign to Yorktown.

HISTORIC NARRATIVE 3-9 Timeline

origins Indian trails and mountain passes. 1775 Boston Post Road in Massachusetts and Connecticut; Albany Post February 9 British Parliament declares Massachusetts to be in rebellion. Road in New York; Assunpink Trail in New Jersey; King’s Highway in Delaware. April 19 Battles of Lexington and Concord, the “shot heard ’round the world.” May 10 First session of the Second begins. 1763 June 14 Congress establishes the Continental Army and appoints George February 10 First ends the . France cedes Washington its commander-in-chief the following day. Canada and territories east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. 1776 1764 May 2 First shipment of arms and ammunition in support of the American April 5 British Parliament passes the . rebels leaves France for the New World. July 4 Congress ratifies the Declaration of Independence. 1765 March 22 British Parliament passes the Stamp Act. 1777 March 24 British Parliament passes the Quartering Act. July 31 Congress appoints the marquis de Lafayette a major-general in the Continental Army. Dozens more French volunteers will join the Continental Army over the next few years. 1767 October 12 British forces under General are surrounded at June 29 British Parliament passes the Townshend Act imposing duties on tea, Saratoga. They surrender within a week. paper, and other items imported into the colonies. 1778 1770 February 6 American representatives in Paris sign a “Treaty of Amity and March 5 British troops in Boston fire on rioters. The event becomes known Friendship” and a secret “Treaty of Alliance” with France. as the . May 4 Congress ratifies Treaty of Alliance with France. April 12 Repeal of most of the Townshend Act duties. June 28 Following the , Lafayette returns to France and requests more assistance from the king. 1773 July 11 First official use of the term United States of America. December 16 . July 29 French Admiral d’Estaing arrives with a fleet outside Newport, RI, 1774 to support the American attack on the city. The attack fails. March 31 British Parliament shuts down Boston Harbor under what the British call the Coercive Acts and colonists call the . 1779 April 5 A French Acte Royal sets 17 June 1778 as the date when hostilities May 20 British Parliament passes the , sharpening the divide with Great Britain began. between Canada and the lower 13 colonies. June 23 Spain declares war on Great Britain. September 5 First session of the First Continental Congress. It adjourns in October. October 9 Franco-American forces are defeated at Savannah, GA. May 12 Charleston, SC, falls to the British. 3-10 HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 1780 1782 winter Lafayette returns from France to Morristown, NJ, with the promise July 1 Rochambeau’s infantry begins its march north to Boston. of more support from the king. November 30 Preliminaries of Peace between the United States and Great Britain July 10 Commanded by Admiral de Ternay, a fleet carrying some 450 are signed in Paris. officers and 5,300 men under the comte de Rochambeau sails into December 25 Rochambeau’s infantry sails out of Boston Harbor for the Caribbean. Narragansett Bay in Newport. Lauzun’s Legion winters in Wilmington, DE. September 21 Generals Washington and Rochambeau meet at the Hartford Conference. September 25 ’s attempt to hand West Point over to the British fails. 1783 January 20 Preliminaries of Peace between France, Spain, the United Netherlands 1781 and Great Britain are signed in Paris. April 3 Hostilities end in the territory of the United States. May 22 Washington and Rochambeau meet at Wethersfield, CT, to discuss their strategy for the upcoming campaign. September 3 Second Treaty of Paris ends the American Revolutionary War. Great Britain acknowledges the independence of the United States of June 10 The French infantry leaves its winter quarters in Newport. America. June 19 The Regiment Bourbonnais is the first French unit to cross into October 5 A final transport of 85 French soldiers sails from Baltimore for Brest, Connecticut from winter quarters in Rhode Island on its way to where it arrives on 10 November 1783. Philipsburg, NY. November 2 Congress disbands the Continental Army. June 21 Lauzun’s Legion leaves Lebanon, CT, for Philipsburg, NY, on a route that covers the left flank of Rochambeau’s infantry. July 6 French forces join the Continental Army near Philipsburg, NY. 1784 January 14 Congress ratifies the Treaty of Paris. August 18 The Franco-American armies depart Philipsburg for Virginia. September 5 In the Battle of the Capes, Admiral de Grasse prevents a British fleet from entering . 1787 September 28 The siege of Yorktown begins. December 7 Delaware is the first state to ratify the Constitution. October 19 Cornwallis surrenders. The Continental Army marches north to its winter quarters in early November. French forces will spend the 1789 winter of 1781-82 in and around Williamsburg. February 4 George Washington is elected first president of the United States. November 4 Admiral de Grasse sails from Yorktown for Martinique. April 30 George Washington is sworn in as first president of the United States. December Lafayette sails back to France. 1791 December Rochambeau is named Marshal of France, the last marshal under the ancien régime.

HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-11 Detail from a map drawn by Simeon DeWitt in 1781, depicting the route of the Continental Army through Wilmington, Delaware, on 4 September 1781.

Tent patterns and models used by Rochambeau’s forces as regulated in a 1753 ordonnance.

American brush huts, September 1777. Detail from “The Battle of Paoli” (Xavier della Gatta, 1782).

Detail from a map drawn by Simeon DeWitt in 1781, depicting the embarkation point of most of the Continental Army and Rochambeau’s chasseurs and grenadiers at Head of Elk in September 1781. About 200 Continental Army troops embarked a few days later on French transports in Annapolis. On the return march in November and December 1781, the Continental Army sailed back to Head of Elk; no Continental Army troops marched the routes to or from Williamsburg even though DeWitt had mapped them.

3-12 HISTORICAL NARRATIVE HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-13 The dates of the encampments are those of the first regiment of the four-regiment French army. Regiments usually camped at the same site one day apart from each other. When marching together, American troops preceded French troops. Therefore many of the encampment dates represent the mid-point of a train of marching troops and succession of encampments.

3-14 HISTORICAL NARRATIVE HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 3-15 3-16 HISTORICAL NARRATIVE 4 Significance Themes

THE ROUTE AS DOMESTIC eeping the armies supplied 1 CROSS-CULTURAL EXPERIENCE was an enormous and expensive task. Rocham- The Washington-Rochambeau route is Kbeau, who could not impress needed services and had significant as an indispensable component to pay for everything he needed, a of the campaign of 1781: It is the route required a minimum of 375,000 livres per month to keep his army that took the combined Franco- supplied. On 15 July 1780, his American armies to victory. American agent, Jeremiah Wads- worth, estimated that the French in Newport would need “two hundred By early 1781, the war in America had reached an impasse and the cattle that will average 400 lbs…and colonies were, in the words of George Washington, “at the end of two hundred Sheep” per week, with an additional 200 head in reserve. our tether.” But the very presence of French forces and the To meet the needs of his clients, knowledge of their cooperation in the coming campaign lifted Wadsworth’s agents spread out many spirits. On 17 May 1781, Washington’s aide across New England and as far French Army bill of exchange signed by Chief Treasurer César Louis de Baulny south as Pennsylvania to purchase wrote to Robert Morris that he would “set out tomorrow with His and redeemable in Paris animals. Excellency for Weathersfield where he is to have an interview with ounces of corn, and 1 1/2 pounds of wrote from Alexandria on 21 Sep- the Count de Rochambeau. … The expectations of the people are Wadsworth’s order books reflect the fresh beef: Henry Champion of tember 1781, that as long as French high and perhaps they may expect a change more suddenly than it scale of the operation. On 25 Colchester, Connecticut, alone agents paid with specie, “the January 1781, he received an order delivered 927 oxen and 356 sheep American Army will be starved.” is possible to affect one.” A month later, on 18 June 1781, Thomas for 3,000 barrels of flour, 300 barrels from 5 July to 11 August. Rodney, Delaware’s representative to Congress, reported from of salt pork, 15,000 gallons of cider, Once the siege had begun, supply Philadelphia, of “this unlimited confidence we have placed in the 1,000 cwts (cwt=hundredweight, The French had hard currency to needs pushed the logistics system Court of France and indeed when there (sic) own interests is not approximately 112 pounds) of peas, pay with, but Washington’s purchas- to its limits. Deputy quartermaster ing agents did not. Given the oppor- Ephraim Blaine wrote to Delaware’s materially in view perhaps she may do better for us than we could Supplying Marching Armies tunity, American farmers preferred chief executive Cesear Rodney on for our selves.” If a victorious peace could be achieved, Rodney to sell for specie to the French than 4 October 1781, that the siege army was convinced that “if they give us our rank among the nations 3,600 gallons of vinegar and 300 for Continental dollars or on credit consumed “Sixty thousand Rations cheeses, to be delivered by 15 to their fellow countrymen. On the per day,” and pleaded “Men who our Own natural advantages will soon lift us above them all.” That March. Once the campaign had same day that he received the are day & night upon fatigue and peace arrived in the wake of the decisive victory at Yorktown in started, Wadsworth and his agents French order, Wadsworth lamented exposed to the greatest Danger October of that year, a victory the Washington-Rochambeau route set up supply depots at the camp- “the American Army is literally ought to be regularly Supplied with made possible. sites. While the French army was starving.” That plight continued for Provisions and every refreshment encamped at Philipsburg, daily the rest of the war. On the march to they are entitled to–for God sake give rations were 1 pound of bread, 8 Virginia, Colonel James Hendricks me every Assistance and let no

SIGNIFICANCE THEMES 4-1 The route is an essential component of the brilliant strategy that bill of exchange signed by Guillaume-Jacques-Constant comte de resulted in the defeat of Lord Cornwallis. The complex design Liberge de Granchain, chief administrative officer of the French fleet in Newport, employed great secrecy and diplomacy in coordinating the rapid redeemable in Paris. movement of large land and water forces over long distances. It involved extensive intelligence and logistics, provisioning, lodging, the large quantity of solid coin which mapping, and diversions, culminating in the successful siege. The they brought into the United States, is to be considered as of infinite loss of Britain’s last operational field army convinced that importance at the present period of the war in America could not be won by military means and that our affairs." serious peace negotiations could no longer be avoided. Fifteen months later, Parliament accepted America’s independence. But the French needed other food- stuffs as well, primarily flour, 2.5 tons daily, for bread, which played a The ranks among the most important military much larger role in their diet than in campaigns fought on American soil, including the Saratoga excuse prevent the Commissioners through [Connecticut]. The poultry that of the Americans. Americans from doing their duty.” Vast amounts here is excellent and quite cheap. baked their own bread. "They trouble Campaign of 1777, the Gettysburg Campaign of 1863, and of foodstuffs made their way south: The Americans crowded round, not themselves little with provisions: Sherman’s march to the sea in 1864. Ultimately no road is more on 15 November 1781, Samuel Canby only to hear the bands, but also actually they are given just a bit of important in American history than the Washington-Rochambeau of Brandywine Village, Delaware, loaded with every sort of produce, corn meal of which each soldier route, which, in its political consequence, brought about the and Zebulon Hollingsworth of so that the camp was a continual makes his own bread," observed the Maryland, sent 3,569 bushels of market, offering the most delicious comte de Lauberdière. For the creation of the United States as an independent nation. The victory wheat to Virginia; another 9,333 wares." The money they spent gave French, however, this would not do. won in Virginia stood at the end of a journey that went almost the bushels followed on 21 January a boost to local economies, as even For the officers, wheat flour for entire length of the east coast of the colonies, passing through 1782. But they were for the French; Americans such as Dr. Thacher white bread was imported from the Continental Army had long since admitted. "They punctually paid their France and the Caribbean. Among dozens of villages and touching the lives of a majority of the been in winter quarters on the expenses in hard money, which the rank and file, complaints about American people along the way. Through personal contact; by Hudson. made them acceptable guests the poor quality of bread were providing shelter, transportation, or pasture; or as suppliers of the wherever they passed; and, in fact, persistent. vast amounts of foodstuffs needed to feed the armies along the Artillery lieutenant comte de Clermont-Crèvecœur was one of way, thousands of Americans could say that they, too, contributed many who recorded in his diary how to victory. the French troops supplemented their diet with local produce. "We lived very well during our passage National and international in scope, yet local in focus, the route provides a unifying theme for the war effort on many levels, as it enables a large number of communities to participate—in a way

Continental Loan Office bill of that no single site can—in commemorating the people and events exchange, redeemable in Paris. of the war through their local history, traditions and circumstances.

4-2 SIGNIFICANCE THEMES THE ROUTE AS DOMESTIC 1 CROSS-CULTURAL EXPERIENCE The Washington-Rochambeau route n 1775, most Americans, and citizen-soldiers who had risen might make; but in America the especially in New England, against the British empire in a people say they are free and, if a is significant as a watershed in the viewed the French as an old universal spirit of patriotism and proprietor who doesn’t like the look development of an American identity: Ienemy rather than a new friend. sacrifice. But b Twelve years of peace since the end instead of In 1781/82, the thirteen colonies took a of the French and Indian War in 1763 sacrifice many gigantic step toward becoming a nation. had done little to eradicate preju- saw only greed. dices rooted in a long tradition of Axel von Fersen Puritan anti-French and anti-Catholic wrote to his father The campaign of 1781 ranks with the and the sentiment and experience, in Sweden in winter at Valley Forge as one of the most important symbols for continuously reinforced on the January 1781, that battlefields of Canada. For decades, “the spirit of the American states’ coming together as a unified nation. The patriotism only Argentine author Jorge Luis Borges once wrote that, “History is Franco-American Encounters exists in the chief mere history. Myths are what matter: they determine the type of and principal men history a country is bound to create and repeat.” America British propaganda had portrayed in the country, Frenchmen as effeminate dandies who are making Wartime British propaganda made the French troops out continues to define itself along the lines of events and myths while contrasting French absolutist very great to be ineffectual, more concerned with their appearance created in and by the War for Independence. One of the most despotism with the liberties enjoyed sacrifices; the rest than with matters military. persistent but necessary fictions of the conflict is the assumption by the colonists as British subjects. who make up the great mass think of your face tells you he doesn’t only of their personal interests. want to lodge you, you must go seek that America won her independence by herself, with the concom- Rochambeau’s officers experienced Money is the controlling idea in all a lodging elsewhere. Thus the words: itant propensity to discount the vital contributions of France after this hostility at the beginning of the their actions.” They “overcharge us ‘I don’t want to’ end the business, 1775. It is one of the goals of the Washington-Rochambeau route to march. Artillery lieutenant comte de mercilessly.” and there is no means of appeal.” amend that perception. Clermont-Crèvecœur believed that Such language was anathema to a “the local people, little disposed in Even more difficult to comprehend nobility unfamiliar with American our favor, would have preferred, at were the societal norms of America. norms. Though the presence of thousands of French is but little known that moment, I think, to see their New England society in particular today, its long-range effects were immense. In a continuous and enemies arrive rather than their was composed largely of equals Just as far removed from European allies.” He thought the British were who saw no reason to defer to experience and norms, Americans large-scale educational process, Franco-American encounters along to blame; they “had made the French someone simply because he had a did not find it inappropriate that their the 600-mile-long route challenged centuries-old prejudices seem odious to the Americans... title of nobility and wore epaulettes. militia was officered by “shoemakers harbored by anti-Catholic, anti-French colonists. The Washington- saying that we were dwarfs, pale, Property rights were sacred, which who are colonels.” Being an officer Rochambeau march allowed Americans to see the French for the ugly, specimens who lived meant that the rules of warfare were was not a trade, and Americans exclusively on frogs and snails.” different in America. The chevalier were sincere when they asked their first time as allies rather than as enemies and showed them that de Coriolis told his father: “Here it is French counterparts “what their the French were not the effeminate dandies of British propaganda This reception hurt all the more not like it is in Europe, where when trade is in France.” Much to his because the French were equally the troops are on the march you can amusement, the duc de Lauzun rose bound by their preconceived notions take horses, you can take wagons, considerably in the esteem of his of what they would encounter. you can issue billets for lodging, and hosts when he replied to the ques- Theirs was an idealized image of an with the aid of a gendarme over- tion about his trade that he himself America peopled by noble savages come the difficulties the inhabitant did not have one, but that he had

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-3 The allied armies marched along this nor were they surrounded by Jesuit priests stretch of the Old Post Road at the Maryland/Delaware border. carrying pails of holy water. In towns and along rural roads and campsites, crowds came out to meet the troops. The American view of the French troops rest during the march French underwent a thorough revision, and in toward Yorktown in the process Americans found themselves. one of the few contemporary depictions of the If the shared experience of the war bound the march that have survived. French and the Americans together, the encounter with foreign forces provided tens of thousands of uncle who was a “mareschal de mand of the Duke Americans in hundreds of communities the France.” To the people of Lebanon, de Lauzun… is as Connecticut, this meant that his fine a Corps as ever opportunity to set the frameworks of their own uncle was a farrier (maker of I saw.” Virginia American identity. horseshoes), a very necessary and Militia Colonel thoroughly honorable occupation. Fontaine echoed these words when Crossing nine states and the District of But as time wore on, ancient he wrote on Columbia, the Washington-Rochambeau route prejudices faded through personal 26 October 1781, touches on or runs close to every major battle- encounters. Americans realized that that “the French are field and site of American revolutionary triumph Frenchmen were human just like very different from they were. During the summer of the ideas formerly and disaster in New England and the Mid-Atlantic 1780, William Channing wrote to Ezra inculcated in us of a states, with the notable exception of the Saratoga Stiles, president of , people living on campaign. By the time Williamsburg, the staging that “Neither Officers nor men are frogs and coarse the effeminate Beings we were vegetables. Finer area for the siege, was reached, Washington’s heretofore taught to believe them. troops I never saw.” army contained troops from ten states as well as They are as large & as likely men as French-Canadians of Moses Hazen’s Regiment, can be produced by any nation.” By the time French making the Washington-Rochambeau route Attitudes changed wherever French forces left in 1782, Clermont- experiences in these words: “We troops marched along the coast. Crèvecœur could write, “Foreigners have, on the whole, been treated an outward symbol of the shared sacrifices and struggles and the From Newport, Rhode Island, are cordially welcomed by these wonderfully well wherever the army ultimately successful cooperation of all rebellious colonies for General William Heath informed good people. You find a whole family has marched.” independence. George Washington on 16 July 1780 bustling about to make you happy.” that “The Legion under the com- Baron von Closen could sum up his

4-4 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES THE ROUTE AS DOMESTIC CROSS-CULTURAL EXPERIENCE 1 few Minutes past, a Scotch-Irish with about 25% to 30%, Irish were indeed in the forefront of curious Phenomenon followed by about 275,000 German- the rebellion. If Hessian Jager Capt. The Washington-Rochambeau route is appeared at the Door of speaking settlers. The remainder of Johann Heinrichs would “not call ‘A our Congress. A German the Europeans came from a scatter- the war an American Rebellion, it is c significant as a prime illustration of the Hussar… in his Uniform, and on ing of French Huguenot, Swiss, nothing more than an Irish-Scotch American Revolutionary War as a Horse back, a forlorn Cap upon his Dutch, Swedish, and Scottish Presbyterian Rebellion,” historian Head, with a Streamer waiving from immigrants. Charles P. Neimeyer uses 1777 as his truly diverse effort. it half down his Waistband, with a benchmark to argue “that roughly Deaths Head painted in Front a The ethnic composition of the one out of four Continental soldiers The colonies of the eighteenth century were, like the United States beautiful Hussar Cloak ornamented Continental Army reflected this was of Irish descent.” with Lace and Fringe and Cord of society at large, with the important of today, a nation of immigrants, defined by their multiracial, exception that most of the officers With the exception of pacifist groups multi-ethnic, and multicultural composition. The Continental Ethnic Groups in the came from English stock, the earlier such as Dunkers, Mennonites, or Army of 1781 reflected this reality with a degree of racial Continental Army and by now better-off group of Moravians among them, Germans as immigrants, while the rank and file a rule supported the Revolutionary integration that would not be achieved again until the twentieth Gold...a Light Gun strung over his was recruited from among the more War as well. As early as 31 October century during the Korean War. Close to 25% of the troops shoulder…a Turkish Sabre…by his recent and poorer immigrants. 1774, Joseph Hewes, North Carolina’s encamped at Philipsburg, New York, were African-Americans, Side—Holster and Pistols upon his Foremost among them were the delegate to Congress, could write serving mostly in integrated units. The First Rhode Island, Horse—In short the most warlike Scotch-Irish. The Presbyterians that “the Germans who compose a and formidable Figure, I ever saw.” among them, about 33,000 between large part of the inhabitants of this organized in Providence in 1778 with African-American 1771 and 1775, had come for province are all on our side; the enlistment, received a large core of black soldiers. There were also ’s letter of 6 July 1775 economic reasons; the Catholics, sweets of liberty little known in their German-speaking regiments in the Continental Army, and as late to James Warren provides a vivid more than 10,000 between 1770 and own country are here enjoyed by illustration of the diversity of the 1775 alone, had been deported as them in its utmost latitude.” as 1781, the Canadian Regiment (Congress’s Own), which by now people willing and anxious to fight convicts. What bound them together had become a regiment for any recruit not from one of the lower for American independence. In 1775, was their animosity toward the Using 1778 as his benchmark, thirteen colonies, still had two companies recruited among the the population of Britain’s lower English, leading the bishop of Derry historian Charles P. Neimeyer French-speaking inhabitants of Canada. This multi-ethnic and thirteen colonies stood at about to warn Lord Dartmouth in 1775 of estimates 12% of the Continental 2.5 million, of which some 500,000 the “near thirty three thousand Army to have been “German or of multiracial picture was rounded out by a liberal sprinkling of were African slaves and their fanatical and hungry republicans” German heritage.” Native Americans. descendants. Though Englishmen that had recently emigrated to still formed the majority national America. group in the rebellious colonies as But the French troops fighting in America as part of the expédition a whole, they were no longer the Both anecdotal particulière were multi-ethnic as well. The officer corps of the army majority in the colonies south of evidence and of the ancien régime recruited itself from among the European, not New York: in South Carolina only statistical data just the French, nobility, and the army itself was divided into about one-third of all whites were of suggest that English origin. Next came the the Scotch-

The Freeman’s Journal, Philadelphia, No. XXVII, 24 October 1781

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-5 n May 1775, the Second Washington opened the door to Samuel Middleton, the only Continental Congress established black Americans in instructions to known black commissioned the Continental Army, America’s recruiting officers of 12 January 1777 officer in the Continental Army. French and foreign regiments as Ifirst army, composed mostly of to “enlist none but Freemen,” the • New York, after March 1781: New England militia units and implication being that the recruits actively recruits slaves to enlist in well. Rochambeau brought three Minute Men besieging Boston. Since could be black as long as they were the army. French infantry regiments and the the establishing law did not specify free. Black Americans became an • Maryland, October 1780: accepts Royal Deux-Ponts of the infanterie race in regard to the right, or duty, of integral component of the Conti- “any able-bodied slave between a man to serve, these troops nental Army when New England 16 and 40 years of age, who allemande, recruited in the Duchy included many a black veteran of states began to accept slaves as voluntarily enters into of Zweibrücken, in the Holy Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill. recruits. service...with the consent and Roman Empire, and in the Arriving at his headquarters in • New Jersey, May 1777: permits agreement of his master” as a German-speaking parts of Alsace Cambridge in July 1775, newly masters to enlist slaves as substi- soldier. appointed commander-in-chief tutes. • Maryland, after May 1781: all free and Lorraine ruled by the French • New Hampshire, early fall 1777: blacks are subject to the draft. A recruiting poster for the Royal Deux- African American Soldiers Ponts regiment. Both “Deux Ponts” and crown. He also brought the opens the door to slaves to fill the When Lord Cornwallis seems to “Zweybrücken” mean “two bridges.” volontaires étrangers de Lauzun, a state’s quota. threaten their state, desperate George Washington convened a • Connecticut, October 1777: allows regimental commanders raid jails 600-man light infantry and cavalry unit under the duc de Lauzun. Council of War to discuss, among slaves to enlist. and gallows for likely recruits. On other topics, the role that blacks, • Connecticut, June 1780: raises an 17 April 1781, Colonel Zacharia Women and children have always formed an integral part free and slave, were to play in the all-black unit. The 2nd Company, Forrest asks Governor Thomas of the world’s armies, and it was no different in the American military. The council decided that 4th Connecticut Regiment— 48 Sims Lee “to send some orders henceforth no “deserter from the black privates and noncommis- respecting the Negro man under Revolutionary War. Even though their numbers were always Ministerial army, nor any stroller, sioned officers—served until sentence of Death, he is so young strictly limited, at least in theory, and attempts were made to keep negro, or vagabond” would be November 1782. and healthy and would make a women of questionable conduct out of the camp and to keep those recruited. The Continental Army was •Valley Forge encampment, fine soldier if acquitted.” to be a white army. January 1778: Washington legal- •Virginia, May 1777: the draft law within closely supervised, Washington found it impossible to do izes the New England arrange- greatly increases the number of without them. The vast majority of them were either the wives of When the colonies declared their ments and approves Rhode blacks in the . soldiers or women looking for employment who were primarily independence in July 1776, few Island’s plan to raise a black •Virginia, winter of 1777-78: free used as washerwomen “to keep the Soldier’s clean” or assigned for blacks remained in the ranks of the regiment. blacks are the first to be called up Continental Army. When soon after • Rhode Island, March 1778: raises as the draft is more strictly “the use of the Hospital.” the British had captured New York the First Rhode Island Regiment. enforced. “It was thought that City and were threatening Some 250 former slaves and they could best be spared,” The earliest available general return Philadelphia, a frightened Congress freedmen served in the First Governor Thomas ordered the states to raise 88 Rhode Island, including at the informed George Washington for the Continental Army of infantry battalions to serve for three siege of Yorktown, where the on 21 November 1777. December 1777 gives the number of years or the duration of the war; in regiment was led by Lt.-Col. women drawing rations (equal to December, Washington was Jeremiah Olney. The First Rhode When faced with a draft notice, that of an enlisted man) at about one authorized to raise another 16 Island stayed on active duty for Virginia masters often presented a battalions. When enlistment did not five years, through the end of the slave to the recruiting officer as a meet manpower needs, Congress war in November 1783. free man and therefore able to be a asked the states in January 1777 to • Massachusetts, spring of 1778: substitute. Many a runaway also told Louis Armand de Gontaut-Biron, fill their units “by drafts, from their raises an all-black unit, the the nearest recruiter that he was free duc de Lauzun. militia, or in any other way.” “,” under and anxious to wear the uniform of a

4-6 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES Continental soldier. To put an end to as serving in the Continental Army. who had fled behind British lines such behavior on the part of some When the French and American died or were recaptured by their masters and to the self- armies joined forces at White Plains American masters, thousands more emancipation of slaves, the Virginia for the march to Virginia in June 1781, ended up as property of British woman for every 44 NCOs and men, or 2.5%. At the beginning of legislature amended the Militia Law their numbers had almost doubled: officers or as slaves in the Caribbean in June 1777. It forbade “any French officers estimated the possessions of the crown. Between the 1781 campaign in June, a return for the brigades encamped at recruiting officers within this American army to 1775 and 1785, more New Windsor (except the Connecticut Line) shows 137 women, Commonwealth to enlist any negro be about one- than 65,000 slaves one for every 32 men. Male-female ratios varied from a high of or mulatto into the service of this, or fourth black. were brought into the 1 woman for every 11 men in the artillery (429 men) and 1 for either of the United States, until Among them was port of Kingston in such Negro shall produce a the First Rhode alone, though every 14 men in the Commander-in-Chief’s Guard (69 men) to certificate...that he is a freeman.” Island Regiment, the main slave traders a low of 1 to 87 in the New Hampshire Brigade. About 40 to 45 which Closen on the island recorded women, one-third of the 137 women listed in the return, can be Once the war was over, many considered the but few ships arriving Virginians tried to deny slaves their best American from Africa. Even when reasonably expected to have accompanied the troops on the march freedom, even when it was a well- unit: “the most the British wanted to to Yorktown. deserved reward. But even a neatly dressed, keep their promises, legislature such as Virginia’s, the best under the result was often Only a tiny fraction—fewer than a dozen altogether—of women, dominated by slave-owners, felt arms, and the disappointing. Accord- obliged to speak out against this most precise in ing to American histo- such as Deborah Sampson, are known to have enlisted under the obvious injustice. In the fall of 1783, its maneuvres.” rian Sylvia R. Frey, pretense of being male and to have served until they were it passed a bill condemning owners Throughout the all of 1,336 men, discovered and dismissed. One of them, Anna Maria Lane, enlisted who “contrary to principles of war, American Soldiers of the First Rhode Island 914 women, and 740 justice and to their own solemn policy toward Regiment and of the Canadian children were manu- in September 1777 (maybe earlier) with her husband, and followed promise” kept their substitutes as black soldiers Regiment (Congress’s Own) mitted “as a reward for him and his regiment after her gender was discovered until the end slaves. They were freed by law with wavered between from the Journal of Jean- their wartime services” Baptiste-Antoine de Verger, of the war. Another woman, Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley, instructions to the attorney general exclusion and and transported to a sub-lieutenant in the Royal followed her husband into battle at Monmouth in June 1778 and of Virginia to act on behalf of former grudging admit- Deux-Ponts Regiment. , where slaves held in servitude despite their tance in times of they were given the became famous as Molly Pitcher. enlistment. need. Some 5,000 blacks, 1% of the poorest land. A few hundred ended 500,000 African-Americans living in up in England. Neither welcome nor At the same time, however, Virginia the American colonies, are thought accustomed to life in the Canadian continued a practice begun in to have fought on the American side. Maritimes, about 1,200 of the October 1780 of offering each recruit Many more, 80,000 to 100,000 survivors left for Sierra Leone in willing to serve for the duration of African-Americans, are said to have February 1792. the war a bonus of 300 acres of land fled behind British lines, where an and the choice of a healthy black unknown number served in the Royal African Americans who enlisted in male slave between the ages of 10 Army. It is not that they were the Continental Army usually served and 30 years or £60 in specie. The necessarily pro-British, but that first in integrated units, on equal footing slave bonus was financed by a and foremost they were pro-black, and pay with their white comrades. special tax on whites owning more prepared to support the side that Most became professional soldiers, Insignia of the Fifth Regiment of than 20 slaves. held out the greatest promise of serving for at least three years, if not Hussars (Lauzun Hussars) until its freedom and a better life. That side for the duration of the war. It was dissolution as an active regiment in On 24 August 1778, an army report was the British, though their prom- their professionalism that officers the French military on 1 January 1976. listed 755 African-American soldiers ises rarely came true. Thousands like Closen admired. Its traditions were preserved in Hussar, volontaires étrangers reserve units until 31 December 1992. de Lauzun

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-7 ne of the women In the summer of 1781, she and the The end of the war found Matthews accompanying the armies to other women in her regiment—in her at Continental Village in New York, Yorktown was Sarah Mary old age she remembered the wives of and when Osborn left her for another OMatthews, born in 1756 in Lieut. Forman and Sgt. Lamberson as woman in 1784, she married a third Blooming Grove, Orange County, New well as a black woman named time in 1787. Forty years later, in 1837, York. After her first husband had Letta—traveled with the regiment she applied for a pension and sub- been killed in an early battle of the across New Jersey, working mitted her autobiography and Revolutionary War, she married alternately as a seamstress, Revolutionary War experiences as washerwoman, and baker for the part of the application. Her applica- One Woman’s Story soldiers. In Baltimore she boarded a tion was successful and she lived to ship and sailed down Chesapeake enjoy her pension for another 20 Bay to Williamsburg. At the siege of years. Sarah Matthews died on Aaron Osborn in January 1780. Yorktown she cooked for four sol- 26 April 1858, at about 102 years old. Osborn was a commissary sergeant diers besides her husband, carrying in Captain James Gregg’s company of water and taking care of wounded Colonel Goose Van Schaick’s First soldiers. At some point she encoun- New York Regiment. tered Washington who asked: “Young woman, are you not afraid of the bullets?” “No,” she replied, “the Sarah Matthews bullets would not cheat the gallows.” (1756-1858)

omen were not con- day and a bread ration. Officially, The siege artillery as well as Lauzun’s one of her daughters. He would adopt winter and spring of 1781-82 in sidered necessary to Rochambeau could have brought but Legion wintered on the American the four-year-old as his own child, in Williamsburg, and walked back to the administration of 30 women and their children from the mainland and left in May 1783. An return for some 30 louis to ease the Boston in the summer and fall of Wthe French army and Royal Deux-Ponts. The number of embarkation list dated Philadelphia, campaign for her.” Baron Closen 1782, from where they returned to therefore did not officially exist. The camp followers in 1781 approached 4 May 1783, gives 5 women as recorded, however, that “The grena- Europe. army rarely approved marriages, but this total, but only one-quarter were passengers “à la ration” (i.e., soldier’s dier and his wife, who were very when it did, the women, though not from the Royal Deux-Ponts. wives). That brings to 34 the total of much attached to this child of four, In June 1781, Rochambeau hired allowed to live in the barracks, at women and children in Rocham- steadily refused M. Coleban’s (sic) wagoners and cooks in Connecticut least received a daily bread ration. The most reliable numbers are in the beau’s infantry and cavalry. offer, and thus proved their fine for the march south; 7 of the 15 cooks embarkation lists of 1782. When character and disinterest.” Cromot were female. If they are added to the Women in Rochambeau’s Rochambeau’s infantry left Boston on One of the families traveling with du Bourg, Closen’s fellow aide-de- known American and French women Army Christmas Day 1782, it embarked 25 Rochambeau’s forces emerged from camp, remembered the incident as and children, the combined total women and 4 children: anonymity. While the Royal Deux- well: “The host of M. de Rochambeau reaches 80–85. This number is Both Rochambeau’s French and • Bourbonnais: 5 women or children Ponts was encamped on the property was a minister at least six feet three virtually equal to that of the women Foreign regiments brought women • Soissonnais: 6 women and 1 child of the Rev. George Colton in Bolton, inches in height. … This man, whose accompanying the troops of with them from Europe. In French • Saintonge: 5 women or children Connecticut, on 22 June 1781, this name was Cotton (sic), offered the Cornwallis surrendering at Yorktown. regiments, women were but • Royal Deux-Ponts: 6 women and “Presbyterian minister…a large, wife of a grenadier to adopt her child, tolerated, but Foreign regiments such 3 children (at least two were girls, fleshy man, very prosperous, married, to secure his fortune and to give her as the Royal Deux-Ponts were one but 4 years old) but childless, suggested to the wife for herself thirty Louis in money. She allowed 30 women each. On the • Artillery: 3 women of the grenadier, Adam Gabel, of the repeatedly refused.” The family march, they received pay of 1 sol per Royal Deux-Ponts, that she leave him walked on to Yorktown, spent the

4-8 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES nder 1781 garrison condi- of rank and file strength, again with Source: John U. Rees, “‘The Miltitude of Combined New Jersey Regiment 6 women (1.0% of strength) tions, the number of female the above exceptions. Women’: An Examination of the Numbers First New York 5 women (1.5%) of female Camp Followers with the camp followers in the Second New York 5 women (1.5%) Continental Army.” The Brigade Dispatch Continental Army stood at By the time the Continental Army had U First Rhode Island 7 women (1.5%) Vol. 23 No. 4, (Autumn 1992), pp. 5-17 ; Vol around 3% of the rank and file, disengaged from the British at New 24 No. 1, (Winter 1993), pp.6-16; and No. 2 Moses Hazen’s Regiment 4 women (2.0%) somewhat higher for Washington’s York in August 1781 and was making (Spring 1993), pp. 2-6; “The Number of Second Continental Artillery 9 women (4.0%) Followers with Continental Regiments.” Life Guard and technical troops such its way across New Jersey, it Scammell’s Light Battalion 4 women (1.5%) The Brigade Dispatch, Vol. 28 No. 1, numbered about 2,650 rank and file. (Spring 1998), pp. 2-8 and No. 2, (Summer Washington’s Life Guard 3 women (based on June 1781 return) Women in the Continental Though the table below is based 1998), pp. 2-12, 13, and “‘The Proportion of Corps of Sappers and Miners 1 woman (based on June 1781 return) Army in 1781 primarily on estimates and patterns Women which ought to be allowed’: Corps of Artificers 2 women (estimate) Female Camp Followers with the established before 1781, it provides Total: 46 women and an unknown number of children Continental Army.” The Continental Soldier. as the artillery, somewhat lower for a reasonable estimate of the number Journal of the Continental Line Vol. 3, light troops. Under campaign cond- of women that accompanied the (Spring 1995), pp. 51-58 itions, numbers of female followers army to Virginia. likely dropped to around 1.5 % or less

hen artillery lieutenant I had gone into our quarters and was Neimeyer estimates that about 20% as regular soldiers. Inspection Clermont-Crèvecœur sitting on the ground with my gun of the soldiers in the “New York regi- reports of Rochambeau’s units first encountered the between my knees when it went off ments… were teen-aged boys.” In (except Lauzun’s Legion) on WContinental Army at accidentally… the guard immediately neighboring Pennsylvania, 122 (11%) 10 and 11 November 1781 (i.e., right Philipsburg in July 1781, he was came in with a file of men and took of 1,068 soldiers who gave their age after Yorktown) struck by the number of “children me to the guard house. Here a upon enlistment were seventeen or list five enfants de troupe in the who could not have been over conversation took place between the younger. Saintonge and one in the Royal Deux- fourteen” enlisted in its ranks. One of sergeant major and quartermaster Ponts. them could well have been John sergeant, and one of them remarked After the war, Hudson moved Hudson of the First New York with an oath, that it was a shame to westward, eventually settling in regiment, which was encamped at give a boy like this an hundred lashes southern Ohio. In 1846, the 78-year- Philipsburg. Born on 12 June 1768, for what was notoriously an accident. old Hudson told his story to Charles Hudson was still two months shy of This was said, purposely loud enough Cist, publisher of Cist’s Advertiser in his for me to hear. Then turning to me he Cincinnati, who published Hudson’s Children as Soldiers 13th added—’Come my lad, the best way reminiscences in his weekly paper. for you to get out of this, will be to birthday when he enlisted in a militia enlist—come along with us.’” French enlistment records contain levy raised in April 1781 near Canaan, the names of child-soldiers as well. New York. Next his unit marched to Hudson enlisted for the duration of Numbering about half a dozen per Saratoga, where Hudson became a the war in the First Company, Captain regiment, boys aged 15 and younger soldier in the Continental Army. Aaron Aurson, First New York were enfants de troupe. The sons of Regiment. Three months later, he, soldiers who could enter the rolls at British troops stack weapons “The levies mounted guard with the and the dozens of teen-age boys in half-pay at the age of six, they began following the surrender at regular troops, and one morning just his regiment, were on their way to their careers as musicians until they Yorktown in this 1784 sketch. after being relieved at the usual hour, Virginia. Historian Charles P. were sixteen, when they could enlist

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-9 THE ROUTE AS DOMESTIC 1 CROSS-CULTURAL EXPERIENCE The Washington-Rochambeau route is significant as a visible expression of the Description of celebrations for the d hope for independence and the gratitude birth of the dauphin in Dover, that greeted the returning French army Delaware, 4 July 1782, from the Pennsylvania Packet. on its march north in the summer of 1782. accordingly. … Symbolically, the celebrations of the birth offered After a string of defeats and setbacks during the previous years— Americans a chance to bid fare- the failed in 1779, the treasonous desertion of well to the French and to Benedict Arnold in September 1780, and the mutiny at Morristown recognize the value of their aid and alliance. This remained in the winter of 1780-81—the victory at Yorktown in the fall of implicit in the celebrations, at 1781 gave Americans hope that independence might finally be he duc de Lauzun comment in the United States. least thirty to forty of which were within reach. When news of Yorktown reached Wilmington, carried the news of the But as the victory at Yorktown held throughout the summer of Quaker and mill owner Samuel Canby recorded in his diary that Yorktown victory back strengthened the resolve of the 1782. In newspaper coverage at to Versailles, but his United States and France to seek least eighty, and probably closer to “people seem… more disposed to expect an Independance might ‘T announcement was overshadowed a punitive peace treaty with Great one hundred, articles appeared in take place.” Others were even more optimistic. On 22 October by the birth of the dauphin.... The Britain, based on their combined American papers describing the 1781, Robert R. Livingston of New York informed Francis Dana of success, it seemed a propitious celebrations. No other event during 1782: Celebrating Franco- occasion to reaffirm American the Revolution, with the possible the victory and expressed his hope that “you will not fail to make American Friendship loyalty to the alliance. exception of the Silas Deane affair, the most of this intelligence which must fix our independence not received so much concentrated only beyond all doubt but even beyond all controversy.” birth was first announced in the “The origins of the celebrations for attention in the American press.” United States at Williamsburg, the dauphin’s birth were totally where much of the French army political, which is not surprising. This hope and gratitude toward the French allies expressed itself in was stationed for the winter. Three Anne César, chevalier de la From: William C. Stinchcome, “Americans the celebrations that greeted them on their return march of 1782, months later the Providence Luzerne, the French minister to Celebrate the Birth of the Dauphin” in Diplomacy and Revolution. The Franco- newspaper announced the birth, the United States, carefully studied and in the many celebrations for the birth of the dauphin in June American Alliance of 1778 Ronald Hoffman and it seemed at first that the event the needs of the alliance and and July of 1782. Concurrently Congress passed a resolution on and Peter J. Albert, eds. (Charlottesville, 1981), would pass without extensive attempted to arrange events pp. 39–72, pp. 56–57. 29 October 1781, which called for the construction of a monument at Yorktown to commemorate the victory. In view of the state of American finances, Livingston wondered in a letter of 16 December 1781 to whether the monument ought not be postponed until a better time. It took a full century before the Yorktown Victory Monument was unveiled at the centennial of 1881.

4-10 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES The memory of the successful Franco-American cooperation along the Washington-Rochambeau route has survived in many Rochambeau Middle School, Southbury, Connecticut. manifestations, such as the houses and homes where French and American officers stayed and in the campsites for the enlisted men. It continues to survive in dozens of monuments, historical markers, gravestones, and in the various Rochambeau High Schools along the route. It is kept alive in commemorative events such as the annual Rochambeau Day in September in Hartford, Plaque in Pompton Plains, New which commemorates the Hartford Conference of 1780, and the Jersey, marks the passage of the victory celebrations in October in allied forces along what is now the state’s Route 8. Yorktown. It can be found in local names such as French Hill and Hussars Place, and in the names of towns along the route such as Crompond, New York,

re-named Yorktown Heights in 1787. In (above) Marker in Lebanon, Connecti- 1778, George Rogers Clarke founded a cut, where Lauzun’s Legion wintered for eight months, 1780-81. The name Rochambeau has been city in what would become the state of adopted for a variety of sites and (right) Old St. Peter’s Church in Van land uses. Kentucky and named it Louisville after Cortlandtville, New York, served as a military hospital in 1781-82. Eight the King of France. Ten years later, citizens of Vermont, a state that French soldiers who died while being had not even existed during the Revolutionary War, founded treated there are buried in the church cemetery. Vergennes, named after the French foreign minister. Statue of Admiral de Grasse at , Virginia.

Rochambeau Bridge over the Housatonic River, Newtown, Connecticut. Plaque at the Odell House in Greenburgh, New York, Rochambeau’s headquarters during the Philipsburg encampment of 1781.

This monument honoring the contribution of the French Army to the American Revolution was dedicated in Lebanon, Connecticut on October 19, Stone tablet honoring French soldiers 2002. at West Hartford, Connecticut.

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-11 THE ROUTE AS MANIFESTATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL WAR EFFORT 2 By 1782, only Barbados, Antigua, Canonniers-bombardiers de l’Inde de Suffren beat British Admiral St. Lucia and Jamaica remained in arrived at Capetown to reinforce the Hughes off Cuddelore. British power The Washington-Rochambeau route is British hands, and on the mainland Dutch garrison. In May 1782, the in India was preserved by the arrival significant as a symbol of the global they had lost control of Dutch Volontaires du Luxembourg, a on 29 June 1783 of a frigate bearing a Guyana as well. When Admiral Sir French colonial corps transferred to news that Preliminaries of Peace character of the American War George Rodney captured the tiny Dutch service in April, joined them. between France and Great Britain for Independence. Dutch island of St. Eustatius in had been signed on 20 January 1783. February 1781—a vital entrepôt and With bases along the long sea route transfer point in the Caribbean— to India, France could hope to regain In Europe, French and Spanish The American War for Independence was a worldwide conflict booty estimated to be worth more some of the influence and territory forces captured the British strong- that the fledgling United States was able to survive only with the than £3,000,000 (more than 70 million she had lost there in 1763 and during hold of Fort St. Philip at Port Mahon support of the French and, to a lesser extent, the Spanish and the livres) fell into his hands, enough to the first years of the current war (Minorca) on 5 February 1782. They cover the expenditures of Rocham- against Britain. All French posts in went on to reinforce a combined Dutch governments. Commemorating the Washington- beau’s army six times! St. Eustatius India had fallen between August and Franco-Spanish force of some Rochambeau route introduces Americans to the little-known fact was retaken by Bouillé on 26 October 1778. From this nadir, France 28,000 men laying siege to Gibraltar, that America’s independence was won with the help of powerful November 1781 but never recovered began a steady build-up of forces. In defended by General Elliot with 7,000 from the devastation it suffered the summer of 1780 the four British troops. A general attack on 13 friends, that it was won as much in the East and West Indies, in under British occupation. battalions of colonial troops on the September 1782 failed. Africa, and in Minorca as it was on the American continent. This Île-de-France (Mauritius), some 1,500 international alliance kept Britain from concentrating her forces in Warfare in the unhealthy climate of men, were joined by the Second The expansion of the conflict meant the colonies, which gave Washington, Rochambeau, and de Grasse the Caribbean extracted an Battalion of the Austrasie regiment. that by the summer of 1781, even enormous price in human lives. At In late March 1781, Admiral de before the victory at Yorktown, the breathing room they needed to execute the campaign. Yorktown, Rochambeau suffered not Suffren sailed from Brest in the French priorities and war aims were even 200 casualties in dead and Caribbean-bound convoy of de shifting. Rochambeau was to get 830 wounded: between March and Grasse but broke with his convoy for replacements in 1781; 600 French December 1781, the French navy the Cape in April. Once the First troops were to go to India, and 4,000 operating in the Caribbean suffered Battalion of the Austrasie and the 3rd to the Caribbean, where France now more than 5,000 casualties, mostly to Legion of the Volontaires étrangers had to protect Dutch and Spanish disease. In his defeat in the Battle of de la Marine had also arrived in India possessions as well. But as the he 1778 Treaty of Alliance In the West Indies, the marquis de the Saints in April 1782, de Grasse in October 1781, these forces under strategic and political situation between France and the Bouillé, governor-general of suffered more than 3,000 casualties. the marquis de Bussy—a veteran of developed, the ministry in Paris United States and Martinique, had captured British the Seven Years War in India with decided to limit the replacements to of Spain and the Nether- Dominica as early as 7 September In the fall of 1778, the duc de Lauzun thorough knowledge of the country Rochambeau to two dozen lands into the conflict in 1778. During the course of the war, sailed to Africa with a military force and its people—joined with the cannoniers of the First Battalion of T1780, turned the American rebellion 27 French metropolitan infantry bat- of about 400 men and took Senegal native forces of Indian ally Hyder-Ali the Auxonne Artillery and a few well- into a global contest. By 1781, the war talions, smaller detachments and two in January 1779. The Dutch entry into at Porto Novo on 25 February 1782. placed officers who arrived on the artillery battalions joined the colonial the war in December 1780, meant On 19 March 1783, four more infantry frigates l’Aigle and la Gloire only in infantry, artillery, and volunteer The War for Independence that the French fleet could now use battalions and an artillery brigade, mid-September 1782. Meanwhile, battalions in the West Indies, bringing as a Global War Dutch bases on the Cape of Good some 2,300 men, arrived from France; the contingent to India was the total to more or less 48 battalions. Hope and in Ceylon and that the British forces—15,000 men, including increased by 3,900 men to 4,500: by in America was but one, and by far By comparison, Rochambeau brought global war would return to the 3,500 European troops—were losing the end of the war France had more not the largest, theater of war. to America in 1780 all of 8 infantry African continent. In July 1781, the control of the military situation both troops in India than in America. battalions, one battalion of artillery, Pondichery regiment and the on land and on sea, where Admiral and 600 light troops.

4-12 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES THE ROUTE AS MANIFESTATION OF 2 THE INTERNATIONAL WAR EFFORT

The Washington-Rochambeau route is Population significant as the culmination of the as a Resource b crucial contributions of France to the achievement of American independence. 13 Colonies Great Britain France

1700 0.2 million 5–6 million 20 million The success of the Yorktown Campaign and the winning of 1750 1.0 million 6.5 million 23 million America’s independence were made possible by monarchist 1775 2.5 million 8.0 million 25 million 1789 4.0 million 9.0 million 26 million France’s political, diplomatic, financial, and military assistance to the American colonies. Through her generous aid starting in 1775, In 1775, London had more than 700,000 inhabitants, Paris some 500,000. France first figuratively, and then, beginning in Newport in June There were at least 20 cities in twelve European countries that had more 1781, literally, walked side by side with the American rebels than 100,000 inhabitants. American cities were considerably smaller: toward independence. Without France’s aid, the United States Philadelphia 28,000 Newport 11,000 could not have prevailed against the , the , 23,000 Baltimore 10,000 or the resources of the motherland. Boston 16,000 Providence 4,500 Charleston 12,000 Wilmington 1,200

The Continental Army used French arms and ammunition, cannon and powder, uniforms and saddles, none of which could have reached America’s shores without a powerful French fleet to Soon after the alliance between protect the merchant ships. French naval forces managed to keep France and the United States was the British at bay, which meant that troops could be transported signed, copies of the treaty text appeared in both countries. from France, from the West Indies, and along the US coast with relative safety. The loss of Britain’s absolute mastery of the sea was a decisive factor in America’s victory. Without this loss, French weapons, Rochambeau’s troops, and French gold would never have reached America.

French actions should not be taken for granted. Rochambeau could have acted much less tactfully in his relations with Washington. Admiral de Grasse could have concentrated on capturing lucrative British islands in the West Indies. Louis XVI and Vergennes could have ruined the whole strategy by establishing as a priority a military effort to regain French Canada, as was advocated by some

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-13 politicians in Versailles as well as by some members of the military. Colonel Desandrouïns, Rochambeau’s chief engineer in America, submitted such a plan to the war minister, prince de Montbarrey, and the naval minister, comte de Sartine in August owhere does the crucial ships in North American and 1778. Under the honor code of the eighteenth century, Admiral de 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 importance of the French European waters after Yorktown— Barras, who had assumed command of the fleet in Newport participation in the war Britain with all the freed-up capacity going following the death of Admiral de Ternay, could have refused to Nbecome more obvious, >70* 37 50 59 57 55 either to the Caribbean or to serve under de Grasse, who had once been his junior in rank. and the dependence of the colonies <70* 29 40 42 37 39 India—indicates that Britain was on French assistance more appar- 66 90 94 94 94 prepared to cut her losses on the Instead, everything was done to subordinate French interests to ent, than in the naval components France American mainland but determined America’s needs, to assist an American victory, and to bring about of the war, since the colonies had >70 28 38 44 44 42 to defend her other possessions. the complete independence of the United States. no capital ships of their own. At the <70 24 25 25 26 *23 outbreak of the rebellion in 1775, 52 63 69 70 65 In the spring of 1781, when Great Great Britain enjoyed absolute *(after Battle of the Saints) Britain had all of 37 capital ships in mastery of the seas vis-à-vis the Spain and the West Indies, American rebels. The entry of France >70 — 50 40 45 43 France had 30 ships either in the into the war in 1778, and later of <70 — 8 8 9 11 Caribbean or en route there and —58485454another 8 in North America or en The Role of the French Navy The Netherlands route there. (Six were in India, with >70 — — ? 1 1 another five en route. There were Spain (1779) and the Netherlands <70 — — 11 13 18 also 20-plus Spanish capital ships (1780), ended that advantage. ——1114 19 in and other Caribbean 1 écu or six livres 1/10 écu or 12 sols 1/20 écu or 6 sols ports). Since the Royal Navy had to More important than absolute * >70 = ships with more than 70 guns leave a number of ships to guard The value of the eighteenth-century coins was determined by their weight and <70 = ships with between 50 and 70 guns bullion content irrespective of the issuing country. All coins, which are numbers was where vessels were Britain’s Caribbean possessions, de reproduced in original size, have the same observe and reserve images without deployed. Until 1778, Great Britain Source: Jonathan R. Dull, The French Navy Grasse in 1781 enjoyed the denominating a specific value. was able to concentrate all of her and American Independence: A Study in temporary superiority in numbers naval forces in the North American Arms and Diplomacy, 1774-1787 (Princeton, that enabled him to take the 1975), pp. 359-376. British crowns, Spanish Milled Dollars, and French écus were similar in size, theater and in the West Indies; initiative, and the calculated risk, weight, and silver content and circulated freely in the colonies. While encamped once France had joined the that made the victory at Yorktown at Head of Elk in early September 1781, Rochambeau loaned Washington 24,000 écus in French coin to pay the Continental Army; Robert Morris repaid the loan in Americans, the distribution of possible. February 1782 with Spanish dollars, the famous Pieces of Eight. British Naval forces changed dramatically (chart, right). In 1777, Distribution of British ships, 1778-1782 One French écu, often called a French Crown in the colonies, represents more than 40% of the Royal Navy, Elsewhere/ approximately three weeks wages for a common soldier in Rochambeau’s army. North West fitting/ 25 to 27 ships, had been in America Indies Europe India convoy duty, etc. American water. The perceived French threat to the Sugar Islands 1778 14 (+13)* 4 (+1) 30 1 (+1)* 2 reduced the presence of the Royal 1779 8 27 (+1) 31 (+10) 8 5 Navy in American waters by two- 1780 5 (+6) 31 (+6) 25 5 16 thirds. The high number of vessels 1781 10 27 28 5 (+5)* 19 fitting in British ports or on convoy 1782 8 45 17 11 (+6)*7 duty in 1780 and 1781 clearly shows *Figures in parentheses indicate number of additional vessels en route. the strain on the Royal Navy. Finally, (Order of battle as of 1 July 1778 and 1779; 1 April 1781 and 1782) 1 sol or 12 deniers 1/2 sol or 6 deniers 1 liard or 3 deniers the reduction in numbers of British

4-14 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES On 6–8 September 1781, the allied etween 1776 and 1783, million livres in loans to be repaid was still outstanding in 1817. Even army camped just south of Hol- France spent 1,054 million after the end of the war. Another today, the federal debt contains lingsworth Tavern in Elkton, livres on the war effort. 6-million-livre loan from France in arrears open since the Revolutionary Maryland. Washington paid his 91% of this outlay had to be 1783 brought French expenditures War. ($55,757.80 was merged into the troops with hard currency B borrowed from Rochambeau. financed by loans, and by the end of in direct support of the American title “old debt” in 1880). the war her total constituted debt rebels, including those for the stood at 4,538 million livres with an expédition particulière, to about The American foreign debt for the annual debt service of more than 200 48 million livres—less than 5% of war was paid off relatively quickly. million. At the same time the marquis total expenditures. At the end of 1789, that debt stood at de Lafayette’s annual income of about $11.7 million, close to 60 about 100,000 livres made him one of Britain’s expenditures for the war million livres. Throughout the 1780s, the wealthiest people in France. A ran to 2,270.5 million livres. More only the Dutch loans (28 million livres 74-gun ship cost about 1 million than 40% of this total was funded by by 1788) had been served. With the livres to build and equip, and in 1776, loans as well, which raised her help of further loans from Amster- the ordinary income of the French national debt from £131 million (3.013 dam, the debt to Spain was paid off The allied supply wagon train left the crown stood at 377.5 million livres. million livres) to a staggering £245 by 1794, and on 3 March 1795, Alexandria, Virginia, encampment million or 5.635 million livres. In 1783, America’s remaining public debt to (right) on 26 September for Yorktown. Most of the money after 1775 went a full two-thirds of Britain’s tax France was paid off as well. Settle- to the navy: its budget rose from revenue went to servicing a debt ment of private debts (e.g., with the uring the encampment at received a MONTH’S PAY, in 33 million livres in 1775 to 169 million that was 25% larger than that of heirs of Beaumarchais) took until Head of Elk, Washington specie, borrowed, as I was informed, in 1780 and peaked at almost France, even though Britain’s 1835. paid his troops with about by our French officers from the 200 million in 1782. During these population was only one-third the 24,000 écus he had officers in the French army. This size of France’s. François Soulès in his Histoire des D borrowed from Rochambeau. was the first that could be called The Financial Cost troubles de l’Amérique Anglaise of the War money, which we had received as Robert Morris, who assumed the (Paris 1787; vol. 4, p. 200), gave the “This day,” 8 September 1781, wages since the year ‘76, or that superintendency of finance in 1781, US debt, domestic and foreign, in wrote Major William Popham, “will we ever did receive till the close of same years, the army budget in- estimated the US public debt in July 1786 as $42,942,837 or 230 million be famous in the annals of History the war, or indeed, ever after, as creased marginally from 93.5 million of 1782 at about 30 million Spanish livres (at 5.4 livres per dollar). Based for being the first in which the wages.” Another enlisted man, livres in 1775 to 95 million in 1783. milled silver dollars. Financial insta- on ’s figures of Troops of the United States John Hudson of the First New York bility continued until the ratification 1790, the cost of the war to the received one month’s Pay in Regiment, who had celebrated but Expenditures for the expédition of the federal constitution in 1789. United States ran about $27 million Specie—all the civil and military his 13th birthday on 12 June 1781, particulière were minimal within the When the federal government (146 million livres) or $40 million with recalled that it was at Head of Elk overall war effort. American historian assumed all state expenditures for interest included (216 million A Soldier’s Pay that “I received the only pay that I Claude C. Sturgill has computed the war (approximately $25 million in livres)—about 13% of the 1,054 ever drew for my services during them at 12,730,760 livres, about 1.2% 1783), in 1790, the total domestic million livres spent by France and the war, being six French crowns, of the total cost of the war. Through debt, state and federal, stood at 6.5% the 2,271 million Great Britain staff are excluded.” For many a which were a part of what Robert intermediaries such as Beaumar- about $27 million. Arrears in interest spent in the failed attempt to keep Continental soldier this was indeed Morris borrowed on his own credit chais, the colonists received about payments added another $13 million. her colonies. the first and only time he ever from the French commander to 2 million livres’ worth of aid in kind; Funded in the Compromise of August received “real” money during his supply the most urgent necessities outright French subsidies amounted 1790, which brought the seat of the years of service. Private Martin of the soldiers. My comrades to about 9 million. Between 1778 and federal government to the South, remembered that “we each of us received the same amount.” 1782, the United States obtained 18 less than $160,000 of the federal debt

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-15 THE ROUTE AS MANIFESTATION OF 2 THE INTERNATIONAL WAR EFFORT The Washington-Rochambeau route the common good. Together they recognized the opportunity that is significant as an example of joint offered itself in Virginia, but it was Washington who took the c brave decision to change strategy and march south, and together Franco-American cooperation under Washington’s overall leadership. they brought the campaign to a successful conclusion.

That victory would have been impossible without the naval Planning for the march and its execution stands as a testimony to component provided by the fleet of Admiral de Grasse, but the the professionalism of the French and American general staffs. coordination of the movements of land and naval forces, Planning such an extensive campaign that depended on the thousands of miles and three-weeks in travel time apart, was the cooperation of the French navy must have been very difficult for most difficult component of the campaign. The virtually flawless men of different languages, backgrounds, and cultures. Most execution of the campaign has led American historian Jonathan R. Americans, including General Washington, spoke no French and Dull to single it out as the “most perfectly executed naval had to communicate through interpreters, mostly French campaign of the age of sail.” volunteers in the Continental Army. Rochambeau spoke no English; neither did many officers on his staff, with the notable exceptions of the chevalier de Chastellux and the duc de Lauzun. Here, too, the communications gap was bridged by Frenchmen such as Du Bouchet and Fleury who had served in the Continental Army. American officers such as were largely self- taught. The French were career soldiers, and their engineers and artillery officers had trained at the most advanced military and technical schools of the time.

Washington’s command of a foreign army as well as his own on American soil is an extraordinary episode, unique in US history. There would have been no Yorktown and no American independence without Washington. The American force he led demonstrated his tenacity in holding together and building an effective army, trained and disciplined in the crucible of war. Yet as supreme commander, he proved enormously flexible, keeping on excellent terms with his more experienced military partner Rochambeau, who in turn accepted Washington’s leadership for

4-16 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES rançois Joseph Paul comte de remained before New York rather On 31 August de Grasse’s fleet Grasse—born into an old than marching to Virginia, the dropped anchor in the mouth of the noble family in southern campaign of 1781 would end in York and the next day began FFrance in 1722—was a career failure, and like d’Estaing, he too unloading men and material for the officer in the French navy, and would return from America in siege of Cornwallis. served the king in campaigns in the disgrace. Next, de Grasse made Meditarranean, in India, and in the another bold gamble. Rather than De Grasse’s hour of glory was still to Caribbean.In 1779 he commanded a detaching ships to protect the come. Cruising off Cape Charles, the squadron under the comte d’Estaing annual homeward-bound convoy lookout on the Aigrette at around at Grenada and was commanding from the Caribbean, he entrusted it 9:30 a.m. on 5 September reported officer of the French fleet in the to the care of a single 64-gun sails approaching from east-north- Caribbean once d’Estaing had sailed vessel. The risk was rewarded: the east. The sails were those of Vice for Europe after the unsuccessful Actionnaire left San Domingo with Admiral Thomas Graves, Rear siege of Savannah. His health French ships are lined up on the left and British on the right in this painting of 126 merchantmen in late October Admirals Samuel Hood and Sir failing, the 58-year-old officer sailed the Battle of the Capes. and made it safely to France. Francis Drake and their 19 ships of for France in late 1780 as well. ships of the line against de Grasse’s him of Cornwallis’s arrival in the line—two 98s, twelve 74s, one 26. Hood’s superior, Admiral George Virginia, and hinted strongly that he The stage was set when de Grasse 70, and four 64s—a 50-gun ship, six His stay in France was short. On 22 Rodney, had captured the Dutch would prefer de Grasse to sail for raised anchor with 28 ships of the frigates and a fire ship. Going full March 1781, Louis XVI promoted de island of St. Eustatius in February, the Chesapeake: line and supporting frigates at Cap speed, around 6 knots, or 7 mph, Grasse to rear admiral, and sent him and booty estimated at more than There are two points at which Français (Haiti) on 5 August and they were making straight for the back to the West Indies with 20 £3,000,000 (70 million livres) had an offensive can be made headed north. His ships were main entrance of the bay. fallen into British hands. Wanting to against the enemy; the bursting with passengers: an 80- Admiral de Grasse and the protect the loot, Rodney had Chesapeak and New York. The gun-ship, 190 feet long, a 46-foot Though he knew that 19 sails were Battle of the Capes withdrawn four of Hood’s ships, southwesterly winds and the beam with a hold of 22 feet, carried approaching Hampton Roads, there giving de Grasse the superiority he state of defense in Virginia a regular crew of some 940 men. was not much de Grasse could do. ships of the line, three frigates and needed to get his convoy safely into will probably make you prefer (Most of them were needed to work Wind and tide were against him, and 156 transport. Concurrently, the Port Royal on 6 May. Following his the Chesapeak Bay, and it will the cannon: it took 15 men to much of his personnel was on land. vicomte de Rochambeau sailed for conquest of Tobago in early June, be there [sic] where we think service just one of the thirty 36- De Grasse had to leave some 90 Newport with badly needed cash for de Grasse sailed for Santo Domingo, you may be able to render the pounders on the main deck during officers and about 1,900 men behind his father, and the news that the where four more ships of the line greatest service.… In any battle). They were also carrying when he cut cables around noon as second division of infantry would joined his fleet on 16 July. case it is essential that you some 3,000 men of the infantry the tide was turning. De Grasse’s not be coming after all. Rocham- send, well in advance, a regiments Gâtinais, Agenais, and flagship, the 104-gun Ville-de-Paris, beau was free to draw up his own As de Grasse was sailing for San frigate to inform de Barras Touraine under the comte de Saint- three 80s, seventeen 74s, and three plans for the coming campaign, Domingo, Rochambeau on 8 June where you are to come and Simon, 100 artillerymen, their guns, 64s moved out of the channel to possibly in cooperation with de learned of the admiral’s arrival in the also General Washington. and 100 . meet the enemy. Short of hands and Grasse, who could provide naval West Indies. On 15 June Rocham- hampered by the north-northeast support. De Grasse’s convoy, beau had information from de Upon reading this letter in mid-July Along the way de Grasse dis- wind, they were slow forming a reinforced by six ships of the line Grasse that he would be in San 1781 (it took even a fast sailing patched the frigate Aigrette to battle line: De Grasse, the 11th ship from Martinique, arrived off Port Domingo later that month and could frigate two-and-one-half to three Havana to pick up 1.2 million livres in line, did not clear the bay until Royal, Martinique, on 28 April. be in American waters by 15 July at weeks to make the trip), de Grasse that Rochambeau had requested almost 1:00 p.m. British Rear Admiral Samuel Hood the earliest. Rochambeau immedi- opted to sail for the Chesapeake. His in July to pay and feed his army. was waiting for him, but in a stroke ately dispatched the aptly named choice involved considerable risk, It took all of five hours to collect Rather than order “close action” of that good fortune that would Concorde to San Domingo to since it was based upon reading these funds from public and private and head straight for the French line shine on the Franco-American apprise de Grasse of Franco- between the lines of Rochambeau’s sources, and on 17 August the as it was straggling out of the bay, alliance all year, Hood had but 18 American plans. He also informed letter. If the Franco-American army Aigrette rejoined de Grasse’s fleet. Graves at around 2:15 p.m. gave

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-17 order to get into “line ahead” for- Hood later claimed that Graves approached he saw de Barras’ Admiral François Joseph Paul, mation: Graves wanted to bring his forgot to lower the flag signaling fleet riding at anchor in comte de Grasse vessels into a roughly parallel posi- “line ahead” as the standard “close Lynnhaven Bay. De Grasse knew tion with the approaching French action” went up. Graves maintained that he had achieved his goal: fleet. The maneuver not only took that he flew “engage the enemy” Washington and Rochambeau 1 1/2 hours to perform, it also throughout the day and hoisted were on the way, and with de greatly extended the heretofore “line ahead” only twice. Hood and Barras’ seven ships of the line tight formation of the British fleet. his captains, according to Graves, and two transports safely in the This gave the French time to clear misunderstood the signal. Irrespec- Bay, Cornwallis was caught. the entrance of the bay. As Graves tive of flag signals, once the cannon Graves returned briefly to the lined up for battle, his fastest ships, began roaring, Hood knew that the Chesapeake on the 13th only to which had been in the lead, found battle had begun and should have find de Barras there. Seeing themselves at the end of the fallen on the French rear. Why he that it would be unwise to attack column. That included Hood on the did not will always remain a the now 35 French ships with his 18, Distribution of the Armed Barfleur, who had been fourth in mystery. Graves—unaware that Forces at Yorktown line, but now had fifteen ships Rochambeau and Washington were ahead of him. Three 74s under Confusion reigned on board the marching on Yorktown—returned to American army: 9,150 Drake, already leaking badly when British fleet: Drake’s leaky division New York. On his arrival, he was • Continentals 350 officers and 5,500 men (return of 9/26/1781, the fleet had sailed from New York followed the signal and at 4:15 p.m. dejected. He wrote to the Earl of including 411 sick) [includes Lafayette’s forces five days earlier, formed the new the Shrewsbury opened fire, but Sandwich, “The signal was not and other reinforcements who joined along the lead division. with the wind blowing toward land understood. I do not mean to blame march and the French fleet, British vessels anyone, my Lord. I hope we all did • Militia 3,300 officers and men As the ships took their places in the could only use their upper gun our best.” line, Graves, much to the conster- decks while the French could French army: 9,300 nation of his officers, ordered them employ their full firepower. Hood De Grasse’s victory at the Capes • Rochambeau’s forces 425 officers and 5,300 men (return of 11/11/1781, to wait for the French center to continued with “line ahead,” until highlights more than any other including 741 detached and 427 sick) come abreast. This allowed de Graves sent a frigate ordering him event the vital importance of the • Saint-Simon’s forces 225 officers and 3,300 men (including 800 Grasse to bring up his rear. When to attack at once. But the French French navy for American indepen- marines) battle commenced, he not only held the advantage: when hundreds dence. It was de Grasse’s fleet that would have five more ships and of cannon began to spit fire and kept the Royal Navy from rescuing French navy: 28,400 1,794 cannons versus 1,410 British destruction, de Grasse’s ships fired Cornwallis when it sailed out to • French marines 5,200 officers and men (minus about 800 marines guns—but thanks to Graves, they broadside after broadside into meet the British on 5 September at Gloucester) would also be sailing in closer Drake’s division, which still had to 1781. There was no Continental • Ship crews 24,000 officers and men (18,000 under de Grasse, formation than their opponents. His turn before its cannon could reach Navy that could have stopped 6,000 under Barras) best and fastest ships would line up them. Seven ships, including Hood’s Graves, Hood, and Drake. with Graves’s slowest and weakest. Barfleur, never caught up. At 5:30 British forces: 9,700 The two fleets were arranged like p.m. they began trading long- Though he spent but two months in • 15 September 8,885 effectives, plus 840 naval personnel the sides of a funnel when Graves distance fire; an hour later Graves American waters and never set foot • 19 October 7,247 rank and file (4,750 fit for duty), plus 840 raised the flag to head toward the ordered the fleet to disengage. on American soil, de Grasse is naval personnel for a total of 8,100 rank and file enemy. According to the London’s among the three Frenchmen who at surrender. The force comprised 4,418 British log, it was precisely 3:46 p.m.; six Both fleets spent the next day, contributed most to American troops, 1,900 German auxiliaries, and 800 hours had passed since the fleets 6 September, making repairs and independence. His “strategic Loyalists (of whom 142 from North Carolina did had spied each other. What drifted to the south on the 7th. vision,” writes Jonathan R. Dull, not surrender). The vast majority of the missing happened next has been debated At nightfall on the 9th, de Grasse “made possible the most important 1,600 men were casualties. ever since. headed back north. As he naval victory of the 18th century.”

4-18 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES THE ROUTE AS MANIFESTATION OF In late September 1782, American the transformation of this army into Ferry, and conducted him through 2 THE INTERNATIONAL WAR EFFORT and French forces met at Peekskill one that was in no way inferior to the line to General Washington’s to say their farewells. To the French, ours in appearance. Their officers quarters, where, sitting on his horse the transformation of the Continen- too were well turned out.” by the side of his excellency, the The Washington-Rochambeau tal Army since Yorktown was star- whole army marched before him, route is significant as the first tling. On 20 September, the French Rochambeau and his staff were and paid the usual salute and d true acknowledgement of army passed in review before impressed as well and gave the honors. Our troops were now in Washington, and then, on the 22nd, Continental Army the highest praise complete uniform, and exhibited America as a sovereign nation. Clermont-Crèvecœur and his fellow possible in the late eighteenth every mark of soldierly discipline. officers “went to watch the man- century when they put it on par with Count Rochambeau was most highly euvers of the American army and the army of Frederick the Great. gratified to perceive the very great If the alliance of 1778 brought the diplomatic recognition of the were truly impressed. This proves Dr. James Thacher described the improvement, which our army had United States as a sovereign nation, the behavior of French troops what money and good officers can scene thus: “The whole army was made in appearance since he last toward their American allies put this recognition to the test. do to make good soldiers.… we paraded under arms this morning in reviewed them, and expressed his order to honor his Excellency Count astonishment at their rapid prog- Recognizing General Washington as the commander-in-chief of US-French Encampment at Rochambeau on his arrival from the ress in military skill and discipline. the joint force brought much-needed prestige. The parade of Peekskill, September 1782 southward. The troops were all He said to General Washington, Rochambeau’s troops before the Continental Congress, the review formed in two lines, extending from ‘You have formed an alliance with of these same troops by Washington, and the surrender of British found 8,000 of the American army. the ferry, where the count crossed, the King of Prussia. These troops Now they were all uniformed and to head-quarters. A troop of horse are Prussians.’ Several of the prin- General Charles O’Hara to American general well groomed. We were struck with met and received him at King’s cipal officers of the French army, rather than to Rochambeau all proved that the French were who have seen troops of different prepared to treat their ally as an equal on the international scene. European nations, have bestowed the highest encomiums and applause on our army, and declared that they By its alliance with France, the United States gained international had seen none superior to the recognition, and through its recognition by the French army, the Americans.” Continental Army as an outward symbol of American sovereignty was elevated from a rebel revolutionary force to the status of a national army. In the US military in particular, French influence remained strong long after the end of the conflict. Throughout the war Americans lacked the expertise and training necessary in the technical branches of the armed forces, such as the artillery, engineering, or cartography. French volunteers provided this expertise. Training and expertise provided by French advisers and volunteers helped shape the Continental Army and its successor, the United States Army, into a skilled, professional fighting force. Even today, the US Army Corps of Engineers awards the Fleury Medal for excellence in engineering, while the coat of arms and the Peekskill encampment site, drawn by motto of the US Army Engineering School are that of the French Rochambeau’s cartographer Louis Alexandre de Berthier. school at Mezières: Essayons!—Let us try!

SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 4-19 John Singleton Copley, “The Death of Major Pierson, 6 January 1781.”

On 6 January 1781, a French landing party of about 800 men under the command of Baron de Rullecourt landed on the Channel island of Jersey. In the subsequent fighting both Rullecourt and Major Francis Pierson of the 95th Regiment were killed. The French force was defeated and had to surrender but such raids forced Britain to commit substantial resources to the defense of the waters around the British Isles.

Island of St. Eustatius Until its capture by British Admiral Rodney on 3 February 1781, this tiny Dutch island in the Caribbean was one of the most important neutral entrepôts for trade with the North American Continent. Rodney’s booty was estimated at £3,000,000 or 70,000,000livres, almost six times the 12,000,000 livres the expédition particulière cost the French crown.

4-20 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 5 Historic Use of the Route

he roads that constitute the Washington-Rochambeau route roads south from Philadelphia to routes. Military needs of Yorktown were surveyed in the providing flank cover from predate the American Revolutionary War by decades, some summer of 1781, by Erskine's British attacks determined the successor Simeon DeWitt at the route taken by Lauzun’s Legion in even by centuries. The Eastern Seaboard of Colonial America express order of Washington for Connecticut in June 1781 and T the purpose of facilitating the that of Continental Army units was traversed by a network of roads, some of which had been used by march to Yorktown. These maps through New Jersey in August of have not been published in their that year. The logistics of provid- Native Americans for centuries prior to the American Revolutionary entirety but are preserved in the ing thousands of men with food, War. These roads, known variably as “Post Road” or “King’s Highway” collections of the New-York firewood and shelter made it Historical Society. necessary for the units to follow or the “Old Trail” in Colonial America, were used for travel, trade, and separate routes as well. Even Except for the routes of the Con- Philadelphia—at 28,000 inhabi- military campaigns. After the outbreak of the revolution, the armies of tinental Army from Newburgh to tants, America’s largest city— Philipsburg in July 1781, of the could not long feed and house the both sides followed these roads on many occasions during their French army from Crompond/ armies, now 7,000 strong, and Yorktown Heights to Boston after their thousands of animals. operations. Their use as conduits for the deployment of the opposing September 1782, and for a very Smaller towns along the route, forces was well-established before the French and American armies few short sections such as the such as Baltimore with 10,000 march from Christiana, Delaware, inhabitants and Wilmington took them in 1781 and 1782 during and after the Yorktown Campaign. to Head of Elk, Maryland, the with 1,200 people, were in no Washington-Rochambeau route position to handle the multitudes The roads are historically the crossing over the Susque- of precision. The roads that throughout consists of multiple at their gates. significant by themselves as the hanna at Bald Friar Ferry and Ford formed the French route were lifelines of the economies of in Maryland. When strung surveyed shortly following the Colonial America, but they take together, they formed the fastest march, in great detail, by Louis on additional importance as and most convenient way to Alexandre de Berthier. His maps components of the Washington- reach Williamsburg in the were published by Anne S. K. Rochambeau route. The route summer of 1781. Brown and Howard C. Rice, Jr., consists of sections of various in 1972. On the American side, lengths of these colonial roads, The historic locations of the land George Washington’s cartogra- such as the Boston Post Road in routes that form the Washington- pher Robert Erskine surveyed the Connecticut, the Albany Post Rochambeau route can be roads in New York and New Road in New York, the Assunpink identified with great accuracy. Jersey during the 1770s. The Trail in New Jersey, and the Based on original documents, the The Christiana Tavern in Christiana, King’s Highway in Delaware. roads taken by the various Delaware, where Washington, These roads are interspersed with components of the French and Rochambeau, and Lafayette all stayed mountainous passes such as the American armies can be traced on at various times: an example of a sig- nificant resource in need of Clove in Suffern, New York, and a modern map with a high degree preservation.

HISTORIC USE OF THE ROUTE 5-1 After the arrival at Head of Elk, But the trail also comprises But rivers and waterways did not head of the Chesapeake had been the slow-moving artillery and the hundreds of miles of water lanes only pose obstacles. Despite the reached, Washington tried wagon train took the land-route to and river crossings, some of the dangers inherent in coastal trade everything to get enough Williamsburg, while the soldiers most scenic components of the after the outbreak of the war, they watercraft to ship his troops to boarded ships at Head of Elk, in Washington-Rochambeau route. provided opportunities as well. Williamsburg. At least 12 sloops Baltimore and in Annapolis. Water routes were as well Water transportation, especially and eighteen schooners were French officers used every oppor- established in 1781 as were land of heavy or bulky goods was faster waiting at Head of Elk, and dozens tunity to visit battlefields, routes, with interconnecting and cheaper than transporting more were hired before the year natural sites, and famous portage routes, five between the goods on land. In a military cam- was out. An Estimate of Money due Americans along the way. northern Chesapeake and the paign this meant primarily artil- on Contract made for the passage of Washington took the alone. The most lery, foodstuffs, and baggage, and the Army stores, Baggage &c. …from opportunity to deviate from the A plaque in Virginia marks the route direct of these water routes, and wherever possible Washington Christiana Bridge to Virginia, and most direct route to Williams- of the march, one of a series given by the one taken by the French and used the waterways along the from thence to the Northward burg, hosting Rochambeau and the French government and installed American armies in 1781 and route in 1781 to his advantage. Commencing 28 August 1781 brings during the American bicentennial. senior French officers at his 1782, was that from Christiana, From Trenton onward, Colonel the total of watercraft employed estate at Mount Vernon. Historic Places. Driving through Delaware (or Christeen, as it was John Lamb's Second continental in the campaign to at least 22 sections of eastern Connecticut called in the eighteenth century), Artillery, except for a short, ten- sloops, 60 schooners, as well as Though the route is of great along country roads flanked by past Cooch's Bridge to Head of Elk mile portage through Delaware, shallops and a myriad of smaller diversity, it is clearly discernible eighteenth-century stone walls, or in Maryland. Economic historian traveled to Virginia by water. vessels. And though the building in a multitude of manifestations. through rural Virginia to Richard Buel, Jr., found traffic on patterns on the shore have Many, if not all, of these roads Gloucester, one is aware of that route “sufficiently heavy to By 29 August 1781, Deputy changed since 1781, the water still exist today under different traveling along a historic route. justify the maintenance of a Quartermaster Samuel Miles had routes on the Chesapeake in names and in different On other sections of the route (e.g., regular shallop service between 31 craft capable of carrying more particular recall the anxious conditions, ranging from six-lane through Philadelphia or Hartford), Christian Bridge and than 3,200 men waiting for the weeks of September 1781 leading interstate highways to 200 years of economic Philadelphia.” armies at Philadelphia. Once the up to the siege. abandoned road segments listed development have all but obliter- on the National Register of ated the original routes. But even At the beginning of their march, there, memorials and annual French forces used watercraft to celebrations keep alive the cross Narragansett Bay from knowledge of being on a historic Newport to Providence. The trail and on historic ground. In crossing of rivers such as the some states, such as Virginia, the Hudson from King’s Ferry to marking is consistent and highly Stony Point as well as the visible. Other states, such as Connecticut, Housatonic, Connecticut, are engaged in re- Delaware, and Schuylkill rivers marking the trail. were major logistical achievements. Rochambeau, Washington and the Allied Army crossed the Susquehanna King’s Ferry was a key Hudson River River at a ferry near Rogers Tavern in crossing, linking Stony Point Perryville, Maryland. (foreground) and Peekskill along the Washington-Rochambeau route.

5-2 HISTORIC USE OF THE ROUTE 6 Resources

he Washington-Rochambeau Route offers numerous and varied functions as an overarching Boston, Massachusetts, the route’s theme that binds together two anchors in New England. The resources. Based on statewide studies in Connecticut, New geographically many American same holds true for Williamsburg Revolutionary War sites along the and Yorktown, the route’s York, and Delaware, and preliminary overviews in the other east coast. Both a land- and water- southern ends in Virginia, where T based trail, it passes through most rich historical and educational states, an estimated 750 resources are directly associated with the major population centers along opportunities are coupled with America's east coast. Its multitude primarily water-based recreational route, with an indeterminate number of resources on side-trails. of resources provides a wealth of possibilities. Other land-based The resources of the Washington-Rochambeau route can be divided diverse historical, educational, route segments, such as Washing- and recreational experiences for ton’s Mount Vernon, Washington, into twelve categories: more people than any other scenic DC, or the city of Philadelphia, or historic trail within the offer a “whole trail experience” as 1 Campsites and bivouacs parks, some are owned by com- Virginia lie along or near the National Park System. well. Water-based segments from 2 Historic road segments munities or private organizations. route. So do many of the nation's the northern tip of the Chesa- 3Water routes and river A few are already well-established most cherished historical treasures, Numerous resource clusters along peake, from Baltimore, and from crossings destinations; others are being such as Newport, Independence the Washington-Rochambeau Annapolis, to Cornwallis’s sunken 4 Archeological and underwater restored and readied for historical Hall, Mount Vernon, Colonial route combine within a concen- fleet off Yorktown and Gloucester, sites interpretation. Williamsburg, and Colonial trated area historical, educational, offer multiple trail experiences as 5Buildings and building sites National Historical Park in and recreational opportunities. well. Linking the resources along 6Tombstones and/or grave Numerous plaques, tablets and Yorktown. The Washington- This is most obviously the case in these trails, the Washington- markers and other emblems markers attest to the commemo- Rochambeau route therefore Newport, Rhode Island, and Rochambeau route offers a 7Natural landscape features ration of the route since the 1781 unique context and potential 8National parks march. They were placed by for historical interpretation, for 9State parks federal, state and local authorities; educational and recreational 10 Historic districts by patriotic organizations such as programs, and for commemo- 11 Plaques, tablets, and markers the Daughters of the American rating the Franco-American 12 Paintings and murals Revolution, the Sons of the alliance and the national effort American Revolution, the Society for independence in 1781. Many or most of these resources of the Cincinnati; by historical are already protected as National societies; and by organizations Hallock’s Mill Pond at Yorktown Historic Register sites or National such as Rotary Clubs. Heights, New York. Looking to keep Historic Landmarks; others have his troops occupied while he and or will receive this status as a Except for those of the Saratoga Washington determined a military strategy, Rochambeau ordered them result of state efforts carried out in campaign in New York, all major to dig a canal that rerouted a stream connection with the Washington- battlefields of the Revolutionary through their camp (and reversed its Rochambeau route. Some are War in New England, the Middle flow into this pond). federally owned, some are state Colonies, and in Maryland and

RESOURCES 6-1 Ordonnance de Police, 26 November 1781. To celebrate Admiral de Grasse’s victories in the Caribbean and in the Battle of the Capes as well as the victory at Yorktown, the inhabitants of Paris and its suburbs were ordered to illuminate their houses on 27 November 1781, during the time that a Te Deum was celebrated at the Cathedral of Notre Dame.

6-2 SIGNIFCANCE THEMES 7 Bibliographic Essay—A Note on Resources

cholarly as well as popular challenges, not so much from a focused time frame, often just a few interested in the march of 1) CARTOGRAPHY history studies of the Franco- lack of French and American days in 1781 and in 1782, but cover Any study of the march of the Rochambeau’s troops from SAmerican campaign of 1781 primary sources as from their a vast geographic area. Alternately, combined Franco-American Newport to Yorktown in 1781 and have traditionally focused on three nature and location. The geo- in the case of winter quarters the armies to Virginia has to begin back to Boston in 1782. There are themes: graphic extent of the route means focus is a small area but a six- to with the identification of the very few sites and routes that Rice 1the marquis de Lafayette’s that the sources are widely dis- eight-month time frame. The routes and their location on the and Brown either could not locate Virginia campaign in the spring tributed among dozens of collec- nature of the sources—which flow ground today. On the French side, or that lay outside their and summer of 1781; tions in state libraries and archives more amply for one aspect in one the indispensable collection of immediate research interest. 2 the role of the French fleet under in at least nine states, and in federal state or locality and less so in other primary source materials is the These include the route of the comte de Grasse; and repositories in Washington, DC. areas or regions—as well as the fact compilation of maps and routes Lauzun’s Legion through 2 3the siege of Yorktown and the Primary sources used in this study that no Continental Army troops published by Howard C. Rice, Jr. Connecticut in June 1781, the surrender of Lord Cornwallis. are extraordinarily diverse. They marched through Rhode Island, and Anne S. K. Brown in camp of Rochambeau’s Second are written in three languages: Connecticut, or Massachusetts in The American Campaigns of Brigade near Newport, Delaware, 3 The march of the French army English, French, and German. They 1781 and 1782, shifts the focus of Rochambeau’s Army 1780, 1781, in September 1781, and the from Newport, Rhode Island, and of encompass traditional resources, the project from year to year, from 1782, 1782.1 Volume 2 reproduces 1782-83 winter quarters of 4 the Continental Army from such as diaries, letters, and maps, as state to state, and from region to maps of the routes and camp sites Lauzun’s Legion in Wilmington . Newburgh, New York, is usually well as less traditional resources region. located in the Rochambeau Papers Using sources either not available covered in a transitional chapter such as orderly books, enlistment and the Rochambeau Family to Rice and Brown or not used by necessary to lead the combined records and pensions applications, The following bibliographical Cartographic Archive (GEN MSS them, this study attempts to fill in armies to the plains outside York- mill ledgers and account books, overview provides a complete 146) at the Beinecke Rare Book these gaps in our knowledge of 5 town. No in-depth study of the National Register and National inventory of French primary and Manuscript Library at Yale the marches of the French forces. march proper—its planning, Historic Landmark files. sources, but is not meant to be University and in other reposito- logistics, the interaction between complete or exhaustive with ries worldwide. These maps were On the American side there also the troops and the civilian popul- Telling the story of the march respect to American sources. Nor drawn mostly by Louis Alexandre exists a complete body of carto- ation, and the impact of the march requires giving equal attention to does it list available secondary de Berthier and, though not graphic work for the marches of on the local economies, to name the grand strategy and to the micro- source materials, except where they always to scale, provide the exact 1781 from Philadelphia to and but a few topics—has ever been history of the hundreds of localities relate to the primary sources location of the camp sites. This from Yorktown. Once the decision undertaken, either at a state or and sites that make up the route. It mentioned. As in the more superbly edited volume is to march to Virginia was made in national level. With its focus on the requires familiarity with local extensive bibliography included in indispensable for anyone August 1781, George Washington march proper, a study and histories, state histories, and inter- a seperate Appendix to the ordered his cartographer, Simeon assessment of the Washington- national relations. It requires using Historical Narrative, it is arranged Rochambeau Revolutionary Route, the papers and writings of the key topically and is meant to give an 1 2 volumes (Providence and New Haven, 1972) 2 for possible designation as a decision makers such as George idea of the range of resources See Robert A. Selig, Rochambeau's Cavalry: Lauzun's Legion in Connecticut 1780-1781. The Winter Quarters of Lauzun's Legion in Lebanon and its March Through the State in 1781. National Historic Trail, could fill Washington and the comte de available and the many-faceted Rochambeau's Conferences in Hartford and Wethersfield. Historical And Architectural Survey that void. Rochambeau, as well as those of the possibilities for interpretation (Hartford, 2000). 3 There is a map of that campsite in the journal of an unidentified officer of the mill-owners and tavern-keepers arising from them. Soissonnais regiment in the Huntington Library. The journal is listed in Rice and The historical research necessary along the way. Frequently the Brown, but the authors did not inspect it for their work. 4 Robert A. Selig, The Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route in the State of Delaware, for such a study presents numerous events occur within a very tightly 1781–1782. An Historical and Architectural Survey (Dover, 2002) 5 For a list of these sources see below: 3) Personal Accounts

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY 7-1 DeWitt, to draw up maps of the well as supply issues are addressed record dictated by Rochambeau. and on the microfilms of Record is at the time and where it was to routes to be taken by the in itineraries and official orders For the return march of 1782, Group M 926, Letters, Accounts, and march that day and set up camp. 1 Continental Army to Yorktown. for the march published in there exists a 19 /2 page Estimates of the Quartermaster Of the five infantry regiments that These maps are preserved as Volume 2 of Rice and Brown. manuscript, partly autograph, General’s Department 1776–1783, made the march to Yorktown in Erskine-DeWitt Maps in the New- These official road descriptions with heading on first page, “1782,” which occasionally covers French 1781—1st New Jersey, 2nd New York Historical Society (NYHS) are supplemented by the account and heading on page 16, “1783,” purchases as well, or in the well Jersey, Canadian (Congress’ Own), under the call numbers 124 A-U of Louis Alexandre de Berthier, giving Rochambeau’s narrative of over 100 microfilm reels of Record 1st Rhode Island, 1st New York, for the march from Philadelphia to published in Volume 1 of Rice and the military and other events of Group 93, Revolutionary War and 2nd New York—one copy of Yorktown in August and Brown. Berthier, an assistant that year and early 1783. Both of Rolls. Many more records are the orderly book of the 2nd New September 1781, and 125 A-K plus quartermaster general, provides these manuscripts are in the located in state archives in record York (from 9/24-10/10/81) has half-sheet C 125 for the march a very detailed description of the Rochambeau Papers at Yale groups that are named variously survived in the New York State from Yorktown to Elkridge order and organization of each University. A major source for Executive Papers, Auditor of Library #10464, vol. 10, part 1; Landing in November and column of the march until late French army logistics are the Account Papers, or Revolutionary another copy (from December 1781. There are no August 1781, when his account Jeremiah Wadsworth Papers in the War Claims Papers, which very 9/26–10/30/81) is available at maps for the routes of the Con- ends abruptly in mid-sentence. Connecticut Historical Society. often yield the most complete NYHS microfilm #149, reel 15. tinental Army from Philipsburg, Another invaluable source for Wadsworth was the chief agent information in the volumes In addition, the orderly book of New York, through New Jersey to French troop movements is the for the French forces in America, covering the years 1789–1791, Colonel Lamb’s 2nd Continental Philadelphia, but there are many Livre d’ordre of Rochambeau’s and his agents supplied Rocham- rather than in those for Artillery has survived in two contemporary maps of New Jersey corps which allows a minute beau’s troops throughout their 1781–1782. Beyond that, state and versions (6/20–10/21/81 and on which the route can be traced reconstruction of the daily life of stay on the American mainland. private historical societies such as 8/4–10/27/81) in NYHS microfilm with the help of orderly books, the soldiers in America. The livre, the Connecticut Historical Society #143, reel 14, and NYHS microfilm diaries, and other primary source equivalent of an Orderly Book in Reconstructing the logistics in Hartford, Connecticut, (Jeremiah #118.1, reel 12. Lastly, the orderly materials. Unlike the French maps, the Continental Army, is behind the American march is Wadsworth Papers), the Delaware book of the LTC Gimat’s Light DeWitt’s maps are drawn to scale, preserved in the Archives both easier and more difficult Historical Society, or the Rocke- Infantry Regiment (Muhlenberg’s with mile markers indicated on Générales du Département de than for the French side. It is feller Library at the Colonial LI Brigade, 5/18–10/30/81), is the maps where available. They do Meurthe-et-Moselle in Nancy, easier because the Americans— Williamsburg Foundation in available in the Connecticut not show the campsites but point France, under the call number E unlike the French, who paid in Williamsburg, Virginia, and the Historical Society (CTHS) micro- out numerous landmarks, such as 235. Unfortunately it ends on 17 cash for their purchases—left a local history collections in the film Reel 3, frames 939 to end and inns, churches, fords, ironworks, August 1781 just as the troops got trail of IOUs along the way. But public libraries along the route Reel 4, frames 4-10, as well as at etc., which makes these, in the ready to break camp and set out these IOUs, which cover every- preserve valuable materials for NARA, M853, reel 8, vol. 52 majority unpublished maps, for the march to Yorktown. thing from purchases to ship rent the reconstruction of the march. (6/7–10/2/81).6 important resources not only for for the passage to Yorktown to the Washington-Rochambeau A continuation of sorts of the tavern bills to bridge tolls and A second, more immediate if very Except for a small group of about project but for state and local Livre d’Ordre is the “Journal des compensation for pasturage, are uneven source for the reconstruc- 85 Delaware recruits, the same history as well. opérations du corps Français, preserved in many public and tion of the march, is the orderly regiments/units—1st New Jersey, Depuis le 15 Août,” a 14-page private repositories and in many books of the regiments involved. 2nd New Jersey, 1st New York, 2nd manuscript narrative of the march record groups. In the National Orderly books record the daily New York, 1st Rhode Island, Hazen’s 2) LOGISTICS AND of the French army to Virginia, Archives and Records Administra- orders for each regiment, includ- Canadians, Lamb’s Artillery, the ARRANGEMENT OF the siege of Yorktown, and the sur- tion (NARA), many records ing the place where the regiment Light Infantry as well as the THE MARCH render of Cornwallis. From the pertaining to this time period can appearance of the handwriting be found among a 126-microfilm 6 The most exhaustive list of orderly books can be found at www.RevWar75.com, a Web On the French side, orders and throughout this volume, it seems reel record group entitled site maintained by John K. Robertson and Robert McDonald. arrangements for the march as that it is the original day-to-day Miscellaneous Numbered Documents

7-2 BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY Commander in Chief’s Guard, Campaigns, Rice and Brown in Le Creusot, France. This The largest body of materials not four letters written from America Joseph Plumb Martin’s Corps of provide a list of journals, diaries, material has never been used listed in Rice and Brown concern by her ancestor Wilhelm de Deux- Sappers and Miners, and the memoirs, letters, and other before and sheds much new light the Royal Deux-Ponts, regiment of Ponts are in the possession of Ms. Corps of Artificers—made the primary sources available at the on the decision-making process at infantry: a letter by Jean-François Nancy Bayer.16 Journals kept by return march in November- time of publication of their book. the top of the French military de Thuillière, a captain in the Dupleix de Cadignan of the December 1781. Unlike for the Since then, almost two dozen hierarchy. For Lauzun’s Legion, Royal Deux-Ponts preserved in the Agenois,17 and Xavier de Bertrand, march to Yorktown, not a single primary sources have appeared in long the only component of Archives Nationales,13 two letters a lieutenant in the Royal Deux- Orderly Book has survived; the European and American archives Rochambeau’s army without a by Louis Eberhard von Esebeck, Ponts, have not been located.18 first orderly book that we have is that can be added to the 45 contemporary eyewitness lieutenant-colonel in the Royal for Col. Lamb’s Artillery Regi- sources (i.e., accounts of events in account, a manuscript journal Deux-Ponts, dated Jamestown Indispensable for biographical ment, which wintered in Burling- America written by officers in kept by Lieutenant-Colonel Island, 12 and 16 December research on the 1,034 French ton, New Jersey, from 7 December Rochambeau’s army) listed by Etienne Hugau entitled Détails 1781,14 and the papers and letters officers serving in d’Estaing’s, 1781 to 4 February 1782, and Rice and Brown. intéressants sur les événements of Colonel Christian de Deux Rochambeau’s, and Saint-Simon’s marched to the Highlands in arrivés dans la guerre d’Amérique. Ponts, which have been in part forces, as well as on the French August 1782, preserved in the Most surprising is the fact that Hyver 1781 à 1782. Hampton, deposited in and in part acquired officers serving in the Continental NYHS, microfilm: #152; reel 15. three journals/diaries/memoirs of Charlotte et suitte has come to light by German archives.15 Copies of Army is Gilbert Bodinier’s Diction- Moses Hazen’s regiment escorted enlisted men have come to light in the Bibliothèque municipale in British POWs to Lancaster, since 1972. The most important of the town of Evreux, France.10 7 Reisen Beschreibung von America welche das Hochlöbliche Regiment von Zweybrücken hat Pennsylvania, and wintered there. these three is the journal of Georg gemacht zu Wasser und zu Land vom Jahr 1780 bis 84. Robert A. Selig is currently Daniel Flohr, an enlisted man in Among new sources are also preparing an English translation and edition. 8Milton Latham Papers MMC 1907. the Royal Deux-Ponts, in the the correspondence of Captain 9 Amblard, who enlisted at age 19 in 1773, was discharged as a captain in 1793. His 3) PERSONAL ACCOUNTS Bibliothèque Municipale of Charles Malo François comte de manuscript is located in the Archives Départementales de l'Ardèche in Privas, France. For unknown reasons, numerous passages from his journal can be found verbatim in While sources such as the orderly Strasbourg, France.7 Among the Lameth, aide-de-camp to a journal kept by an unidentified officer of the Soissonnais regiment that is listed in books or the Livre d’ordre have Milton S. Latham Papers in the Rochambeau and aide-maréchal Rice and Brown. See Robert A. Selig’s “A New View of Old Williamsburg. A Huntington Library Manuscript provides another glimpse of the city in 1781.” rarely been used in historical Library of Congress was found the général des logis (May 1781), and of Colonial Williamsburg. The Journal of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Vol. 22 No. 1 analyses of the 1781-82 campaigns, Journal Militaire kept by an his brother Captain Alexandre (Spring 2000), pp. 30-34. 10 See Gérard-Antoine Massoni, Détails intéressants sur les événements arrivés dans la guerre personal accounts by American unidentified grenadier in the Théodor Victor chevalier de d’Amérique. Hyver 1781 à 1782. Hampton, Charlotte et suitte. Manuscrit de Claude Hugau, and French military personnel— Bourbonnais regiment.8 Finally Lameth, who replaced Charles lieutenant-colonel de la Légion des Volontaires Etrangers de Lauzun (Besançon: Université de Franche-Comté, 1996) letters, diaries, and memoirs— there is the Histoire des campagnes Malo François in the summer of 11 The letters are in the Archives du Département Val d’Oise in Cergy-Pontoise, No. 1J have provided a wealth of source de l’Armée de Rochambaud (sic) en 1782.11 Also unavailable in 1972 191 and 1J 337/338. 12 Lauberdière's Journal is in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, France. See Robert A. material for the history of the war. Amérique written by André was the Journal de l’Armée aux Selig’s “America the Ungrateful: The Not-So-Fond Remembrances of Louis François Nevertheless, much new ground Amblard of the Soissonnais ordres de Monsieur le Comte de Dupont d’Aubevoye, Comte de Lauberdière” American Heritage Vol. 48, No. 1 (February 1997), pp. 101-106, and “Lauberdière's Journal. The Revolutionary War Journal of Louis remains to be broken in this area, infantry.9 Rochambeau pendant les campagnes François Bertrand d’Aubevoye, Comte de Lauberdière” Colonial Williamsburg. The historians having traditionally de 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783 dans Journal of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Vol. 18, No. 1 (Autumn 1995), pp. 33-37. 13 The letter is catalogued under B4 172, Marine. focused on a few well-known and Also added now is a most valuable l’Amérique septentrionale kept by 14 John M. Lenhart, “Letter of an Officer of the Zweibrücken Regiment,” Central-Blatt easily accessible sources rather new source, the papers of Antoine comte de Rochambeau’s 21-year- and Social Justice, Vol. 28 (January 1936), pp. 321-322, and Vol. 28 (February 1936), pp. 350-360. than the treasure trove of lesser- Charles du Houx baron de old nephew, Louis François 15 The papers of Christian von Zweibrücken deposited in the Bayerisches known material available in out- Vioménil, Rochambeau’s second Bertrand Dupont d’Aubevoye, Hauptstaatsarchiv-Geheimes Hausarchiv in Munich are owned by Marian Freiherr von Gravenreuth; those deposited in the Pfälzische Landesbibliothek in Speyer were of-the-way places. in command. Comprising some comte de Lauberdière, a captain in acquired at auction and are owned by the library. 300 items and about 1,000 pages, the Saintonge infantry and one of 16 The letters are owned by Anton Freiherr von Cetto in Oberlauterbach, Germany. 17 The last known owner of this manuscript was Bernard Zublena, domaine de lagarde, In an appendix to Volume 1 the Fonds Vioménil is preserved his aides-de-camp.12 32 250 Montreal, Canada. (pp. 285-348) of their American in the Académie François Bourdon 18 The journal is quoted in Régis d’Oléon, “L’Esprit de Corps dans l’Ancienne Armée” Carnet de la Sabretache 5th series (1958), pp. 488-496. Régis d’Oléon is a descendant of Bertrand.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY 7-3 naire des officiers de l’armée royale America and the War for Indepen- published diary of Sergeant-Major The majority of these sources, trading firms, and merchants qui ont combattu aux États-Unis dence Special Bibliography 14. Hawkins of the Canadian Regi- however, are not yet published operating along the route confirms pendant la guerre d’Indépendance (Carlisle Barracks, 1976); Terry M. ment in the Pennsylvania Histori- and need to be researched on site. the enormous impact French 1776-1783 3rd edition (Chailland, Mays, Historical Dictionary of the cal Society and numerous other forces had wherever they went. On 2001). Enlistment records or American Revolution (Lanham, journals and diaries listed in A unique resource for Washington- 24 August 1781, “7 French guines” contrôles of enlisted personnel in 1999); J. Todd White and Charles Gephart’s and other bibliographies. Rochambeau study is the show up for the first time in the Rochambeau’s corps, indipensable H. Lesser, eds. Fighters For A unique source on individual McDonald Papers in the West- Lea Mills Account Book of for statistical data on his troops, Independence: A Guide to Sources of soldiers and the war that can be chester County Historical Society Brandywine Village. By early 1 are preserved by the Service Geographical Information on Soldiers easily overlooked is the pension in Elmsford, New York. John September, /2 Joes, pistols, Historique de l’Armée de Terre in and Sailors of the American applications of Revolutionary War McLeod McDonald (1790-1863) doubloons, and guineas have the Chateau de Vincennes; only Revolution (Chicago, 1977); Robert veterans in the National Archives. had been trained as a lawyer. After completely replaced Continental those of Lauzun’s Legion are in K. Wright, Jr., Continental Army. The autobiographies attached to a stroke in 1835, he could no dollars, so that on 11 November the Archives Nationales in Paris. Army Lineage Series (Washington, these applications are lengthy at longer practice law and became 1781, Thomas Lea’s neighbor D.C., 1983); Charles H. Lesser, ed. times and full of information not interested in the history of the Samuel Canby expressed in his While the correspondence of Sinews of Independence: Monthly found anywhere else. On numerous Revolutionary War. Accompanied diary the hope that: “as I appre- officers such as Rochambeau is of Strength Reports of the Continental occasions soldiers who deserted or by Andrew Corsa, Washington’s hend from the present prospect of the greatest importance for the Army (Chicago, 1976); and were discharged from Rocham- and Rochambeau’s guide during things in our Country that people identification of the route and the Howard H. Peckham, ed., Toll beau’s regiments applied for pen- the Grand Reconnaissance of generally will rather be grand strategy behind the cam- of Independence: Engagements & sions as well, and their biographi- 21–23 July, 1781, he traveled encouraged to go into Business paign, it is in the papers, letters, Battle Casualties of the American cal essays shed much light on the through Westchester County more than there has been and accounts of its participants Revolution (Chicago, 1974). integration of immigrants into post- interviewing eyewitnesses in opportunity for these several Years that one finds the details, the revolutionary American society. preparation for a history of the past as there is nothing but Specie personal encounters, and the If less than half of the accounts by Revolutionary War. His interviews now Circulating as a currency.” stories that bring the route to life. officers in Rochambeau’s little with 241 men and women, white The same, of course, holds true for army have been published in their 4) PRIMARY SOURCES and black, free and slave, fill more When French forces returned to the American side, but the body of entirety, the situation is similar DESCRIBING FRANCO- than 1,100 pages of handwriting. Wilmington the following year resources is infinitely larger. In his for accounts by American AMERICAN ENCOUNTERS McDonald never wrote his history, they commented with surprise on Revolutionary America 1763-1789. participants. The papers of major Another often-neglected resource but his interviews form a unique the number of houses built A Bibliography (2 vols., Washing- participants such as George of paramount importance for oral history resource for events in between 1781 and 1782, and ton DC, 1984), the last major Washington, Henry Knox, and the Washington-Rochambeau the "neutral ground" between attributed their construction to bibliography published on the Benjamin Lincoln are available Revolutionary Route study are British and American lines. French silver. Lee Kennett has Revolutionary War, Ronald M. either in print or on microfilm; a diaries, letters, or memoirs by estimated that between public and Gephart lists more than 20,000 complete list of diaries kept by civilian Americans describing private funds, “French forces may items just in the holdings of the enlisted men and NCOs, many of encounters with their French 5) ECONOMIC IMPACT well have disbursed 20 million Library of Congress. Since then, them unpublished, can be found guests. Some of these sources, The presence of French forces— livres in coin,” possibly doubling thousands of titles have been at http://www.RevWar75.com, though such as the diaries of Ezra Stiles, and their bullion—had an the amount of specie circulating in added to those listed in Gephart’s the best-known source is the president of Yale, are published enormous economic and the thirteen colonies. Even if the bibliography. Other valuable account penned by Joseph Plumb and easily available. Many were emotional impact on the cash- amount of specie was closer to the resources include Stetson Conn Martin, Private published locally in small, private starved colonies, but research on estimate of Timothy R. Walton— and Robert W. Coakley, An Army (Hallowell, ME, 1830; repr. Boston, editions or in county historical this economic impact is still in its who writes in The Spanish Treasure Chronology of the American Revolu- 1962). Martin’s account contains magazines and newsletters that infancy. Even a brief look into the Fleets (Sarasota, 1994), p. 183, “On tion (revised) (Washington, D.C., much information on th`e cam- are not usually indexed or accessi- ledgers and account books of the eve of the American Revolu- 1974); Joyce L. Eakin, Colonial paign of 1781/82, as does the un- ble through computerized searches. tavern keepers, mill-owners, tion, about half the coins used in

7-4 BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY the British North American Battle Road site and useful links to www.xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/ Johnson, Samuel, Dictionary of the Primary sources: culture, politics, Colonies, some 4 million pesos (24 other sites: march, an extended chronological English language. This site has a military, etc.: million livres) worth, were pieces www.ziplink.net/~mrkmcc/ description of strategy and move- search engine that allows many www2.pitnet.net/primarysources/ of eight from New Spain and resources.htm89 ments from July 1780 to September types of searches. Peru”—an infusion of 20 million 1781 at www.xenophongroup.com/ www.hti.umich.edu/english/johnson/ Revolutionary War web site, livres was bound to have had a Battles and skirmishes–more than mcjoynt/campaign, or the route of the main.html including documents: major impact on the American 2,600 sites with references plus French wagon train from www.grandrepublican.com economy. But Kennett may still be transcripts of primary sources: Annapolis, Maryland, to Yorktown, Lauzun’s Legion: right. In his “Las Damas de la www.281.com/robertson/battles/ Virginia, in 1781 at www.lauzunslegion.com Rochambeau Revolutionary Road: Havana, el precursor, and Francisco battlemenu.htm www.xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/ www.ctssar.org/revroad/index.htm de Saavedra: A Note on Spanish wagon.htm Military actions of the American Participation in the Battle of Brigade of the American Revolu- Revolution: Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment of Yorktown,” The Americas Vol. 37, tion (reenactment organization): George Washington Diaries: www.sar.org/history/ docsbatt.htm Infantry: (July 1980), pp. 83-99, James A. www.brigade.org www.memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/ http://bluepost.tcimet.net/deuxponts/ Lewis estimates intergovernmental Military documents, including loans, such as that for de Grasse in Chronology of major events in George Washington Papers at the extracts from diaries and journals Saintonge Regiment of Infantry: August 1781, at about 2 million literature, theater, politics, science, Library of Congress: written during the American www.ai.mit.edu/people/sfelshin/ pesos and loans arranged by private religion, music, and art: www.memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/ Revolution: saintonge/85hist.html lenders at 3 million, possibly 4 www.english.upenn.edu/~jlynch/Chron/ gwhome.html www.hillsdale.edu/dept/ million pesos, for a minimum of 30 The 147,000 photographic images history/documents/war/index.htm Sons of the American Revolution: million livres (at an exchange rate Continental Congress: are organized into eight series that www.sar.org. See also of 6 livres per peso). www.memory.loc.gov/ammem/bdsds/ can be searched by keyword or Military history, American www.sar.org/history/rochambo.htm, bdsdhome.html browsed with a hyper-linked series Revolution: a site on the Washington- list. Successive pages are linked, www.cfcsc.dnd.ca/links/milhist/ Rochambeau route efforts 6) INTERNET RESOURCES Eighteenth-century bibliographies: allowing one to read complete usrev.html This listing eliminates the www.personal.psu.edu/special/C18/ documents and journals. The Washington-Rochambeau standard prefix http:// from web engrave.htm Northwest Territory Alliance (a Revolutionary Route Historic Trail addresses, but many browser George Washington Papers at the reenactment group): Association: programs will add it automatically Eighteenth-century clothing University Press of Virginia: www.nwta.com/main.html www.AmRevandFrance.com when the web address is typed. resources: www.costumes.org www.virginia.edu/gwpaper/ This is the regularly updated Orderly books of units can be website of the “Washington- American Revolution Eighteenth-century maps: Interdisciplinary resources for found at www.revwar75.com/ Rochambeau Revolutionary Route Bibliographies at the US Army www.libs.uga.edu/darchive/hargrett/ 18th-century studies: There is also a list of major and Historic Trail Association” with Center of Military History: maps/maps.html www.personal.psu.eduspecial/ minor repositories, archives, and information on upcoming events, www.army.mil/cmh-pg/ C18srsr.htm libraries (with links) where links to state and local studies, and Expédition Particulière: primary-source materials are to websites of sponsors and American Revolution documents: www.xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/ep John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Library’s located. stakeholders in the project. www.americanrevolution.org A series of web pages that cover all catalog at the Colonial Williams- aspects of the French expedi- burg Foundation in Virginia. The Primary-source documents Yale Law School Avalon Project— Archiving Early America: tionary army and its activities on library has some popular finding pertaining to early American documents bearing principally on www.earlyamerica.com/ the American continent from 1780 aids on the web—choose Library to history—formation of American diplomatic history: to 1782, such as a list of the dates get to the Library’s offerings: politics, culture, and ideas. www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/ There is a section of advice on how and places of encampments from www.history.org www.universitylake.org/ diplomacy/br1814m.htm to read 18th-century documents. Providence to Yorktown at primarysources.html BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY 7-5 7-6 BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY 8 Study Team and Illustration Sources

Study Team Illustration Sources

Page 3-8 Page 4-6 NATIONAL PARK SERVICE SYMPOSIUM SCHOLARS AND 2—STUDY LEGISLATION, Portrait of Washington: painted by •Top: Musée Historique, NORTHEAST REGION CONTRIBUTORS PURPOSE AND TASKS • Boston Support Office •René Chartrand, author and Page 2-1 Robert Edge Pine, 1785-87, Indepen- Strasbourg, France > Larry Gall, Team Manager for former senior curator, National Both photographs: study team dence National Historical Park • Bottom: Collection of Stewardship & Partnership Historic Sites, Canada Page 3-9 Robert A. Selig > Brian Aviles, Project Manager •Dr. Harry Dickinson, Robert Collection of Robert A. Selig Page 4-7 Page 3-12 • Right: Anne S. K. Brown Military >Vicki Sandstead, Historian Lodge Professor of British 3—HISTORICAL NARRATIVE >Paul Weinbaum, Historian History, University of Page 3-1 •Robert Erskine maps 124B, Collection, Brown University, • Philadelphia Support Office Edinburgh, Scotland Siège d’Yorcktown by Louis-Charles- New York Historical Society Providence >Terry Moore, acting Chief of • General Gilbert Forray, retired Auguste Couder, 1836. Galerie des •“The Battle of Paoli”, • Left: Robert A. Selig Planning Chief of the Army Staff, French Batailles, Château de Versailles, John U. Rees Page 4-8 > Deirdre Gibson, former Chief Army, and recipient of the France •French tents, André Gousse, DARMagazine, November 1984 of Planning Grande Croix de la Légion Page 3-2 Parks Canada Page 4-9 •National Capital Region d’Honneur, France Map: Anne S.K. Brown Military Page 3-13—3-16 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, > Gary Scott, Chief Historian •Jean-René Géhan, Counselor for Collection, Brown University, Maps produced by Impact LLC, Red New York; bequest of Charles Allen Cultural Affairs to the French Providence, Rhode Island Hook, New York, edited by study Munn, 1924 Embassy, Washington Drawing: Art Division, New York team Page 4-11 •Upper right: www.geocities/ CONSULTANTS •Dr. Sarah Purcell, Assistant Public Library •Goody, Clancy & Associates Professor, Department of Page 3-3 4—SIGNIFICANCE THEMES kdw72696/tour-peq.htm > Christine Cousineau, Project History, Grinnell College, Iowa • All photos: study team Page 4-1 •DeGrasse: www.photogallery.com/ Manager •Dr. Ray Raymond, MBE, FRFA, •Map: Berthier Papers, No. 21-25, Henry Knox Papers, Massachusetts places/virginiabeach/vb17 >David Spillane, Senior Political Officer, British Princeton University Library Historical Society • Lower left photograph: Project Associate Consulate General, New York Page 3-4 Page 4-2 Alicia N. Wayland >Steve Wolf, Graphic Designer •Top photos: study team •Top: Henry Knox Papers, • All other photos: study team and Editor •Portrait: The Quarterly Bulletin Massachusetts Historical Society Page 4-14 • Bottom: Delaware Historical Coins: Robert A. Selig >Paul Santos, Graphic Designer NPS REVOLUTIONARY WAR of the Westchester County Society Page 4-15 •Dr. Robert A. Selig, Project PARKS CONTRIBUTORS Historical Society, April 1932 Historian •Karen Rehm, Colonial National Page 3-5 Page 4-3 •Right photo (marker): Historical Park All: Anne S.K. Brown Military Library of Congress www.xenophongroup.com/ • Diane Depew, Colonial NHP Collection, Brown University, Page 4-4 mcjoynt/vawrrmrk.htm •Frances Delmar, Independence Providence •Left: study team • Left photo (tavern): Robert NHP Page 3-7 •Right: New-York Historical Reyes, National Parks Mid- Map: National Park Service Society Atlantic Council, Inc. Special acknowledgements to the Photo: study team Connecticut Historical Commission

STUDY TEAM & ILLUSTRATION SOURCES 8-1 Page 4-17 U.S. Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis Page 4-18 The French Navy and the American War of Independence, Information Office, French Embassy (New York) page 4-19 Anne S. K. Brown and H.C. Rice Jr. The American Campaigns of Rochambeau’s Army, 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783 Volume II The Itineraries, Maps, and Views. Princeton University Press, 1972. illustration 143 Page 4-20 •Top: Tate Gallery, London • Bottom: National Maritime Museum, London

5—HISTORIC USE OF THE ROUTE Page 5-1 Study team Page 5-2 • Lower left: Robert Reyes, National Parks Mid-Atlantic Council, Inc. •Top: www.xenophongroup.com/ mcjoynt/vawrrmrk.htm • Lower right: study team

6—RESOURCES Page 6-1 Study team Page 6-2 Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris

8-2 BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY THEWashington-Rochambeau RevolutionaryRoute D RAFT S TATEMENT OF N ATIONAL S IGNIFICANCE