374 Appendix A Punctuation Made Easy Full Stop The strongest punctuation mark of all. Should be used: 1. At the end of a complete sentence (not a question or an exclamation). 2. At the end of an imperative sentence. (,Shut the door.') 3. After all initials and some abbreviations (N. R. Baines, etc., Feb., n.a., c.i.f.). 4. Between pounds and pence expressed in figures (£3.65). Comma The weakest pause mark, but the most important, since its omission can sometimes change the meaning of the sentence. Don't pepper your sentences with commas - use the meaning of the sentence as a guide. Never separate subject from verb by a comma. Never separate verb from object or predicate by a comma. Should be used: 1. To separate words or word groups in a series when there are at least three units: 'Sales are increasing, productivity is increasing, and profits are increasing.' 2. To separate a subordinate clause which precedes a main clause: 'Although we are not yet sure of the position, work will continue.' 3. To separate a relative clause whose removal would not change the basic sense of the sentence: 'This product, which is one of our traditional lines, is not expensive.' Compare: 'The product that you have selected is not expensive.' 4. To separate a phrase or word of explanation from the rest of the sentence: 'London, the swinging city, stands beside the Thames.' Note: the rule here is the same as for relative clauses, so: 'He read the article, "Management Training into the 1990s", before tackling the report.' 5. To separate coordinate clauses joined by one of the 'pure' conjunc­ tions: 'and', 'but', 'or', 'neither', 'nor', 'for': 'He opened the safe, and took out the files.' Appendix A: Punctuation Made Easy 375 6. To separate an introductory phrase containing a verb from the main sentence: To complete the contract on time, we will need extra men.' Note: an introductory phrase without a verb has no comma following it, unless it is parenthetical: 'Following your request, here are the samples.' 7. Before a short quotation. S. To mark a dependent word or word group that breaks the continuity of the sentence: 'The manager, his decision over-ruled, conceded defeat graciously.' Semi-colon I!l Marks a longer pause than a comma. A rather neglected punctuation W mark, which is worth learning how to use. Should be used: 1. Between parts of a compound sentence when no conjunction is used: The comma is over-used in punctuation; the semi-colon is under­ used.' 2. Between the clauses of a compound sentence before the so-called conjunctive adverbs: 'also', 'consequently', 'for', 'hence', 'neverthe­ less', 'on the other hand', 'otherwise', 'thus', 'however', 'therefore', etc., for these - unlike other conjunctions - do not join, but they do imply a close connection with the preceding clause: The matter had been discussed at length; however, a decision had still not been made.' 3. Before the following expressions: 'as', 'namely', 'i.e.', 'e.g.', 'viz', when they introduce an illustration that is a complete clause or an enumeration that consists of several items: 'Business English should be concise; that is, as brief as is consistent with conveying a clear meaning.' 4. To separate the parts of a compound sentence when one or both parts already contain commas: The report will be finished today; the diagrams, tomorrow.' 5. To separate serial phrases or clauses which have a common depen­ dence on something that precedes or follows: 'They recommended that the department should be expanded; that a new manager should be appointed; and that work should start immediately.' 6. To emphasise parts of a series of clearly defined units: 'The true entrepreneur recognises a great opportunity; moulds the resources necessary to take advantage of it; and creates a thriving business.' Colon A stronger mark than the semi-colon, but used as an introducer. Should [J be used: 1. Between two independent groups not joined by a connecting word, when the first group points forward to the second: 'Success lies in two directions: better sales and higher productivity.' 2. To introduce a long quotation: 'In his inaugural address as President, John F. Kennedy said: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.''' 376 Communication 3. To introduce a list of items: 'He has good qualifications: a good business education, five years of work experience, and an excellent personal reputation.' 4. To separate independent clauses when there is sharp antithesis: 'Man proposes: God disposes.' But a semi-colon would be sufficient. Question Mark It is equivalent to a full stop and should therefore be followed by a capital letter. Should be used: 1. After a direct question: 'Can you come to the meeting?' 'He asked, "Where is the letter?'" Should not be used after an indirect question; that is, one that does not require an answer: 'He asked where the letter was.' Need not be used after a courtesy question; that is, a sentence disguised as a question, but actually expressing a request or a command: 'Will you please let me know as soon as possible.' 2. After the individual parts of a speech, each of which might be expanded into a complete sentence: 'Have you finished the report? The illustrations? The binding?' Exclamation Mark After a word, phrase or sentence to indicate strong emotion or to express sharp emphasis: 'No! That is not the point at all!' rn• Quotation Marks Are placed immediately before and after the actual words spoken or quoted. Should be used: 1. To enclose a direct quotation: 'He was reported as saying that "time is running out''' 2. To enclose both parts of an interrupted quotation: "'Let us hope," he said, "that next year will be a better one for us all.'" 3. To enclose the titles of subdivisions of published works (parts, chapters, sections, etc.) and the titles of magazine articles, reports, lectures and the like. Titles of books, newspapers, magazines, plays and other whole publications should be italicised. In typewriting, each word to be italicised is underlined: 'His lecture "Communicate or Perish" was reproduced in Management Today.' 4. To enclose unusual or peculiar terms, words that are used in a particular sense, or words to which attention is directed to make the meaning clear: "'Gobbledygook" is a term often used to describe foggy English in which a great deal of technical and business jargon is used.' Note: when quotation marks are used with other punctuation marks, the rule is that punctuation marks go inside the quotation marks if they apply Appendix A: Punctuation Made Easy 377 to the quotation or direct speech only, and outside when they apply to the whole sentence: 'He said, "Are you going?''' 'Did he say, "I am going"?' When both the whole sentence and the quoted words require a question mark, one question mark is made to serve both purposes, and is placed inside the quotation mark: 'Did he ask, "Are you going?''' Note: where a quotation is included within a quotation, double quotation marks should be used for one quotation and single quotation marks for the other: The lecturer said, "The importance of good written English was summed up by Winston Churchill's words, 'Men will forgive anything except bad prose."" Apostrophe Beware of the apostrophe; it causes untold problems for people who do not seem to know the correct use of 'it's' and 'its'. 'It's' stands for 'it is'. 'Its' stands for 'belonging to it'. Should be used: 1. To indicate possession (by a noun): (a) 'man' - 'man's hat': singular noun not ending in's' adds "s' to show possession. (b) 'Charles' - 'Charles's hat': singular noun ending in's' adds "s' to show possession. (Some people do not like the effect of double's' and therefore add only an '. But this can cause other mistakes, so it is safer to add "s' to all singular nouns, whether they end in "s' or not.) (c) 'men' - 'men's': plural noun not ending with's' adds's' to show possession. (d) 'boys' coats' - plural noun ending with's' merely adds' to show possession. Note: 'Fortnum and Mason's store' Uoint possession), 'Matthew's and Abigail's premium bonds' (individual possession), 'my brother-in­ law's house' (one brother-in-law), 'my brothers-in-Iaw's houses' is correct but better would be 'the houses of my brothers-in-law'. 2. To indicate missing letters: 'haven't', 'can't', 'isn't'. 3. To indicate contracted dates: 'the swinging '60s'. 4. To indicate the plural of letters and numbers: 'Your handwriting is not very clear: your u's are difficult to distinguish from your n's.' 'How many 9's in 361' But omit the apostrophe in punctuated abbreviations and in 'collective' dates: 'MPs', '1960s'. Dash A much over-used punctuation mark. It should never be used merely as a substitute for commas, semi-colons or full stops. It has its own useful functions. (Make it long enough to avoid confusion with the hyphen.) EJ Should be used: 1. As a separator, to indicate that a sentence has been broken off, or to indicate a new direction of thought: 'We used a similar campaign for 378 Communication the Marsh account - but of course you'll be familiar with it, won't you?' 'The Prime Minister admitted the desperate need for housing, hospitals, schools - thereby, you may think, invalidating her policy of public spending cuts.' 2. To mark a parenthesis or apposition: 'One director attended the party - Mr Gideon.' 'He asked for only one document - the Walker contract.' 3.