'DOCOBEIT RESONE ***06,872 IR 009 786

:WHO* . Erdman, 'Ann TITLE IsiginatiVe Use,- flohbrOadcasi Technology Directs SOCial.Services tO Isolated Audiences. INSTITUTION A4encylet International Developient (Dept. of State;, Washington, D,C. Clearinghouse on Development tomitAidation. as -OUR DATE Sep. 61 110TE 18p. 4DOR1it CIT Development Copmunication Report; n35 Sep 1981

!DRS PRICE .spal/pcol Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Communications :Satellites,; *Developing Nations: Edicational Radio: Information Utilization: *International Programs: *Program Evalutiion: *Rural Deveropment: Scripts: *Social Services

ABSTRACT The keynoteirticle in thiS.issue summarizes some of lihel.essons 'learned after a. decade of using satellites for public Aservice,.-and after.filie-Years Of experimentation with information -teOhnOlogies designed for specialized audiences: Consubity service prosiaas in the Appalachian Mountain and Rocky /fountain regiOns and in%the state o.:!, Alaska area evaluated, and a series o2 observations ore, made suggesting reasons for' the success or failure of these Satellite projects. The report also includes an outline of projects Ithded b? the teledoimunications demonstration program and lists the *se of the grantee, the technology used, the service rendered, and lEhiv:end-aser of that service: Other articles in this issue pro#de: (1).'a diicussion of satellite communications in rural Peru,(2) a SlossarY of: the language-Of teleconiunications, (3) some practical guidelines for radio scriptwriters and. planners, (4) an examination ofcOmiunications utilization ,in encouraging a hybrid cocoa fataing TrOgra; in Nigeria,. and (0 a dilkussion of the use of interactive 4edia byi the Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) program to Send information on energy to reguegitors, primarily in developing

' countries. INER)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made frOm the originals document. * *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OFEDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEOUCATION EOUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) reproduced as ?If The: document has, been receercd horn the person ororganization originating it. 0 Minor changes have been madeto improve reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated inthis doce. ment do not necessarily reptasentoff Kul NIE position or policy. cp

IMAGINATIVE USE OF NONEROADCAST TECHNOLOGY, DIRECTS SOCIAL SERVICES TO ISOLATED AUDIENCES

by

Adn Erdman

Development Communication Report No. 35 September 1981

2 gL" lt

Imaginative Use of Nonbroadcast Technology Directs Social Services to Isolated Audiences by Ann Erdman

The rush to apply.expertmental Recognizing thispotential, the former satellite projects in particular. Many of the new technologies to the social U.S. Department of Health, Education, and lessons learned apply to the Third World as problems of the 70's has left ins- Welfare (HEW) began to examine ways tech- well as to the developed world. On.the plus tory enough and evidence enough nologies could be used for distribution of side, the demonstration may be considered to for the public service community to learn val- social services, which have been estimated to have been successful in four respects: uable lessons. The following article draws on be as much as 75 percent information-trans-_ 1) the technical aspects of the project a decade of using satellites for public service, fer in nature. The prospect of reaching rural worked well, demonstrating that satel- populations with satellite, and urban popula- and on over five years of experimentation liteservice was useful for reaching with other information technologies for spe- tions with cable, appeared especially promis- remote communities isolated from nor- cialized audiences. ing. Of particular interestto service-pro- mal radio (in the generic senseaudio, viders was the possibility of using telecom- video, etc.) reception by distance or Today, everyone is aware that satellite-munications to distribute continuing educa- geographic barrier; tion services, public awareness and consumer delivered communications can span tremen- 2) projects initiated in Appalachia and dous distances. The increased interest in tele- assistance messages, and information and Alaska became so essential to the social. phone and in videoconferencing, the phe-referral services for public assistance. services programs that sufficient sup- nomenal growth in computer networks, and In tile early 70's there was keen national in- port was secured to lease commercial the increasing use of cable television to carry terestin putting technology to work for satellite time for the services. The tran- varied consumer communication services, all public st:rvices. When the National Aeronau- sition from experimental to commercial attest to the new technologies' ability to cut tics and Space Administration (NASA) asked satellite systems was relatively smooth; time and cost and offer greater informationthe Department of HEW to sponsor commu- variety than ever before. nity service experiments aboard an Applica- 3) the Public Service Satellite CorlSofticim What is not yet well known is that these tions Technology Satellite, ATS-6; HEW saw (PSSC), an organization de,signed to " nonbroadcast technologies" have increas-in the invitation a unique opportunity. Ao identify potential-social service users of ingly become more accessible and less expen-demonstration devised to test the concept satellite communications and to facili- sive as modes of information delivery. "Non- took place in 1974 in three distinct geographic tate their access to transponder (satellite broadcast" is generally considered to refer to areastheAppalachianMountainand usage) time, was established, and has transmissions intended for reception by aRocky Mountain regions, and 'the State of (continued on page 2) specific audiepce rather than for direct recep- Alaska. The demonstrations resulted in ex-\ tion by the general public. Nonbroadcastperimental projects that provided in-service In this issue... transmissions often require decoders, anten- training for teachers in the Appalachian area,, U.S: Experimental:Projects nae, or other devices to receive and convertcareer educationfor junior high school Us.Notibroadcast Technology 1 Signals for use by the specific user or sub.-students in the Rocky Mountains, and in- Satellite Bolsters Rural scriber. Thus, satellites,cable television,structional programs for village schools in ComMuniCations in Peru microwave, telephone, subcarrier radio andAlaska. Health experiments included two- Glossary:" the Language ,way consultation-at-a-distance with physi- TV channels, and other telecommunications of,TeleCOminimications 4 systems which deliver signals to specific audir cians for patients in rural Alaska, and in- Wriiingriortilueational Radio 6 struction in ences are considered nonbroadcast technol- for medical students states CominiiniCatOr's Checklist 8 ogies. without medical schools. A health project of Co_ cna,andtOrkrthinications During the decade of the -70's the availabil-the Veterans Administration facilitated ex- in Iiigerik ity of commercial satellites, new cable sys-change of medical informationbetween Volunteeri and Satellite tems offering 80 or more channels, and high-remote hospitals and urban medical teaching Send.technical Assistance capacity computer networks all held promise centers. On File atiERIC 13' for offering the public a dazzling array of Evaluation of this satellite demonstration UN Film on Women's Roles 14 new communication systems for specializedprovides interesting insights into the initia- Agricultural Information Services :16 needs at relatively reasonable costs. tion of technology projects in general and of

A publication of the Clearinghouse on Development Communication Supported by the Bureau for Science and Technology of the U.S. Agency forintemational Development 2

(continued from page 1) be forestalled to a large extent by effective establishing a Telecommunications Demon- succeeded in developing a substantial early planning. Unfortunately for this proj- stration Program that subsequently awarded uszr community; ect. adequate lead time for planning was not grants totalling $3 million to 15 projects, 4) the Corporation for Public Broadcast- available. which ranged from a computer/telephone ing was convinced by the experiments to Three,servations which may help plan- system for the deaf in Boston to a microwave move ahead with a satellite network for ners avoid similar implementation problems system for migrant farm worker services in interconnection of all public broadcast-can be h.ade about this project: California. 1Vhile the discussion here ad- ing stations. The satellite network is Obseivation #1:Projects intendedfor dresses only problems encountered in im- now operating an effective system. long-terni operation must insure that local plementing the demonstrations, it is impor- On the other hand, the failure of the commuaities consider the proposed service tant to note that the projects eventually Rocky Mountain project to sustain interest in necessary, that they accei t the technology,Achieved a success rate of 75 to 80 percent in and support for continued operation, was a and are prepared to ucal with implementa- reaching their collective system and service disappointment to demonstration planners. tion problems. goals. This failure isgenerally attributed to the Observation #2: Reliable equipment and Several problems common to these proj- project's inability to establish an institutional effective maintenance policies are essential to ects were associated with equipment, institu- base of support. The prime contractor. a tionalization, and utilization. We will look efficient project performance. federation of states, proved unequal to the briefly at these problems to make a few fur= task and was subsequently dissolved, leaving Observation #3: Adequate training and ther observations. no permanent institution with responsibility, support are critical to the effectiveness of on- The Demonstration Program required that interest, or resources to maintain the services. site facilitators and acceptance of the service each project propose an innovative use of In addition, poor maintenance of equip- by end-users. nonbroadcast telecommunications for the ment and lack of technical assistance to Interest in nonbroadcast communications delis ery of health, education, or other social teachers, facilitators resulted in disappoint- generated by the ATS-6 experiments resu:ted services. Projects were also required to assess ment with the services provided, and failure in an HEW request for amendment c f legisla- the needs of the target population, assure to sustain demand. These problems were a tion (theCommuntcattons Act of 1934)to that the proposed project addressed those result of a combination of factorsdefective allow the Department to provide grants orneeds, and pros ide assurance of local sup- TV sets, difficulties of sers icing remote sites, contracts for the application of nonbroadcast port for the project after government fund- and other management concerns common to technology to the delivery of HEW services. ing ended. communications projects, many of which can.Congress eracted such legislation in 1976, (continued on page 5)

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perimental communication network will in- Rural Communications Project in Peru Uses clude such areas as inservice training for rural Satellite to Serve Rerniite Jungle Areas primary school teachers, medical advice for village health paraprofessionals, and cot- di- nation of travel and distribution of supplies for agricultural extension agents. by Richard Martin The project is a test of new kings of com- munication equipment and, more impor- Isolation and lack of communi- in the region. The project will link seven tantly, of new institutional arrangements for cation are obstacles to develop- communities in a field test of the cost-effec- providing communication services to remote ment of potentially productive tiveness of rural communication services. rural treas. It will be carefully evaluated in areas in many countries. A good The experimental communication network, terms of costs, revenues generated, utiliza- exampleis Peru,wherethatcountry's designed to minimize costs, will consist of a tion of the system, and impact on the delivery government has recently been directing new combination of three small, thin -route com- of social services and or the pace of eco- development resources to areas of its interior municationssatelliteearthstations, each nomic activity in participating communities. that have previously been virtuallyinac- costing less than a fourth of what the larger The Peruvian rural communication serv- cessible. An ambitious program is under way INTELSAT-B earth stations cost. Complet- ices project will have an impact far beyond to encourage the development of commerce, ing the system will be village radio telephones the seven participating villages. Neighboring agricultural production, and essential public and land telephone lines. System design, in- Andean countries are being invited to ob- services in the country's rich northeastern stallation, operation, and maintenance are serve the project and participate in the proj- jungle region. As a result of these efforts, the the responsibiiity of ENTEL-Peru. AID isect evaluation. Evaluation data and other region has begun to attract settlers from less providing electronic equipment, user train- project information will be provided to tele- productive parts of the country, and itis ing, and evaluation studies. communication planners, development min- hoped that eventually the area will produce The project has a number of unusual fea- istries, and international funding agencies. large quantities of food products needed in tures, the most important of which is its pub- The experiment, if successful, will provide the rest of the country. lic service focus. Although the project is be- experience, models, and cost-effectiveness To supportthiseffort,thePeruvian ing implemented by a telephone company, data that will .help other countries analyze National Telecommunications Company preferential access to the system will be given their own rural telecommunication needs and (ENTEL-Peru) and the :VS: Agency for In- to government development program staffplan services that are reliable, economical, ternational Development (AID) are develop- workinginremotehealthposts,rural and responsive to development needs. ing an experimental, low-cost rural telecom- schools, and agricultural extension offices. In munication project in the eastern jungle de- most villages, a separate telephone line will (This article was adapted huh permission partment of San Martin. In the past, this de- be provided for the exclusive use of develop-from the June 1981 issue of Uplink, the partment's remoteness has been d major ob- ment workers, and special low tariffs will benewsletter of the AID Rural Satellite Pro- stacle to development. Commercial agricul- developed for these users. ENTEL-Peru has gram.) ture on a regional scale has been slow to established a separate office initshead- Richard Martin is an education specialist in the develop, and public services such as educa- quarters to manage the project, with a staff AID Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean. tion and health care function sporadically, that includes sociologists and economists. It with little effective supervision or support. is expected that this office will become a per- Learning About Water: Telephone service came to the region's manent Office of Development CoMmunica- largest city, Tarapoto, in 1979 with the in- tion, encouraging the company to design Kit and Action Guide stallation of a communication satellite earth services appropriate to the needs of rural This year marks the start of the United Na- station. Operating through a quarter of a sat- communities and public service user.. tions' International Drinking Water Supply ellite transponder leased by ENTEL from IN- and Sanitation Decade. Dying the Decade TELSAT, this new station provides the first Wide Variety of Services many groups will join forces to help provide reliable telephone service between Tarapoto Another unusual feats... of the project is "clean water and adequate sanitation foe all and the capital city of Lima. Utilization of the variety of communication modes that will by the year 1990," the lack of which gravely the new service has been high and continues be available to users. In addition to tradi- affects human health and productivity and to increase rapidly. tional person-to-person or station-to-station severely impedes development progress. ENTEL is providing similar "DOMSAT" service, the system will permit conference A kit has been produced to provide all services to six other remote cities throughout, calling among three or more sites. In some those who will be involved in the Decade with the country. All of the ground stations used sites, speakerphones will be used so that basic information and action ideas. It con- so far have been large INTELSAT-B type groups can participate in these "decentral- tains a "Decade Dossier" outlining dimen- stations, costing $800,000 or more each. ized" meetings. The system will also be able sions of the need and Decade strategies for The stations are proving to be an econom- to relay instructional radio programming to action, four case histories on water/sanita- ical solution to the problem of providing local radio stations in the project area for re- tion activities; a "Decade Action Guide" telecommunication services to those remote broadcast to the general public. with suggestions and examples of specific ac- population centersthat generate a large Before the communication network begins tivities for various Decade participants, a volume of telephone traffic. However, be- to operate in early 1982, planners will inter- wall sheet and a set of phcto sheetsil- cause of their high cost, they can do little to view public service users and develop a util- lustrating ke:, Decade themes, and a listing of alleviate the isolation of the many small com- ization plan combining various specific appli- ether information materials available. munities where most of the people of the re- cations. The communication network will The kit is available from UNDP Information Section, gion live, make it possible for Peruvian development Palais des Nationsf CH-1211 Geneva 10. Switzerland. or from UNDP, 1 United Nations Plaza, Ncw York, NY The ENTEL-AID project is an effort to ex- ministries to provide reliable support services 10017, USA. tend ,7ommunication services beyond the re- to staff members working in the field. Reprinted by permission from Development Forum, Vol. gion's cities to the rural farming communities Project-sponsored activities using the ex- IX, No. 2.

7Cq Glossary: The Langdage of Telecommunications

The language of telecommunications is changing as fast as the technologies oftelecornMunications. In this glossary, we have attempted to define some of the most commonly used terms in the specialized worldof computers and telecommunications. Because the language is constantly evolving, there may be those readers who disagree with certain definitions given here. To those who disagree with a definition, we want to make it clear that we do not claim perfectionwe do not even anticipatehaving the last word. Write to us! Let us know what you think, and we will publish glossary updates at intervals. Note: the terms marked with an asterisk (*) are words which are commonly used in several ways. The definitionsgiven here are limited to their use as they apply to the new technologies.

AM: Amplitude modulation. (See Modula- Chip: ()A thin silicon wafer on which elec- End-User:Ultimate consumer of a service. tion.) tronic components are deposited in the form FacsimileTransmission:The' electronic of integrated circuits. Analog:Representations which bear some transmission of pictures, charts, graphs, etc. physical relationship to the original quantity:Coaxial Cable: A metal cable consisting of from one place to another by radio, tele- usually electrkal voltage, frequency, resis-a conductor surrounded by another conduc- graphy, or telephone. tance or mechanical translation, or rotation.tor in the form of a tube which can , arry Fiber Optics:Communications technique Contrast to digital. broadband signals by guiding high-frequ, ncy based on a laser transmission that uses a electromagnetic radiation. 'ArtificialIntelligence:Compunr systems fiber, or thread-like material, which carries which perform functions normally associated Communications Satellite:Satellite used to light the way copper wires carry electricity. with human leasoning and learning. transmit voice, data, and program signals. Floppy Disc.:. A small, flexible disc carrying Audio Teleconference:See Teleconference. CPU: Central Processing Unit. The com- a magnetk medium in which digital data are ponent in a stored program digital computer stored for later retrieval and use. Bandwidth:The maximum frequency which performs arithmetic, logic, and Control (spectrum) measured in Hertz or cycles per Footprint:(*)That part of the earth's sur- second, between the twlimiting frequenciesfunctions. face where a particular satellite's signal can of a channel. CRT: Cathode Ray Tube. A video display be picked up. A footprint can cover one third vacuum tube used in television sets and com- of the globe, but will usually be less. Baud:Bits per second (bps) in a binary puter display terminals. (two-state) telecommunications transmission. FM:Frequency modulation. (See Modula- Data:()The raw information within a tion.) Binary: The basis for calculations in com- computer system. puters: a numbering system having only two Frequency:The number of recurrences of a numbers, typically 0 and 1; a base system. Digital:A function which operates in dis- phenomenon during a specified period of crete steps as contrasted to a continuous or time. The measurement unit of electrical fre- Bit:One binary digit. The smallest part ofanalog function, Digital computers manipu- quency is the Hertz. information with equally likely ialues or.late numbers encoded into binary Ton-off) states, "0" or "1," or "yes" or "no." In Geo-Synchronous Communication Satellites: forms, while analog computers sum contin- Orbital space vehicles which appear to be sta- electrical communication systems, a bit can uously varying forms. Digital communica- be represented by the presence or absence of tionary over one point above the equator, tion is the transmission of information using permitting the use of less-expensive earth sta- a pulse. discontinuous, discrete electrical or electro-tions without tracking equipment. Broadband Communication:Communica- magnetic signals which change in frequency, Gigahertz:(GHz) Billion-Hertz (cycles per tions using high frequency signals (e.g., 6 polarity, or amplitude. ''second). MgH, the bandwidth of a TV channel). Video Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS): A satellite teleconferencing is a broadband medium. system designed with sufficient power so that Ground Station:See Earth Terminal. Byte:The group of bits, processed or oper- inexpensive earth stations can be used for di- Hardware:(*)The electrical and mechanical ating together, needed for one character. rect residential reception. "body" or equipment used in telecommuni- Dish: ()A parabolic antenna that is the pri-cations or computer systems. Cable Television:The use of a broadband cable (coaxial cable or optical fiber) to deliver mary element of an earth terminal. Headend:Cable system site that houses the video signals directly to television sets. Cur- Downlink: The transmission from a satel- specially d;,signed equipment needed to re- rent systems may have the capability of trails- lite to an earth station. ceive, process, and originate signals for a cable system.^ mating signals in two directions. Duplex:()A transmission in which signals CATV: Cable television or community an- can go in both directions simultaneously. Hertz:(Hz) The unit of frequency. One tenna television. Earth Terminal (or Earth Station):Equip- Hertz isequal to one cycle per second. Named in honor of Heinrich Hertz, first to Carder:()Electromagnetic signal with a ment on the ground used to send and/or re- detect such waves in 1883. constant amplitude and frequency. ceive satellite communications. Central Infice: ()The local switch for a ElectromagneticRadiation: A formofInput: The data that is entered into the telephone system; sometimes referred to as a energy including radio and tight which propa-computer; the act of entering data. Class 5 Office, or a wire center. gates through space in the form of oscillatingInteractive Media: A two-way telecommu- electric and magnetic fields or "waves." nications system that permits viewer response Channel:()In communication, a single path or section of the electromagnetic spec- EndLoop: A communicationscircuit or participation. interactive allows direct ex- trum which is uniquely assigned for a par- which extends from the customer to the localchanges among people via one or more com- munication channels. ticular use. switching center. 6 5 Interface: The place at which two systems Transponder: The equipment on a satellite (such as a computer and its supplementary that accepts the signal sent from earth and this glossary was compiled with the help of a variety of equipment) meet and interact with each people and sources. The primary print source, from after amplifying and changing the frequency, other; the means by which the interaction is which several definitions arc reprinted with permission, sends it back to earth for reception. made (e.g., an "interface card.") is a program booklet prepared for a syMposium "Com- munications in the Twenty-First Century,"sponsored by TV:Television. International TelecommunicationUnion The Colgate Darden Graduate School of Business Ad- ministration, the University of Virginia, in cooperation Uplink:The transmission from an earth (ITU): An international organization affil- with The Annenberg School of Communications, Uni- station to a satellite. iated with the U.N. which allocates radio fre- versity of Pennsylvania and the Annenberg School of quencies through mutual agreement and co- Communications. University of Southern California. Videotex:Service similar to teletext except The Symposium, funded by Philip Morris Incorporated, that information is delivered by telephone ordinates telecommunications interconnec- was held in April, 1081, in Richmond. Virginia. tions. Founded in 1865, itis the world's and can be used in the interactive mode. oldest such cooperative6rganization. Xi !obeli!:(KHz) Thousand Hertz. Logged In:(')Connected to a computer. nidtions system or an operating computer. (continued from page 2) Magnetic Disc: A form of. computer mem-Operating System: A set of instructions for ory in which data are storci in a magnetic a-a computer which permits it to run various Other requirements included standard pro- ide that coats aplastic or metal disc. The dataprograms and handle scheduling, control of visions for responsible administration, staff- are recorded and played back (read) by mag-printers, terminals, memory d^vices,,etc. ing, fiscal management, and a self-evaluation netic heads which traverse the rotating discOptical Fiber: A thin, flexible glass fiber of project results. The innovation require- under programmed control. the size of a human hair which will transmit ment led three projects to propose the design Megahertz:(MHz) Million Hertz. light waves capable of carrying vast amounts and development of hybrid equipment. In all Memory: (*)The computer's informationof information. threecases,technicalproblemscaused serious delays in project implementation, storage capability, also called "storage." Output:The information generated-by a leadh4, to the following observations: ' Microchip: An electronic circuit with multi-computer. plesolid-state devices engraved throughPacket Switching: A technique of switching Observation #4: Projects that plan to use photolithographic or microbeam processesdigital signals with computers whereby the highly specialized equipment must be pre- on one substrate. signal stream is broken into small ,packets pared for implementation periods that are and reassembled in correct sequence at its about 50 percent longer than projects which. Microcomputer A set of microchips which use readily available equipment. They must can perform all of the functions of a digitaldestination. There are many variations used in data networks, in satellite communication, also allocate abode- average budgets for staff storedprogram computer.(SeeMicro- educatioa and equipment maintenance. processor.) and for secure voice communications. Again, as with the Rocky Mountain satel- Microprocessor: A microchip, which per-PBX:Private Branch Exchange; a tele- lite demonstration, several projects which forms the logic functions of a digital com-phone switching office. failed to secure other funding collapsed when puter. Simplex:Transmission in only one direc- governmentassistanceended.Generally, tion at a time. Microwave:High-frequencyradiowaves their problems were staff problems, a very used for point-to-point transmission. Slow-Scan Television: A technique of plac- difficult area to assess prior to project imple- Modem: A device which is used for inter-ing video signals on a narrowband circuit, mentation.Retirement,resignation,and facing (or matching) different functions of asuch as a telephone line, which results in a poor management ability prevented three communications system. picture changing every few seconds. Usefultprojects from becoming operational. for transmitting still pictures. A fourth projcct was foreshortened by un- Modulation:(')The process of modifying anticipated problems in obtaining regulatory the carrier to impress on it the characteristicsSoftware:The instructions which direct a computer program. Any written materials or approval of its system design. It thus lost sec- of another signal by changing its amplitude ond-year funding that would have substan- (AM), its frequency (FM), or.its phase (PM),script, including flims, videotapes, etc., for use in a communications system, or the pro- tially altered its prospects of becoming self- or by turning it on and off in a predetermined supporting. pattern (pulse code modulation). grain produced from the script. (See Hard- ware.) Multiplex: The ability to transmit several Observation #5: Project staff must be care- signals from different sources to differentTeleiommunications:Theuseofv:;re, fully selected with respect to their dedication, to project success, their management experi- destinations over a single chanuel at once. radio,optical,orotherelectromagnetic signals to transmit or receive signals, sounds, ence, and their ability to make substantial Narrowband Communication: A commu-or images. commitments of time (about three years) to a nication system capable of carrying only a project. few voice channels or relatively slow-speedTeleconference: A meeting where partici- Observation #6: ;Projects dependent on computer signals. pants in different locations are linked by a telecommunications system. Can be audio government or other outside support should Nonbroadcast: Transmission directed to ateleccinference (voice only) or video telecon- have short- as well as long-term goals, so as specific audience. Also called narrowcast, itference (where participants see one another to be able to show a record of incremental can include cable TV, satellite, teletext, etc. via TV). Satellites represent a successful com- gains if funding is foreclosed prematurely. Off-Line: Method of operation in which amunications medium for teleconferencing. Observation #7: Appropriate regulatory device is no directly connected to a telecom-Teletext:Broadcasting service using several clearance for proposed use of radio spectrum munications system or operating computer. otherwise unused scanning lines between must be obtained priorto initiationof any On -Line: A method of operation in which aframes of TV pictures to transmit informa- telecommunications project. device is directly connected to a telecommu-tion which is displayed on the (continued on next page) -Y- 6 (continued from page 5) Radio Instructional Programs: Some Practical In ordet to succeed, nonbroadcast tech- nologies must promote user acceptance andGuidelines for Scriptwriters and Planners reliance on communications services and, as a result, develop audiences willing to- support continued operation. One of the most dif-by Esta de Fossarft ficult problerhs of communications projects is that of striking an equitable balance be- In today's world of universal to encourage lisseners to feel a sense of per- tween development of the technical system and constant communication, sonal involvement. and development of its public service com- radio is still one of the most ef- ponents. Systems must function smoothly fective ways of sending out in- Constraints in Writing for Radio and users must receive needed information in formation to a great many people over wide Because radio relies on only one of the a timely manner to make the system viable. distances. In the United States, we are in- listener's senses to receive all of the informa- Both are equally important to the attainment clined to think of radio as usefdl for music tion, complex ideas must be broken down in- of project goals. and commercials and for very little else; but to small concepts and reiterated in a variety in many other countries of the world, par- of ways. It is useful to keep in mind that: Observation #8: Projects must allocate ticularly Third World countries, radio re- substantial resources to assure that systems characters must be clearly recognizable by mains an important medium of education. attain their service goals and develop user ac- their voices rather than by their physical To use radio effectively for education re- ceptance and support, appearances; quires an understanding of the strengths and names of characters must be used more Finally, it is interesting to observe that theweaknesses of the medium, and an under- frequently than they would be in normal nonbroadcast technology most heavily util- standing of the methods of structuring and life, or in visdal presentations; scripting radio instructional programs. ized in the denionstration projects was tele- emphasis and emotion must be carried by phonic communicationone of the oldest, Most people assume that anyone who the voices or enhanced by accompanying most reliable, and most accessible telecom- knows a subject well can automatically write, "mood music." munications systems in the U.S Most proj- a radio script for it. But good writing clod ectsused some form tsf telephonic com- not come automaticallyin any medium, While characters can be portrayed very ef- munication to support their service or to act perhaps least of all in radio, where the sub- fectively through voice, the setting presents as its primary carrier. While we are seeing tleties of the medium must be understood as another problemIn a visual presentation, rapid development of satellite and cable well as, if not better than, the subject ma' the audience knows immediately when the ac= systems, telephonic and brpadcast services itself. tlud has moved from one place or scene to arestill the most widely accessible com- Instructional radio must always reflect its another. In radio, a scene change has to be munications media, and systems that pig- raison d'etre. to instruct. A radio scriptwriter indicated by a musical bridge, by ambient gyback on these signals or otherwise niake should therefore constantly remember the sound effects, or by an indication (preferably use of their ubiquity probgbly have the script's purpose, its measurable instructional subtle) from one of the characters that the greatest chance for long-term service arid im- objectives, and its audience. audience is now required to imagine itself in mediatrsuccess. This in no way diminishes The entertainment value of an educational another place. the importance of cable, satellite, and other script should be subliminal, almost acciden- developing systems;itonly suggests that tal. Good education can be intriguing with- The Need for Restraint availability and familiarity are perhaps ofout being "entertaining" (in the contempo- At the same time, however, a radio pro- greater importance to the socialservices rary sense of the word). Because a good edu- gram must avoid "medium overkill." There which seldom have the capital to support cational radio script should convey the same is a tendency, particularly in inexperienced high-risk ventures. Thus, we conclude. enthusiasm, integrity, and fasOination as a producers and writers, to over-use sound ef- good classroom lesson, it is essential that the fects and music. Too much sound can be as Observation #9: Organizations considering radio scriptwriter truly appreciate the subject distracting to an audience as too little. Sound the application of nonbroadcast technology being taught. effects and music in radio production should to the delivery of public or social service pro- be as appropriate and as subtle as visual im- grams should look first at the most accessi- The Nature of Radio agery in a good film or television production. ble, familiar, multipurpose communications Radio is the medium of visual imagination. In the same yen, it is particularly impor- systems available in their immediate area, It presents no actual pictures of its own, but tant for instructional radio to avoid using too and then, if necessary, enhance these systems invites Ifs listeners to ptovide their own "pic- many words.Indeed,almostironically, to meet the needs of the target audience with tures" in much the same way as reading does. words need to be used more sparingly than the most reliable and appropriate of the new The luxury of imagining pictures has been they might be in visual presentations, or than technologies. largely lost in our television-saturated age, as they would be in a classroom lesson. It is all Anyone desiring further information on has our ability to listen attentively. The writer too easy for listeners to become swamped by projects sponsored by the Telecommunica- of a good radio script,therefore, must a sea of words and miss the message in the tions Demonstration Program should note choose his or her words as carefully as a poet Words. The skill of any educational scripting, that the program is now administered by the to attract the listeners' attention and en- be it for radio, television, or textbook, lies in U.S. Department of Educaticii. Information courage them to "put themselves in the pic- making the instructional message clear, but may be obtained by writing to: ture." not so blatant as to be boring. Because it leaves so much to the listener's Telecommunications Program isahighlypersonal The Needs of the Audience U.S. Department of Education imagination, radio medium. The listener enters into a one-to-one An understanding of the audience is essen- Washington, D.C. 20202 USA. relationship with the radio voices, as if in- tial. The writer deeds to know the age, the ex-ex- Ann Erdman is an Educational Telecommunica- dulging in conversation with them. A good perience (both with radio and with the sub- tions Analyst with the U.S. Department of Educa- (continued on next page) tion radio script takes advantage of this intimacy 3 7' ject being taught), and the ethnic and cultural holes can be lifted and used time and again I would like to mention our Saharanpur backgrounds of the audience. He or she must in many programs, as children love to hear Comniunity Video Eqoipment. We did not also know the educational methods to which their favorite songs or games or stories think that we had the answers and we did not the audience is accustomed. over and over again. (Donuts are small, have an ideology which seems to fit the situa- It is advisable for the scriptwriter(s) to sit round, sweet breads with a hole in the :nid-tion. We felt that perhaps video was a chan- in the classrooms for a number of sessions dle of them.) This type of format also nel, a platform for a dialogue with the com- before beginning to formulate any ideas of makes it easy to make changes in a pro-munity or within the community. They will how the finished script might be put together. gram that has been found wantingit have to decide what to do, we are just going Good educational scriptwriters are like good means perhapsthereplacement of ato be the extension of thq hardware. The architectsthey might have all sorts of ideas number of donuts or donut holes without problem is that this kind of work takes a long for designing beautiful buildings, but they having to restructure and re-record the time to yield any results. A person involved in must keep in mind the function of the build- whole program. the problems of his community can .instinc- ing the; have been asked to design, and be Keep sound effects subtle and appropriate. tively present it much better. He gets to the willing to tailor their ideas to the needs /of Don't be tempted to throw in a muted heart of the matter while the 'outsiders' fum-, that function. trombone every time a eharacter yawns. ble around. This was apparent to us the very first day Some Practical Guidelines Finally, if you want your radio instruc- tional script to be a success, make sure it we brought the portapak to the village we Restrict theenumberofcharacters goes from your scriptwriter into the handswere working in. After recording the pretty usedtwo or three at one time is enough. of a producer who knows how to use the images of rural countryside and poverty, we Too many characters confuse the au- medium of radio, and to actors who are ran out of ideas. There came an old man, a dience, and it is very hard to establish any trained in radio delivery! Muslim and a grandfather with his grand- real identity for each character in, say, a daughter in his arms. He was a landless_ Since the advent of television; there has half-hour format. laborer in his fillies._He-peered-intattie view- been a tendency fcr us to forget the sense of findercpbiiiii-c1 the camera at the tree and the Restrict "hard core instruction" to the hearingexcept for soaking up background,children and then when we played back what main characters. If you wish to use peri- musicand concentrate almost eausivelyhe had just recorded he was amused. He was pheral characters in story lines or for songs on sight for receiving inforniation. The ears,a little more daring. He asked us whether he and games, let these be supplemental to the however, give as direct access to the brain ascould take it and use it.I do not know what main teaching message. Students are ac- do the eyes, and radio should never be con-got into us but one of the group said `go customed to accepting the main instruc- sidered a little brother of television, or aahead.' tional message from an identified "teacher." lessermedium of instruction.Correctly Hc vanished for more than an hour and we This does NOT mean that the character(s) understood and effectively used, radio can bethought that was the last we would see of the giving the instructional message have to the gateway toextended knowledge forportapak that we had borrowed in the first appear in the program as teacher(g). millions of people throughOut the world. place. But he came back as he had run out of 11/ the tape and wanted it player' tack. What Use "signature music" to announce the Esta de Fossard is DirectorofAdult Education at this landless laborer had done was that he entrance of characters and to introduce WCET Channel 48 in Cincinnati, Ohio. Her back- went around accosting better-off farmers and various segments. Radio listeners count on ground is in radio instructional writing, a field in asked them what they thought of the prob- musical cues to set the scene for what is to which she has been active both nationally and in- ternationally. lems of poor landless laborers like him, what follow. they are doing about it, and so on. It was a Present the lessons in a recognizable, but revelation for, as if peeling an onion, layer by alterable, format. An instructional radio layer, he brought out the core of hypocrisy. series should see itself as an oral textbook. They all wanted to help their brothers but A good textbook uses a well-designed for- Landless Villager Puts what can they do,thereisnot enough mat, so that students using it soon learn Video to Dramatic Use kerosene and the diesel and fertilizer and so it that, for example, each lesson begins with was obvious from the 'interviews' that no a vocabulary lesson; followed by a story; Is video useful in communica- one is going to do anyrthing for the poor, it is followed by a practice exercise; followed tionfor development?Itde- they who must help themselves. I could not by a summary. Similarly, the radio lessons pends on how it's used. Anilhave made that program nor could my col-4 should be structured around a clear for- Srivastava of the Centre for the leagues because we would have been too im- mat. Within that format there is room for Development of lastructimaal- Technologypatient. We would have superimposed our considerable variation, and thereis no (CENDIT), New Delhi, India, tells hoW, he views. harm in occasional divergence from the and his colleagues took a chance which' (The Centre for Development of Instruc- format, but it is unfair to expect a student helped villagers to communicate honestly. He tional Technology is a non-profit society, (of any age) to glean the lesson from an ir- writes: founded in 1972, which believes that com- regular mix of ideas. Videt, fascinates me. I know it to be an ap-munication accelerates social change. CEN- propriate technology for communication for DIT works mainly in villages enabling people Balance the format, making sure to com- development. Itis a more manageable and to use media for their own development.) bine strong teaching sections with "relaxa- accessible technology. With littletraining tion" sections of games, music, reinforce- CENDIT. C11 Communn) Centre. Saidairung De.clupment Area, people can learn to handle the equipment, New MIN 110016. India ment, etc. For certain types of programs, it and as they can see for themselves what they is highly effective to create what I call a are recording on tape, they tend to learn fast "di:Mut/donut hole" format, where the from the experience. People tend to partici- "donuts" are the tight instructional pieces pate in making videotapes. And with every Reprinted by permission fromAction, and the "holes" (equally edible) are the passing month the equipment and the con- World Association for Christian Comn.uni- relaxation or reinforcement times. The sumable material are becoming cheaper. cation Newsletter. 0. A Communicator's Chet list

,Educational Evaluation Methodol- cant political and social dimensions, as Well ... a tallorder. There is much of in- ogy: The State of theArt, edited by well as technical and fiscal resource terest to any of these groups of readers but 1 Ronald_ A. Berk (Baltimore: The considerations (p. 29). not too much for any one group. I suggest Johns Hopkins UniversityPress, you ask your library to buy the book. And 1981), 168 pp. US $15.00 hardcover. The chapter on"Measuring Program Ef- how about readers from other parts of the fects"by Nancy Cole and Anthony Nitko world? I particularlyrecommendthe Many present-day booksabogevaluation suffers from the kind of schizophrenia noted chapters on testdesign (Chapter 2) and are deeply rooted in the U.S. experience. This above. Some sections provide an excellent measuring performance change (Chapter 4). is rarely acknowledged explicitly but is im- general discussion of crucial issues that mustMost of the other material will take some mediately obvious to the reader who tries to be addressed in choosing tests to measure careful' thinking to make it applicable situa- interpret results or advice from the perspec- educational outcomes. Other secti'ons pro- tions around the globe. tive of another part of the world. The U.S. vide an interesting but often jargon-laden ex- framework is especially pervasive in books amination of particular aspects of test bias. Review d by Barbara Searle, an educational evel- about educational evaluation, almost all of Those for whom the more general material is uatg in the Department of Education of the World Bank. whim assume a federally organized system particularly useful and relevant are likely to and a huge enterprise involving, millions of find the discussion of test bias heavy sting. dollars annually. In Chapter 3, William Cooley,Lloyd Education Evaluation Methodology: The Bonds, and Bor-jiin Mao confront a tech- State of the Art,edited by Ronald A. Berk, is nical issue"Analyzing Multi-Level Data." a collection of articles that were presented at The -chapter_ addresses the problem of the Electronic Colonialism: The future' a 1979 symposium at Johns Hopkins Univer- level at which data should be aggregated (stu- of Internati6nal Broadcasting and sity. The authors are recognized authorities. dent,'classroom, school, district) using a Communication,byThomasL. in the field and their presentations are all of causal modeling framework. It is well written McPhail (Sage Library of Social Re- excellent quality. However, the articles vary and will be illuminating to those who worry search, Vol. 126. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage quite considerably in usefulness to practicing about such problems. Publications, 1981), 288 pp. Price: hard- evaluators outside the U.S. context. Robert Linn presents a useful discussion of cover, USS20;softcover, US $9.95. The editor defines evaluation as "the proc- another technical issue"Measuring Pre- ess of applying scientific procedures to collect test-Posttest Performance Change." This is Thomas McPhail isprofessor of Mass reliable and valid information to make deci- an extremely important area because pitfalls Communication and Journalism at Carleton sions about an educational program." He attendallthe commonly used methods for University in Ottawa, Canada. The book is notes that the definition "reflects the tradi- measuring growth in achievement and, de- the product of his work atUNESCOduring the tionalquantitative paradigmof evaluation as spite considerable discussion of these prob- years 1978-80, and the book is at its best opposed tothe qualitative paradigm" and, lems in the literature, the methods are used when the author describes the Belgrade and indeed, the contributions focus on quantita- unthinkingly in many evaluations. ParisUNESCOGeneral Assemblies he at- tive methods for assessing program effects. Wolf's chapter.on "Selecting Appropriate tended. Some of the internal machinations Individual authors have interpreted their Statistical Methods" is, in my view, the least and politicking about people's careers make tas!. differently. Some have assessed broadly satisfactory in the book. He seems to view interesting reading. McPhail devotes the first the state of their assigned area, while others the process as (a) taking placeentirely after part of the book to a description of what is have explored in depth a problem that stems thedata have been collected and (b) consis- meant bythe "new world information particularly salient. Some have tried both. ting largely of trying to decide whether to use order"and"developmentjournalism." Anthony Bryk and Richard Light contrib- analysis of variance, analysis of covariance or Thesearesectionsthat may benefita ute a chapter on"Designing Evaluationfor regression analysis. I have no quarrel with novitiate to the debate. Different Program Environments" thatvery many of his major points: the analyst should But the book bogs down immediately in a briefly surveys some key design issues. They become thoroughly familiar with the data set resurrection of theFour Theories of the Press distinguish, three types of program environ- by looking at descriptive statistics and scatter debate formulated by an American, Wilbur mentregular school district, discretionary, plots, each dependent variable should be Schramm, and colleagues in 1956. To the and demonstration programsand then limit analyzed separately, and so on. But the en- Western press, freedom is inviolate; if we their-discussion to demonstration (pilot) pro- tirelyad hoccharacter of the discussion allow freedom of., the presseven to the grams. I found both the general discussion disturbed me. voices we abhoreventually the truth will and their examination of an issue of par- Lois-Ellin Datta talks knowledgeably and out. This is the classic libertarian and Jeffer- ticular interest to themassessing impact comprehensively about using evaluation re- sonian concept of the press. It assumes, of when services are highly individualizedtoo sults, very much in the U.S. context. Finally, course, that everyone has access to mass briefto be of much use.However,I Daniel Stufflebeam tells us about the "Stan- media channels. Indeed, at the time of the thoroughly endorse one of their general con- dards for Evaluation of Educational Pro- writing of the First Amendment, the owners clusions: grams, Projects and Materials." of the press in North America were individ- The task of evaluat:an design has be- So, who is this book written for and who is uals. The book misses the chance to evaluate come a complex effort imposing much likely to find it useful? The editor (who, by Third World contentions concerning the in- more than justtechnical decisions the way, provides helpful introductions to fluence of corporate-owned media today. about fitting appropriate methods to each chapter) hopes that the book will serve McPhail's book disappoints on several evaluation questions. We are now talk- as "a handbook for practicing evaluation counts. We should expect any new exegesis of ing about a process involving impor- methodology issues and problem areas." the "new international information and com- . . 10 9 1

munication order" (to use the properI NESCO by Save the Children in villages with subsis- Women and Media in Asiavehted by term) to be both accurate and balanced. BLit tence:basedeconomies,theparticipants, Timothy Yu and Leonard L. Chu 4111 nis attempt to be even-handed on the op- trainers, organizers, and chief,beneficiaries ,(Center for Communication Studies, posing viewpoints, McPhail loses the sub- of the newyr9grams were typically men, and The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 1977), 251 pp. US S5.00. stance of the debate and presents a flaccid it was clear that the newly generaied income analysis. earned by these men was rarely, if ever, used McPhail makes his strongest point during for their families. This book is a:report of the Asian Consul- his discussion of development journalism. He The handbook describes how Save thetatioti onWomenand Media, a seminar held notes that the Third World move for "de Children came to these hard realizquons and'.in Hong Kong in 1976. The meeting was velopment journalism" (directing the infor what remedial steps they took. The author sponsored b: the Center for Communication =non resource toward national develop chronicles the changes in staffing in theorga- Studies of the Chinese University of Hong ment) should not be so casually denigrated by nizational structure, and discusses how the Kong for Lommurmation edutators and pro-. the Western press, which secs this as the first changes complemented attempts to design fessipnal journalists of As'`,vn countries. The report lriclurics alt the papers plemtC4 at the step toward censorship. After all, he points programs specificallyfor thebenefit of ti out, the Western press, too, is a development,women, Case studies for women's programs Consultation Spd a summar, pf the discus- press and has, infact,"successfully de- in Upper Volta, Colombia, Honduras and sions. No attempt has been made, however, veloped itself into an ideological arm of the Inek.nesia are presented. to synthesize'the main lines of the discussion. capitalistic and free enterprise .,ystem." Save the Children should dearly be lauded .The reader is presented with raw mater4a1 and The errors in attribution are unfortunate. for its courage in asking difficult questions asked to plow through unzavied. Fortunately, .There arc, additionally, many typographical and its willingness tc challenge traditional each paper is short and 4.pritiss. which makes cultural attitudes Loward women in the devel the task easier. Nevertheless, one wishes that errors-7:a good example is "the preestablish- . ment sentiment of the estern media" for °ping world. Perhaps the only 4.riticism that the editors had set the meeting in its proper "pro- establishment1 A number of noted canbemade of this paper, and it is a rela- perspective and helped us capture its srvit.. scholars' names sir7 misspelled, and,the U.S. tively minor one, is that the case studies pre- When looking at the Conkultation's agen;., InternationalCommunication Agency -In sented are not as candid as they could have da it is important to remember that it took 1980 is referred to by its farrier name, the been about the results of the programs. Upon place in 1976. Thisas only a year after In- United States Information Agency. Were it close reading, the case studies reveal that the ternational Women's Year and the Mexico not for the errors, this book could be mom- programs raised expectations of women and City United Nations Conference on Women, mended for undergraduates and newcomers very little elsecertainly they had little sig- which for thefirsi time brought women's 'to the debate. nificant impact on their economic subsis- issues to the attention of the4,general public tence. After organizing women into commu- throughout the world. In 1976, consciousness. Reviewed by Howard H Frederick. a doctoral stu- nity clubs, providing suppo.t for skills train- raising was only beginning. discussions were dcntininternational communicationsatthe ing in traditional home-centered activities passionate, and the limits of the debate were American University, Washington, D.C. such as cooking and sewing, and offering less defined. Agendas therefore tended to be minimum financial assistance, Save the Chil- wide open and to cover a lot of territory. dren led the women to t,elieve they could gen- In this compilation, the first two series of erate income. While tile organizing and train- papers consisrof factual presentations on the Bringing 11, omen into the Commu- ing were successful, the economic develop- legal and social.) status or women in various nity Development Process: A Prag- ment goals often failed because there was no Asian countries and on thetituation with re- matic Approach. Marion Fennelly market for the products. The conclugion of- gard to access to education and employment Levy. (Westport, CT., 1981, Save the fered for the failure was not that the design in mass media. Today, one would probabi, Children), 47 pp. of the program should be altered, but that not devote' as much time to this background the women should have known more about information. In the last five years, the pool This 47-page handbook discusses Save the marketing and management in the first place. of knowledge on women's issues has greatly Children's experience and efforts over the This work is a valuable one and the lessons increased so that such basic facts and state- last 15 years to involve women in the pro- learned will undoubtedly be put to good use ments-of-the-situation are less useful. grams provided ivy the Save the Children in the future. It is a sensitive attempt to make The papeS on education and access to _Federation in the developing world. The palpab'e changes in the liv es of women in the media focus almcst exclusively on media as a book, which begins with a refreshingly can- developing world. It should be read by all career for women: do women have equal op- did appraisal of Save the Children's assis- persons concerned with development issues, portunities for training, employment, and tance to women in recent history, covers a and is highly recommended'. advancement in the media industry? Not sur- great deal of matenal in a thoughtful manner. The booklet includes a bibliogfaphy on prisingly, it is generally found that'although To the organization's credit, Save the Chil- women in development in the Third World. education opportunities are improving, job dren took a hard look at its programs and its prospects for women in the media are not as Available for U.S. $2.00, plus US $.50 for own internal organization and staffing pat- good as those for men. Although the 1981 handling, by writing the Public Information terns and realized the benefits women derived reader may be impatient with what now seem Department, Save the Children Federation. from its development efforts usually came as to be generalities, it is clear on reading the Westport, Connecticut 06880 USA. an afterthought. Women were invisible ex- discussion in these papers that they provoked cept when seen as an appendage to the Reviewed by Arlene Horowitz, a program assistant a lively exchange on such issues as women hungry mouth of a child, or as a vehicle to in the Clearinghouse on Development Communi- and work in general, the difficulty for women carry water, or as a purveyor,of medicine. cation. of assuming both career and family responsi- Moreover, there were virtually no women de- bilities, their ability to carry out the same as- velopment professionals on the field staff of 'Note:Illustrations for Development.re- signment as men,prejudices,attitudes, the organization, a lack which tended to re- viewed in DCR #34, is available from the stereotyping, etc. inforce the invisibility of women.. When eco- Afrolit Society, P.O. Box 72511, Nairobi, nomic development programs were promoted Kenya. (continued on next page) 10

(continued from page 9) "Women and the Media" is the focus of ISIS International Bulletin number 18. Ar: The second part of the Consultation con- Small is Powerful ticks on issues such as the image of women in sisted of four position papers which tried to Microcomputers .and. microprocissors the media, women and pornography, and cover several areas: portrayal of women's today are small enough to gt into media as manipulation, do a good job of rais- role in the media, women's contribution to pocket, cost between USS 100-300, and ing consciousness in an area that is receiving national development through mass media, eau run on §mall batteries. They are also increasing attention worldwide. For informa- opporlunities for training women for, media on the drder.of 20 times fatter and thou- tion on tAis issue of the Bulletin, contact careers and widening their involvement. In sands of times.more reliable than the early ISIS, Case Postale 301, CH -1227 Carouge, these papers the debate was at times broad- models firstdeveloped in 1946. Switzerland. ened from the "media" level to the "com- The advertising of IBM (International' The International Women's Tribune Cen- munication" level but there was generally lit- Business Machines) gleefully points out tre has published an interesting newsletter, in tle time to probe. Issues such as the role of that an equivalent an in the automobile English and Spanish, on Women and Media. communication in development, media as an industry would put the price of a Rolls Project information, lists of organizations, agent of change and a consciousness-raiser, Royce luxury sedan at about one nickel titles of appropriek books and periodicals, the contribution that women can make (USS 0.05) in 1981. production resources, UN policy news, and through the media, and mass communication The key development was the integrated other useful information is presented at lively as a social process were raised but not an- circuit. Transistors are components of an fashion. The Centre is located at 305 East alyzed in any'depth. electric circuit used to amplify, detector 46th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017, USA. ,The. worldwide influence of the United switch the flow of electrons. Their devel- Slates in both media and women's issues is opment in 1947 transformed electronics, 1 hose of our subscribers who read Spanish very much in evidence throughout the book. as they made vacuum tube circuitry large- may be interested in two series among the One notes that of the 17 persons who pre- ly obsolete. publications from the Fundacidn para el sented papers during the consultation, 13 re- Current innovations continue to pack Desarrollo de la Region Centro Occidental de ceived training in the West. II of them in the more and more circuitry onto chips. In 10 Venezuela (FUNDECO). One series of I 1 United States. This is obviously a source of years, manufacturers expect to cram more publications is on Social Communication and concern to the Asian participants and it than a million components intotheir Development (Comunicicion Social y Dinar- should be noted by Ar.:ericans who train spe- units. With the addition of information rollo), the other scribes of 15 publications is on cialists from other countries. Participants re- processing capacities--computing funs - Social and Edudational Research -(Investiga- marked that scholars trained in the United 'ions to silicon integrated circuits, the clan Social y Educativa), from which we have states often did not know how to apply their microprocessor is created. sampled two: Invest:pc:dr: sobre Radio- knowledge to the Asian situation, and that Instructions on how a microprocessor Foro cotno Mt;todo para Lograr Participa- modern mass media techniques were too of- will shunt electrons within the myriad of clot: Can:pent:a y una Efectiva,Dtrulgacuin ten imported from Western countries without circuits, to perform logic functions such Agrfrola and AnOhsts de Contentdo de los sensitivity to the local situation. Asian com- as calculation. are established before- Met:safes Agricola; In la Prensa yyRadto munication students therefore face a double hand. Function determines design and Venezolana y su Unlidad Seglitt los Cam- challenge: educating themselves in a different manufacture. This is cdYlcd programming, pesutos del Estado Afonagas. Both.of jhese culture and then adapting their knowledge to and it is in the programming of micro- studies show a thorough knowledge of com- their own environment. processors to apply their enormous flexi- municatici theory, diffusion of innovation, The problem of transcultural influences is bility for handling information that the conceptual models, and participatory re- also evident with regard to the women's future of microelectronics lies for devel- search, and have useful bibliographies of Movement itself. During the discussion, the oping countries. Spanish works in these ,fields. A publication participants revealed the difficulty they had andpricelistmay beobtainedfrom in understanding the development of the Reprinted by permission from the IDRC FUNDECO, Apartado 523, Barquisimeto movement in the United States, and in fi 'd- Reports, Vol. 10, No 1. 3001-A, Estado Lara, Venezuela. ing the parallels and the differences iu the sit- Also available in Spanish are the papers uation of women in the United States and (continued from page 13) from, the First Colloquium on Educational Asia. From Mexico comes a timely newsletter, in Television in Mexico (Primer Coloqui, de In the end, the book provides some valu- Television Diddctica en Mexico), sponsored able historical material both on the subjeCt it- Spanish, Shuesis It:format:1w, published by by the Academia Mexicana de la EducaciOn, selfAsian women in the mediaand on the Institute Latinoamericano de la Comuni- caciOn Educativa. Regional news about train- and held, in Jdne 1980. Among 12 interesting how the issue was approached as little as five ing courses, institutionalactivities,policy papers are one on,Mexicois new Rural Televi- years ago.It was used extchsively in the issue;, and communication books in Spanish sion Network, one on the Mexican experience worldwide study on-"The Portrayal and Par- using television for literacy, and one on the' ticipation of Women in the Media" which isregularly provided. Subscription infor- mation may be had from ILCE, ApartadO costs of educational TV. Mexico is obviously was prep ied by Margaret Gallagher ;Jr concerned with providing and improving UNESCO (Paris, 1970) and therefore consti- Postal 94-328, Mexico 10, D.F., Mexico. Mentioned in these pages earlier, Video basic education for all its population, as well tutes a prima in this field. Its main weakness Rural(VER), published' in as .with, relating education to production lies in its attempt to cover too much - ground Educativo Spanish, in Lima, Peru, continues to be a needs and skills. The papers collected here too quickly, without attempting either to reflect this concern, and should be welcomed focui' on main points dr to give a sense of useful vehicle for sharing the experiences of video used for education an'd training in rural 6y other Lhtin countries with similar goals. direction for future study or action. Latin America. Users are urged to participate Available for US$6.00 front the Acadentia in the network. Contact CEPAC, Proyecto Mexicana de laEducacion,Cefro San Reviewed by Line Robillard Heyniger, consultant PER 76/003, PNUD-CENCAA-FAO, on international and women's issues, Montreal, GregOrio No. 6, Mexico 21. D.F., Mexico. Canada; international associate, Women's Insti- Apartado Postal 4480, Lima, Peru, for fur- tute for Freedom of The Press, Washington, D.C. ther information. By Judy Brace -12 11

Equally difficult for the farmers was the Introducing Hybrid Coccia to Nigeria: idea that the dying cocoa trees should be cut Communications Help Persuade Farmers down and replaced with hybrid cocoa seeds or seedlings. The farmers considered not only by C.A. Ogunmilade - -the hardship that such deliberate cuts would This article examines the adop- the hybrid cocoa would do as well as the entail, but also the "psychological pain" of tion of hybrid cocoa in Ondo native cocoa in Nigeria., that it would mature,,destroying what was handed down to them state in Nigeria. It identifies thein three years as opposed to a minimum ofby their fatherscrops they wanted to hand motives that led to the decision five years for the Nigerian cocoa; that theover to their own children some day. to adopt the new crop and discusses some of hybrid was bigger and more productive; and In Ondo State, there were several cate- the problems that were Jncounterell In the that it could capture the world market in the gories of adopters. The innovators were few, process. It also illustrates the process and im- future. but very influential. They were, curiously' pact of communication, and examines .the There were alsosuggestionsthat ,enough, teachers and other professionals role of the change agents in the whole process farmers should be given loans to reactivatewho considered farming a hobby. The early 6f diffusion. their own cocoa, crops which had beenadopters were the opinion leaders. Both the_ Ondo State, formally Ondo Pros ince, is passed on from generation to generation.innovators and the early adopters were mo- one of the 19 states that were created in Some planers considered the hardship thebile, cosmuoolitan, athentarous, and open Nigeria in1976. 1r has an area of 18,165 innovation would bring to the old farmers, to external influence. square kilometers and a population of about and there were government. functionaries 2.J million, mostly farmers. With its tropica: who were skeptical about "this foreigner Roles of Different Groups climate, it produces more than 60 percent of from Brazil." At this time, the campaign had More remarkable in.the process of change the Nigerian cocoa. Cocoa is the mainstay of not got to the farmers. However, gover".nent was the role of the formal and the Informal the state's economy, and is second only to decisions on the matter, aia its eventual fol- groups. These group members were not, the petroleum. :is Nigeria's largest export. low-up, combined many /principles, models, early adopters, they came in late but formed Before the introduction of the hybrid and forms of communicatIons, each useful at tne majority. They were mostly farmers and, cocoa in the statein1954, the farmers a particular stage. At times, a combination of very often, they made far-reaching political planted native cocoa. The trees yielded abun- several of the models was used. and economic decisions. The groups between dant fruits for eight to ten years after plant- the ages of 25 and 35 were unique. They ing, but productivity quickly declined there- Communications Campaign wanted success, and shared common goals, after. The old cocoa trees became tall, and Farmers were made aware of the neviattitudes, and approaf.hes to life. When they the scattered fruits on them were very diffi- cocoa through therediffusionprogramsheard about the hyt.id cocoa, heinvited cult to reach during harvest. In the three broadcast on a speual frequency, govern-the Ministry officials to educate them about years from 1950 to 1953, production dropped mentInformationvans,mobilecinemathe new product. The agricultural assistants, noticeably, and income of both the farmers shows, through head chiefs and councillors, who were really the change agents in the dis- - and the government fell. The government and at times in churches and mosques. Thetricts, rook over from there. They made dem- was concerned, and took action. government first performed the experimer.tsonstration beds in the villages, and planted The then-Minister of Agriculture and Nat- on its demonstration farms, planting thethe new cocoa seeds and nursed them. Early ural Resources for the Western State of Nige- seedlings and nursing them for about ain the morning and again in the evening, ria, who incidentally came from the state, month before transplanting them. Films and farmers were invited to watch the Agricul- undertook acsocoa tour of the West Indies pictures of the processes of planting andtural Assistants. They would ask questions, and Brazil in 1954. He and his colleagues growth were then shown in all the local towns and would take some seeds away for plant- came back to Nigeria with sample fruits, and 'villages, and farmers were in turn en- ing. The State Ministry cf Information was tures, and demonstration packages of an couraged to make their own nurseries. In ad-very useful too. Information workers took other type of cocoa, known as the ''hybrid dition, half-hour programs on agriculturebeautiful pictures of the new crop, and dis- cogoa,'! for which the Ondo State of Nigeria were presented on the radio rediffusion threeplayed posters to emphasize the advantages is .well known today. What was responsible times a week to create awareness, sharpen theof adopting the new,coccia. for the ultimate decision to adopt the hybrid interest of the farmers, and highlight the ad- (continued on page 14) cocoa, a,cibp that up to 1954 was foreign to Vantages of adopting the hybrid cocoa. Indi- Nigeria? Were alternatives considered? Were viduals and groups were contacted and dis- there models to guide the government in its cussions went on at the village level. In effect, decisions concerning these issues? What role no single model was adopted exclusively, and did cdmmunication play an the process? interpersonal communications were stressed. Fist, there were many models to choose from, and most of the experts in the Ministry Initial Osistance to-,New Crop of Agriculture and Natural Resource, archi-, Initially; the innovation encountered a lot tects of the innovation, had studied in Italy, of resistance.. There was opposition from Brazil, the United States, or Canada. Their farmers above.:he ay of 45 who were no initial approach was similar to the Research, longer strong enough to cultivate new crops. Development, Diffusion,, Adoption Model They wanted the government, to reactivate, postulated ty Clark and Guba. The govern- their old coups instead. Other opposition ment asked the Cocoa Research Institute of came from the few richfarmers, whose Nigeria (CRIN) to look into the problem of prestige was based on their control of the low yields frog native cocoa, perforni experi- largest holdings of cocoa in their respective _,\ ments,ori both the old andihe new crops, and villages. They feared that in the "new age," adVise the gove?nment on its findings. The when everybody would have to start from 'Institute did expefimentsend concluded that: scratch, their positions would be threatened. 13 12

of groups that have a particular technological Technical Assistance Spans the Pacific: focus. For example, a Pacific-wide Women's VITA Volunteers Share Energy Information by Satellite Interest Group has begun a series of confer- ences on smokeless s:oves that only require by Gary Garriott slight modifications for greater efficiency and reliability. Increasingly, the women pro- For more than twenty years, Experience thus far shows that it is quite vide the VITA staff and volunteers with tech- Volunteers in Technical Assis-easy for even first-timers on the con fercnce nical information that they did not previously tance (VITA) has sent informa- network to get used to the idea of communi- possess, information which is then made part cating via satellite with people 9,000 miles of VITA's technical library for reference and .4. tion on low-cost technologies by mail to thousands of requestors, primarily away. Only "simplex" operation is possible; distributiontofuturePacificislandre- from the developing countries, as well as pro- that is, one person talks at a time and must questors. videdon-siteconsultanciesandproject end his or her transmission with "over to management. Approximately 4,000 volunteer Suva," for example. Sessions are "chaired" Focus on Specialized Objectives experts throughout the world contribute their by whatever terminal initiates the conference VITA is also designing conferences with time to these activities. Recently, VITA hasor by the terminal where the VITA partici- specialized objectives. One type will be for begun experiments which involve sending in- pants are. "Chairmen" request reactions and "advanced" participants who are already formation by interactiwt media to supple- comments from participating terminals in knowledgeable in a certain technoiogv and ment mail services in the hope that immediate turn. Since PEACESAT is relatively unso- need specific and specialized informatic I. In information transfer will be more timely,phisticated in terms of hardware, the need addition, "Resource Acquisition Seminars" and, therefore, more likely to be used in ac- for frequent repetition and signal checks and will provide administrators with the knowl- tual development activities. the informal nature of the sessions them-edge of existing foreign development re- selves provide an unthreatening environment sources. VITN recently surveyed over 500 or- Teleconferences Highlight NeW Program in which newcomers almost instantly feel at ganizations v.orldwide that promote the use One such experiment currently being pur-ease. of appropriate technologies and found that sued by VITA is a series of two-way audio Future topics are selected during confer- in addition to information (primarily on teleconferenpes on renewable energy technol-ences themselves or during weekly scheduling other projects), short-term technical consul- ogies beamed to potential users in the Pacificsessions. A former VITA employee, now at tations and financing (particularly in small, region via the PEACESAT system. PEACE-the University of Hawaii, is an operator at manageable amounts) were important for SAT is a consortium of government andthe Honolulu terminal and provides neces- project implementation. We believe that such educationalinstitutions that employs sary logistical continuity with stations and seminars on how to tap resources will help NASA's, Application Technology Satellite VITA as well as feedback on the usefulness Pacific planners put together appropriate re- ATS-I, launched in the 1960's and now dedi-of the material presented. Uplinks are ac- source packages for their development needs. cated to public service use for its remainingcomplished through PEACESAT terminals VITA hopes that the current teleconfer- lifetime. Approximately 20 ground stationsin Santa Cruz or Honolulu. A quasi-private ence series will provide Pacific governments throughout the Pacific have been installedstation in Florida has also been used for ac- and groups with timely information on p- linking such locations as Saipan; Lae, Papuacessing the network, and VITA is studying newable energy in an immediately useable, New Guinea; Wellington, New Zealand,the possibility of acquiring a low-cost term- low-cost formcertainly growing and critical Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and other sitesinal of its own if conferences continue over a concerns of energy-dependent island econo- within these general boundaries. Since ATS-I long period of time. mies. The vast expanse of territory, rising air is a high-powered, global beam satellite and fares, and mail service delays will increasingly uses uncomplicated VHF (very highfre- Preplanning Vital to Success enhance the value of teleconferencing as an quency) transmitting and receiving equip- Since the sessions are primarily technical inalternative to jet travel. ment, earth station equipment is inexpensive nature, experience jo date indicates that pre- and several earth stations have :ken installed conference written materials are essential to a Basis for Replicating Project for under a thousand dollars each. Portablegood exchange of inforMation. Topics are In this light, it is indeed unfortunate that operation from remote rural areas is also pos- usually set a month in advance to allow time there are presently no low-cost alternatives to sillle. for pre-conference mailings of subject mate- PEACESAT when ATS-1 finally dies or is re- - rials. Terminal managers distribute this tech- moved from service, possibly within a year. Volunteers Coordinate Conferences nical material to interested parties (thus far, There is obviously a sound basis for replicat- Under its AID-supported Reneivable Erier mainly mid-level government officials and ir16 the PEACESAT expel-knee in public gy Program, VITA has thus far used home planners, development technicians, and uni- service sectors of other developing countries Office staff and volunteers located through-versity personnel). Participating VITA staff as long as operating costs can be kept low out the geographical U.S. to produce, and and volunteers have also previously studied and hardware uncomplicated. The marriage coordinate a series of conferences on the fol- the material. Typically, a conference consists between low-cost renewable energy technol- lowing topics:solarhot water heating,Of short three- to five-minute presentations ogies and "appropriate" satellite confer- wood gasification, woodstovts, wind-electric on the subject by staff and volunteer experts encing teohnologies, is natural, and, we be- systems, and bio-gas. Second conferences on (together with other Pacific conferees who lieve, one that could have wide application wind-electric systems and cookstoves have may already have expertise on the topic) fol- for struggling economies everywhere. also been held. Depending on the location oflowed by questions and answers. Post-con- staff and volunteers making presentations,' ference information is also forwarded to par- To obtain further information contact: either conferencecallsor simplelong- ticipants when appropriate. VITA Inc., 3706 Rhode Island Ave., Mt. distance calls are made to the uplinking A continuing concern ishowto assure tha. Rainier, Maryland 20822, USA. ground station terminal. The calls representparticipants are able to use the information Gary Garriott is a senior technical advisor at VITA the only cost to. VITA (other than mailingfor construction of actual projects. One way with a special interest in renewable energy and litergure). seems to be to encourage active participation' technology transfer. .14 13 Curran,Alex.Direct' Broadcasting Keeping Current: On File at ERIC SatellitesMyth or Reality. Paper pre- International communication problems, sented at the annual meeting of the Interna- Periodicals to Note the effects of television dependence on poli- tional Institute of Communications, Ottawa, We would like to draw our readers' atten- tical'views, and developments in the area of Canada, September 8-11, 1980, 14pp. (ED tion to some of the communications peri- broadcasting satellites are addressed in the re- 192 405) odicals that are received in the Clearing- ports reviewed in this column. All are avail- Pointing out that, contrary to expecta- house. able in microfiche from the ERIC Document tions, there is still no fully operational direct URTNA Review; Revue de l'URTNA is a Reproduction Service (EDRS), P.O. Box broadcasting satellite system 23 years after bi-annualFrench-Engash communications 190, Arlington, Virginia 22210, USA. Some the launching of the first satellite, Curran journal, published by the Union of National of them tire also available in paper copy. poses several questions. Is there a perceived Radio andTelevisionOrganizationsof need for such a system? Is the technology Africa (URTNA). This organization pro- The Media Crisis.Miami,Florida: available at cost-effective levels? Has that motes, develops, and coordinates radio and . World Press Freedom Committee, 1980, technology been adequately tested? Would television activities in Africa. The Review 114pp. (ED 193 715) the system create more problems than it featur_es organizational and conferenceitifor- ThosewhohavebeenInvolvedin would solve? He suggests that there is a need mattpn, and arecentissue contained a UNESCO debates on the media ind on the for direct broadcast satellites to serve largi. lengthy report on rural radio in Anglophone New World Information Order offer com- areas of low population density,, and that the Africa with useful, country-specific informa- ments on the proposals of the MacBride availability of the technology at cost- effective tibif. For subscription information, contact Commission, a groupappointedby levels has been demonstrated by experiments URTNA Reviey, 101 rue Carnot, B.P. 3237, UNESCO to study the problems of interna- and studies; e.g.. low power-level satellites Dakar, Senegal. tional communications. Specific topics ad- have proved to be especially cost effective in Interface is a bi-annual journal, in English, dressed include (1) the right of access to Canada. He cites three satellite launches published by the Department of Commuaica- ,Ovate and public sources of information; (2).HERMES, serving Canada, the U.S., and tion and Journalism, Osmama University, special protection for journalists, (3) licens- Australia; URI, serving Japan; and ANIK-B, Hyderabad 500 007, India. The journal tries ing of journalists; (4) employmet t of jour- serving Canadaand discusses new projects to strike a balance between academia and the nalists by intelligence agencies of any coun- being considered in nine _uuntries. He con- community,internationalcommunication try; (5) a proposed international center for cludes with a look at some problems arising issues and national media concerns. Contact study and planning of information and com- from the fact that satellite signals cross na- the Editor at the above address for subscrip- municationstobeestablished within tional borders. Available from EDRS in tion information. UNESCO; (6) private ownership of news microfiche only for 9K plus postage. Also from India comes the interesting media; (7) problems created by advertising; monthly bulletin of the Research Institute for and (8) taxing of transnationals. Available o Maeda, Jiro. Direct Broadcasting Satel- Newspaper. Development, RIND Survey. It from WorldPress Freedom Committee, lites in Japan. Paper presented at the an- containstechnical printing and equipment Miami Herald,I Herald Plaza, Miami, FL nual meeting of the International Institute of information, discussions of policy issues, and 33101 (postage only), or EDRS in microfiche Communications, Ottawa, Canada, Septem- book reviews. For subsimption information, for 91¢ or paper copy for18.60 plus postage. ber 7-11, 1980, 26pp. (ED 192 404) contact CGK Reddy, 38 Pantheon Road, This discussion of the development and use Madras 600 008, India. o Becker, Lee B. and Fruit, Jeffrey W. of broadcasting satellites in Japan describes A newsletter that can be relied on to give The Growth of TV Dependence. Tracing the medium-scale experimental broadcasting clear coverage to current Issues of interna- the Origins of the Political Malaise. Paper satellite, YURI, which was launched by tional communication policy is the Chronicle presented at the.annual meeting of the Inter- NASA it. 1978. Experiments with YURI in of International Communication. Published national Communication Association, several different areasbasic technologies in monthly byInternational Communication Acapulco, Mexico, May 18-24, 1980, 29pp. the broadcasting satellitesystem,satellite Projects, Inc., in cooperation with Temple (ED 196 082) control technologies and operational control University's School Qf Communication and A heavy dependence on television news has techniques, and the reception of radio waves Tht.ater,. the Chronicle regularly provides in- been linked by research witn lower levels of from a broadcasting satelliteare reported fotmation on transborder data flow, the de- knowledge about the political system and to have shown favorable results and to have bate on the New World Information Order, negative evaluations of that system, i.e., suggestedthatpracticalapplicationsof education issues and conferences, as well as political malaise. This paper uses data from broadAsting satellites are technically feasible brief book reviews. Subscription information three different sources to examine more within the foreseeable future. A recommen- isavailable from !CPI, P.O. Box 2596, closely the shift away from print toward,dation is made to the Space Activities Com- Washington, D.C. 20013, USA. dependence on television for news, to deter- mission of Japan that an operational broad- An informative and carefully edited jour- mine the linkage between needs and depen- casting satellite be Idunched in 1983, prior to nal is Media Development, published quar- dency, and to determine changes in the the planned launchings of space platforms in terly by the World Association for Christian linkage between needs and dependency over 1985 aild 1990. Objections of commercial Communication, in London. Recent lead ar- time. In general, it is expected that an ex-broadcasters who fear disruption of regional ticles have focused on alternative news and amination of the needs of the audience will broadcasting by broadcasting satellites are information services, the New World Infor- revealsomecausesoftheincreased also presented. Available from EDRS in mi- mation Order, and Latin American grass-, dependence on television.It may be that crofiche only for 91e plus postage. roots structures of communication. Good viewers watch television in part to avoid con- coverage is given to media's use for social flict, yet the conflict included in news pro- service throughout the world,-and abstracts grams is the very thing producing their in Spanish are frequently provided. WACC Barbara B. Minor, Publications Coordinator, offices are at 122 King's Road, London SW3 frustration.Availablefrom EDRS in ERIC aearinghonse on information Resources, microfiche for 91r or in paper copy for $3.65 School ofEducation, Syracuse University, 4TR, England. plus postage. Syracuse, New York 13210, USA. (continued on page 10) Focus on Women Focus On Women(color, 16mm, 28 min.) cocoa pods, and enjoying the fruits of rich is available in English, Spanish, and French. harvests, were made available. Programs Three years ago, the report from In the U.S. it can be purchased for US $300 such as Cooperative Half Hour,Agbe Onije an international workshop held from the United Nations, Room 807, New Ojumo("The farmer who works hard will in Bangkk by the Asian and York, NY 10017, USA, attention Ms. Brook: eat every day"), andExe Agbe("The farm- PacificCentreforWomen Landis; to rent,it is available for US $30 er's gain"), came up regularly on the rediffu- and Development stated that the media were from the New York University Fihn Library, sion networks. "actively contributing to corroding the digni- 27 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003, ty of women. . ." USA. In Canada, the film is available from Lives Changed By New Cocoa A new film produced by the United Na- Marlin Motion Pictures, 47 Lakeshore Rd. The new crop was better from the stand- tions (UN) Department of 'Public Informa- East, Port Credit, Ontario, Canada LSG point of yield,quality, and productivity. tion reviews the image of women as shown in IC9. In other countries, to borrow the film, What were some of the effects of this im- film and TV inIndia, Egypt, and the contacta UnitedNationsInformation provement? Students who had earlier suf- Dominican Republic. The film takes a strong Center, or any of the UNDP fihn libraries. fered as a result of lack of funds couldgo, stand against injurious stereotypes and sup- back to school. New and beautiful houses ports effprts by women to assume responsi- (continued from page 11) sprang up to replace some of the old dilapi- bility for the improvement of their own lives. At the adoption stage of the process of dif- datedones.Peopleacquiredtransistor India's vast film industry perpetuates the fusion, the change agents were very effective. radios, and later, televisions. Farmers could notion that women's happiness comes from They came from the Yoruba land, spoke the now buy what they needed, and more people "submission to the right man." In the devel= language of the people, interacted freely with had money. New businesses, such as trading, opment of this theme, Indian films tradition- them, understood the intricacies of their so- and arts L.n.d crafts, developed. As people ally provide escapism and vicarious material- cial system, and were prepared to respect became more mobile, social interaction in- ism,as well -as predictably happy endings. them. The farmers in turn gave respect and creased. Their content does nothing to enhance the recognition to the Agricultural Assistants. Traditionally, the few young men that had the dignity of women. Not suprisingly, However, all was not smooth sailing. It cocoa had inherited it from their fathers. The technical functions of film production rest was not easy for them to work with individ- old men ruled the towns and villages because exclusively in the hands of men. Only now is ual farmers. First, there were only a fewthey controlled the source of wealth, and the National Film Institute of India begin- change agents, and part of their time wasthus had influence and power. But by the ning to train women in camera, sound, light- spent making field reports at their Ministry 1960's, the old order had changed, yielding ing, editing, and other technical skills. headquarters. Second, the farmers them- to the new, and this was evident in almost A paradox exists in Egypt's busy world of selves were not easy to find except on week- every aspect of life. televisionproduction.Because radio and ends. Most of them slept on the farms from However, the adoption of the innovation televisionsalariesingovernment broad- Monday to Friday; others went to the farms brought with it many social problems. Steal- casting are lower than those in the press or in very early in the morning only to return late ing became niore common. Young men who other countries' broadcast media, a large at night. The change agents could not meet had no cocoa resorted to theft to meet the proportion of the jobs are held by women. them on the farms because,. at certain times challenge of the new situation. Litigation engineering isconsidered a Electronic of the year, the bush paths were risky, muddy, abounded asaresultof arson,public broadcastersare "feminine"profession, and impassible, and the farms were far apart. fighting, and seduction of other people's usually women, and the head of the country's wives. Many young men became reckless as a TV programming is a woman. All the more Laggards and Reluctant Old Men result of drunkeness, and had fatal accidents striking, then, is TV's perpetuation of old The opinion leaders were very effective. on their vehicles. stereotypes of the role-of women, a diet fed They were part of the system, much respected Perhaps most significant was the erosion daily to an audience of one million families. and loved, widely traveled, and they had em- of the traditional system of settling disputes A social researcher interviewed in the film braced the innovation much earlier. Sinceand quarrels at the feet of elders. Elders no discusses her study of women's images por- their new crops were doing well, they had lit- longer had power, because they did not con- in the immensely trayed, and finds that tle difficulty in convincing others, except trol the purse strings. Young men took their popular soap operas, when the husband those who were lazy, to follow suit. The lazy cases to court, rather than presenting them ofthe straysthreateningthestability farmers and the old men were the greatest before the elders. is venerated familythe disruptive' cause headache for the agents. The latter stuck to Some of the above-mentioned points were typically a female univernity student or a their native cocoa until lesser yields drove indirect but very important effects of the in- working woman. novation. However, for most people., for In striking contrast to the first two, the them to frustration and unhappiness. The members of this group could be rightly refer- most organizations, and even for,the govern- final segment of the film shows programming red to as the laggards. ment (by way of more revenue), the adoption by, for, and about women who are making of the innovation brought about positive an effort to change and improve the condi- 1960 was a crucial time in the adoption of the hybrid cocoa because some of the early change. Without the use of a persuasive and tions of their lives. It features a TV program coordinated communications campaign, showing women making decisions and taking plantings had started to bear fruits on a large scale. People began to s'ee that the hybridwhich in this case relied primarily on inter- charge. Although the weekly, half-hour show, personal communications,itisdoubtful "Diferentes pero lguales," presents many cocoa was better, and the young farmers were taking more money home than thewhether the new cocoa could successfully publicservice types of activities(see DCR have replacedthe old in such a short time. 1125, January 1979), the film documents only elders who had earlier dominated the market. One: a group of rural women who have pooled Tongues started to wag. their resources (without the support of the Mobile vans, mainly organized and funded by the Ministry of Information, mounted Di. C.A. Ogonmilade is a Senior Lecturer in the men of the community) to buy a herd of Department of Educational Technology, Universi- goats. Their determination gives them new campaigns of words and posters in all the im- ty of He, Ile-lfe, Nigeria. His special interests are portant places in the state. Pictures of farm- utilizationof, audiovisual confidence and skills. to inproductionand ers nursing the young plants, spraying the materials acd management of media resources. Reviewed by Judy Brace 16 15

(continued from page 16) developed must be appropriate to the needs Summary of the users and the conditions prevailing in International information services must As we have seen, agncultural information the country in which it will be used. support the specialized centers and promote is needed by a wide range of users, from ad- In some developing countries computer their development into real "centers of ex- ministrators and financiers to research scum- systems have been successfully established, cellence," so that they become the place in fists and extension workers. Frequently it is but a :omputer should not be used just for its the world for information on their specializa- not practicable for international services to own sake. All too often grandiose schemes tion. (This is already the case with a number be aimed directly at these user groups, partic- for interconnected networks have been pro- of them.) In many instances, improvements ularly in the case of the farmer himself, the posed, and sometimes even implemented, in internal and external communications and end-user of much agricultural information. withoutany basic informationscience coordination of services within countries or It is instead necessary to have intermedi- groundwork to discover who is the user, what regions are vitalif national and regional aries who are responsible for repackaging the are his or her needs, and whether the system centers are to achieve these aims. information in line with local needs and con- will provide answers in a usable form. It is far Agriculture will maintain its priority posi- ditions. For example, the role of the exten- better,in some cases, to develop simple tion in the economic and social development sion officer or agricultural adviser in trans- systems based on photocopies of contents of most Third World countries and the need ferring the results of laboratort a"ci field pages, such as the East African Literature for information services will increase. It is trials into tangible benefits cannot be too Service and the CIAT. Contents Pages in only by close cooperation between develop- highly emphasized. Such benefits include in- Agricultural Science. These are effective and ing and industrialized countries that this creased crop yields and improvements in the are extremely popular with users. challenge can successfully be met. well-being of therural population. The agent's local knowledge of ecological and AGRIS, CAB, ATA The organizations mentioned in this article social constraints is invaluable in selecting the Of the many information services avail- may be Luntatted at the following addresses. appropriate information and presenting it in able, only one attempts to serve all user the appropriate way. groups with a "comprehensive inventory of AGRICOLA: The United States Department world-wide agricultural literature," and that of Agriculture National Agriculture Li- Specialized Centers is the FAO International Information System brary, Beltsville, Maryland 20705 USA In recent years many specialized agricul- for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology AGRIS: FAO InternationalInformation tural information centers have been estab- ( AGRIS). Other services have more limited System for the Agricultural Sciences and lished in developing countries. These consist aims. They may provide "a world agricul- Technology, AGRIS Coordinating Center, of the information departments of both the tural information service" covering material FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 international centers financed by the Consul- of "scientific importance" as does the Com- Rome, Italy tative Group on International Agricultural monwealth Agricultural Bureaux (CAB) or, Research ( CGIAR) and research or training as in the case of Abstracts on Tropical Agri- AIBA: Agricultural Information Bank for centers set up by regional or national govern- culture (ATA), "a selection of material of Asia, The University of the Philippines, ments. These informationcentershave practical interest to agricultural development Los Banos, Philippines tended to concentrate either on one specific andextensionworkersintropicaland crop (or small group of crops) or on the par- subtropical areas." ATA: Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture, ticular agricultural priorities of their country Many suppliers also offer selective dissemi- KoninklijkInstituutVoor de Tropen, or countries in their region. nation of information (SDI) services. This is Asdeling Agrarisch Onderzoek, Advisory These centers are ideally placed to act as another way in which the data base may be and Documentation Division, Mauntskade intermediaries, accessing international broken up into smaller sections more relevant 63, Amsterdam, Nether:ands systems and selecting, reprocessing, and re- to a specialized center's needs. packaging material for dissemination to their Bibliographies and reading lists, compiled CAB. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, own users. This pfocess should not only in- either on specific request or as a series of CAB Secretariat, Farnham House, Farn- clude the usual setecti-, e dissemination of in- publications from the major suppliers, can ham Royal, Slough, SL2 3BN, England formation and retrospective march services, alsobeextremelyusefulproductsfor but also such tasks as the regular production specialized centers. CGIAR: Consultative Group on Interna- of specialized collections of abstracts or in- The alerting function of international serv- tional Agricultural Research, Secretariat, dexes as is done by the Cassaw. 1rJurmation ices is all very well, whether by means of 1818 H St. N.W., Washington, DC 20433 Center st the Centro Internacional de Ag- journals, specialized bulletins, SD's:bibli- USA ricultura Tropical (C1AT) in Colombia, and ographies or magnetic tapes, but what the CIAT: Centro Internacional de Agricultura the Agricultural Information Bank for Asia user really wants is information; a biblio- Tropical, Apartado Aereo No. 67-13, Cali, (AIBA) in the Philippines. graphic reference alone often will not suffice. Colombia, SA The production of newsletters and bulk- The data base supplier can help in two ways: tins, the organization of translations and the by including informative abstractsinhis PeterThorpe Is the head of the Agricultural Infor- distribution of up-to-date reviews on specific publications, and by providing a document mation and Documentation Section, Department topics for extension workers can also be use- delivery or photocopying service. of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute, ful and much-appreciated functions of these the Netherlands. This Article is taken from apaper specialized centers. Abstracts .contrifiutedtothe Fortieth Congress of the Fed- The establishment of national, regional, Well-presented, informative abstracts can eration international de documentation (FID), held in Copenhagen in August, 1980. and international information networks is replace the original documents to some ex- essential for their successful operation. This tent. This is an extremely important aspect of is an area in which fruitful collaboration be- the provision of information in the develop- tween developing and industrialized coun- ing countries, but eveninindustrialized Excerpted and reprinted by permission from AgrIfild turallInformation Development Bulletin.vol 3. No, 2, tries should be sought. However, it should countries users prefer SDI services which -in- published by the United Nations conomis and Social always be remembered that thesystem clude abstracts to those which do not. Commission for Asia and the Pacific. 17 Information Systems Organization The uncoordinated, piecemeal develop- ment of government institutions and fre- New Resources for Agricultural Information quent reorganization in many developing Being Developed Around the Globe countries have resulted in duplication of ef- fort and dissipation of resources. The "coor- by Pe;::: Thoipe dination of all services involved in the provi- In place of a "Dileoma m Country X" for this issue, we are reprinting an article from sion of information" as laid down in the Agricultural Information Development Bulletin.The author presents a communications prob- UNESCO NationalInformationSystem lem familiar to many: where can people m developing countries with scarce library resources (NATIS) guidelines proves extremely dif- turn for information; in this case, agricultural information? The author then, in effect, ficult when information dissemination is the responds to that question by discussing information systems, offering practical suggestions, task of so many different ministries and _ and furnishing a list of information resources. departments. Note: DCRcannot continue its "Dilemmas in Country X" feature without contributions Resources from readers. We. urge subscribers wilhng to share development communication dilemmas Despite recent impro.velaentsin library from around the world to send their dilemmas toDCR.As always, anonymity will be pre- holdings in some places, most developing served on request. countries suffer from a lack of easy access to many important books and journals. When a The acquisition, processing and dissemina- A fundamental problem in many cases is journal is available it may well only be held in tion of information is an essential part of theone of attitudes. For example, the informa- one or two libraries in the country. developthent process. tion scientist is frequently mistaken for an Another problem is language. The domi- Different kinds of information arere- untrained library clerk by users; all too often nant position of Europeao language publica- quired by many different kinds of users: gov-this feeling extends to management and is tions in tropical agricultuie tends to create a ernment administrators, development bankreflected in low status and salariesfactors language barrier for many users in develop- officers, factory and plantation managers,hardly, likely to attract newcomers to the pro- ing countries where translation facilities are training and extension workers, universityfession. usually not easily available. .staff, research scientists, development con- Finance sultants and, last but not least, farmersCommunication The severely limited financial means of themselves. They all need the right informa- Even in the industrialized countries, in- most libraries and information centers in de- tion, at the right time, so that the right deci-formation services in agriculture have to deal veloping countries is self-eviden, The prob- sions can be made. with numerous small research stations, train- lem is made worse by the exchange control The introduction or further expansion ofing centers and so on, scattered throughout regulations of many countries and the rela- information services in developing countriesthe country, often well away from centers of tively high cost of journals, books, and infor- is.beset by a number of problems, the mostpop-illation and national library resources. In mation services from the industrialized coun- important of which are identified below. developing countries this problemisfre- tries. Personnel quently exacerbated by poor telephone and Role of information services In most developing countries there is cur-postal services and inadequate road or rail It is against this background that we have rently a great shortage of trained library andlinks. to consider the role of the international infor- information scientists. Fortunately, interna- This isolation not only delays postal and mation suppliers.Infact, thepictureis tional organizations, such as the Federationother communications, but it is also difficult generally not quite as bleak as it has been international de documentation and UNESCO,foryoung,newlytrainedinformation painted, since usually not all these problems have realized this prublem and have giver. itworkers to develop their full potential as they are equally severe in all countries. the priority it deserves in their programs. are cut off from their peers in this way. (continued on page 15)

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Jill Merrick. Director Stephen T. Martin, Assistant Director Heddy Reid. Editor Judy Brace. Resource Center Manager ISSN 0192.1312 D Into rnational Division New Technologies: Applications, Glossary; Academy for Educational Development 13 Writing for Radio