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The Journal of Technology Studies 81 - s y gi y to ention v y of the nation’ ic and technolo ation and in v olved. Thus, olved. some v , reflecting the interests The efforts to provide instruc- to provide The efforts gical inno irst half centur ention or contribution - to roups in v vent from entering science Blacks vent y history. This paper attempts to y history. gacy of intelligence, and it serves to gacy erse g ucture of science. All three have ucture of science. v to scientif ealth ed to pre This article focuses on the contributions of During the f The shortageranks of of Blacks among the eal a le v ell documented. ork inspire future to keep the Americans to keep African inspire future torch of technolo African or not to disprove written It was cal . full given discredit nonminorities who credit for an in the contribu- society but to recognize logical Americans who African Africans and tions of significantly helped mold and direct the evolu- This article is also intended tion of technology. as a education teachers to use for technology to youth African tool to encourage a very brilliant heritage have realize that they and w re aflame. England and the mid-Atlantic in New history, spirit, growing revolutionary states specifically, abolitionist sentiment, and Christian missionar The the education of Blacks. fervor favored religious groups, most notably of various work for Blacks is schools to establish the Quakers, w or from having their scientificor from having contributions and rewarded. acknowledged scientists, engineers, and mathematicians is not scientists, engineers, misdirected social pol- the result of some recent it is one dimension of the larger Rather, icy. American society and needs story of Blacks in past ideologies, reviewing to be understood by Whites of practices, policies, and expectations and Blacks (Bechtel, 1989). It is necessar the sociohistorical links among atti- examine and the tudes about race, educational policies, social str w generally tion to Blacks during this period were local and unconnected of the di large numbers of the young men and numbers of the young large could be scientists turn away. who women does it happen? Why Where does this happen? 1989). can be done about it? (Bechtel, And what ho , , y As y , like er v life. And ic raduates w g And at e American American science , in the 21st centur Whites (Bechtel, 1989). w ms, the source of the y a statistical rarity. In 1984 y a statistical rarity. w Black under en no Americans did not receive rentl African y simple ter uctures, beliefs, and attitudes. , 1991) Ev er grams because there are few Blacks grams are few because there y and cur gical, behavioral, and social—in which we and social—in which gical, behavioral, Science is a pervasive and dominating force and Science is a pervasive In v Africans and African Americans have con- Americans have African Africans and usmer Whites, Keith V. Johnson and Elwood D. Watson Johnson and Keith V. A Historical Chronology of the Plight of African Plight the of Chronology A Historical in Engineering Recognition Gaining Americans and Technology alues of American society at large in its own American society at large alues of a major institutional component of our society a major institutional component of our reflects the the scientific community inevitably v social str American society in general, reflects the dominance of an America is historically The Black scientist in anomal 2.3%, or 90,500, of Blacks accounted for only scientists and engineers the 3,995,000 employed (K live; directly or indirectly, it shapes the boundaries or indirectly, directly live; and directions of all phases of proper credit. Therefore, it is virtually impossi- Therefore, it is virtually proper credit. all of the significant to show ble contributions Americans in our society. African of It is a primary source of American society. in the understanding of the worlds—physical, biolo 11.3% of the labor force, but only Blacks were 4.2% of natural scientists, 7.6% of math and computer scientists, and 4.6% of engineers. point along the pipeline to a scientific career, tributed significantly to the evolution of many tributed significantly to the evolution can that we of the engineering technologies in areas such as manufactur- identify with today ing, construction, graphics, electronics, design many transportation. Due to past history, Americans’African been have inventions the Further, eye. obscured from the public auto- America in African slaves of inventions It wasn’t to their owners. belonged matically Americans were African that until after were they when for their inventions credit given sold some patents were when patented. But even to problem is obvious: There are few Black scien- There are few is obvious: problem Blacks in graduate tists because there are few Blacks in grad- there are few science programs; uate pro who are encouraged to take the undergraduate are encouraged to take who sources required for successful scientif careers; there are fe their high schools or grade are prepared by schools to choose such courses.

The Journal of Technology Studies 82 the Civil Rights Act of1866gave Blacks F Passage ofthe Fourteenth,Thirteenth, and g lo anyinstruct slave orfreeBlack(Franklin, 1973; throughout theSouthmakingitillegal to frightened theplantersthatlaws were passed actions by Blackswho hadbeeneducatedso (1822), andthe Turner rebellion(1831). These abor quicklyspread support vanished withthe Any possibilityofthesepracticesgaining wide- bound toteachtheirsla some progressive plantationowners feltmorally provide freeBlackswithaneducation,and support. There were afew isolatedefforts to e was low. Whites who wanted schoolingwere Blacks. Interestinpublic educationingeneral sla W societies asearly asthe1780s(Funke, 1920; Blacksbegan toorganize literary lished by Blacks,andinsuchlarge citiesas also played arole. A few schoolswere estab- were provided andcontrolledby Whites, Blacks Pifer tion well beforetheCivil War (Franklin, 1973; Oberlin andotherinstitutionsofhighereduca- college in America. Blackswere attending from Blacktograduate from Bowdoin -thefirst while JohnRusswurmwas gettinghisdegree 1826 Edward from Jonesgraduated Amherst also began tomove intohighereducation.In 32,629 Blackswere inschool1860.Blacks asawhole, and inthestatesterritories in1850,almost1,500were inschool; ties togetaneducation.Ofthe2,000Blacksin sive asfreeBlackstookadvantage ofopportuni- Frazier, 1949; Woodson, 1915). to attendpublic schools(Franklin, 1973; to adoptpoliciesthatwould allow moreBlacks promptedsomecommunities oftheNorth parts growing intensityofantislavery sentimentsin tion while othershadseparatefacilities. The communities provided public integrated instruc- xpected torely forfinancial ontheirfamilies ains intheirsocialandpolitical conditions. ifteenth wing theCivil War, Blacksmadetemporary inston, 1971). v er ti During the decade of Reconstruction fol- During thedecadeofReconstruction The socialclimateintheSouthduring Although mostoftheseeducationalef The resultsofthismovement were impres- , 1973). e, 1920;Lo v y eraef e re Amendments to theConstitutionand v olts b fecti w &Cliff, 1981). y Prosser(1800)and Vesey v el y precludededucating v es toreadandwrite. for ts w South. Blacksrespondedeagerly, andthousands Freedmen’s Bureau,established schoolsinthe Association andthegovernment-sponsored tions, suchasthe American Immediately afterthewar, religiousorganiza- Blacks freedby theadvancing Uniontroops. to establish educationalprograms forthose began tomake theirway states intotheSouthern (Woodson,services 1969). aiding thefreedmenwere quicktooffer their many individuals andorganizations interestedin education was importance. ofprimary And tage oftheirnew statusandfeltthatgettingan emancipated slaves were eagertotake advan- icant changecameintheareaofeducation. The 1934; Brawley, 1970).Probably themostsignif- lish antebellumsocialrelationships(Bond, restrictive legislation thatattemptedtoreestab- freedom andrightsofcitizenshiphindered educational oppor educating themwas viewed asabsurd.Providing were consideredinnately inferior—theideaof efforts toprovide educationforBlacks,who pared forsucharadicalchangeandopposed 1969;Funke, 1920). 1934; Cruden, have a significant impact on important issuesof impactonimportant have asignificant phy. The way thisproblem was addressed would beyond simplequestionsofeducationalphiloso- aseriousdilemmathat went faced Southerners horse” (W “ignorant Blackrabble was amenacing Trojan thepresenceofthislargeobservers, numberof America w Civil War, 95%oftheBlackpopulationin vide fortheirown basicneeds. At theendof have tobeeducatedsimply tosurvive andpro- anobviousgrasped fact: The Freedmen would of massive socialdislocation(Bechtel,1989). traditional antebellumsocialorderintheface dictable oftheirattempttomaintainthe part by toBlackeducationwas Southerners apre- mine theirpoliticalpower. The hostilereaction Republican under- idealsofequalityandfurther wouldschools taughtby Northerners instill Conser higher thanthatofmostfor it w been restrictedtotheupperclassesinSouth; meant extending aprivilege thathadhistorically ere attendingschoolsb ould ele Even beforethewar ended, White Southerners, however,White Southerners, were unpre- Nevertheless, someSouthern Whites vative fearedthatthe Southerners inston, 1971,p.681). as illiterate. v ate the former slaveate theformer toastatus tunities toBlacksw To mostenlightened y thelate1860s(Bond mer sla White v e o ould ha wners. v e , The Journal of Technology Studies 83 - - y fer y ain onl gional dif as spending ennessee T inds that spend er over the 60-year er over v y 3% of this mone , 10 Southern spent states ear hatsoe ealed the degree of inferiority ell. For example, during the example, ell. For v y Black schools. In 1915 the North Data (Bond, 1934) for the state of the state of 1934) for Data (Bond, Although the figuresAlabama show from Harlan (1968) noted that the re Statistics re eal no change w v re indicate the changes that took place over the 55- place over changes that took indicate the the 1875 to 1930. During period from year Alabama spent an aver- 1875-1876 school term, White teachers’ for age of $1.30 per pupil pupil for Black teachers’ salaries and $1.46 per of Black teach- in favor This difference salaries. of the Reconstructioners reflects the impact Alabama was 1885, however, administration. By paid to was teachers 85% of what Black paying 25 And $1.28). versus White teachers ($1.09 Alabama teachers still Black later, years their $1.10 per pupil whereas only received White counterparts as much six times got nearly ($6.42). time in expenditures the dramatic decline over to Black teachers, the data from 1870s to 1930 clearly reveals the massive dis- the massive reveals clearly to 1930 1870s and Whites of the education between parities the South. Blacks in period from 1870 to 1930. In 1870 White teachers $11.83 per pupil com- paid its of the pared to $7.48 for Black teachers—63% was White teachers’Tennessee By 1931 salary. $27.55 per pupil com- White teachers its paying pared to $17.25 for Black teachers—ag per of $28.00 Central states spent an average White child for education compared to only child in . But White $14.00 per at the same time, South Carolina w a total of $20 million on transporting rural school children. But, onl 63% of the White teachers’63% of the 1934). salary (Bond, White schools paled when ences in funding for suf- compared to the economic disadvantages fered b $1.13 per Black child for education. only of funding of Black education compared to that DC, , South. Using Whites in the of as a point of comparison, one f the six Southern states on school expens- ing by and teacher salaries falls far es, school property, called that could be remotely short of anything The breadth of the discrimi- “equal” education. in education is revealed Black nation against other areas as w 1933-1934 school y constituted spent on Black children who was - - e v After the ould ha vient place hich the most xamination of , subser uction w An e uction Black educational y equal basis. ould have been sent to ould have uction, the quality of edu airl enty-five the education- years v . With the goal decided upon, the two With . e as the funnel through w ifty or se v White schools were improved at the improved White schools were During Reconstr Ballard makes clear that it was unthinkable clear that it was Ballard makes From an egalitarian perspective, education perspective, an egalitarian From fund- be federally to have there would First, village. ed elementary schools in every funded group of highly a federally Second, trained teachers w would those villages. Centers of for adult education. to be established have This first carried thrust through could have the by for five to be followed to ten years, high schools with of regional establishment curricula and academic both vocational to ser gone on to have would Black youth able a period Over subsidized colleges. federally of f risen to have Africans would of the al level Americans. (p. 11) White that of Whites during Reconstr , w xpense of Black schools. the data on school expenditures from the mid the data on school expenditures tion. in the South had been generally cation provided Whites, but it was poor for both Blacks and administered on a f end of Reconstruction of and the reemergence the in political power, Southern conservatives policies of Black social and political disenfran- to Black education as well. chisement extended , and Through deception, blatant la e emerged: a system of separate and emerged: philosophy unequal schools for Blacks and industrial educa allowed anything of the sort. If Blacks had to be anything allowed White Southerners felt that the educa- educated, tion should be suited to their inferior mental capacities and to their proper in society pillars of post-Reconstr that is a means of raising those less fortunateis a means of raising to a If such a on par with the rest of society. level at the end of the Civil goal had been paramount sort could educational program what of War, Ballard (1973) described been developed? have scenario. a possible political and economic relationships because relationships and economic political had Blacks, they educate chose to Whites once should be pro- type of education what to decide depended And that decision ultimately vided. for Blacks in the saw Whites that upon the role social order. American

The Journal of Technology Studies 84 position (Litw improvement inone’s politicalandeconomic sion (suchaschurchesandnewspapers) and there were forself-expres- moreopportunities W andborderstates,including for the18Southern year, forexample, theaverage lengthoftheterm the Blackschools.In1929-1930school ing was for thepracticeofhaving terms shorter teacher ina White school.Possibly mostdamag- have twiceasmany studentsasthetypical teacher inaBlackschoolwould, ontheaverage, of Blackteacherswas alsosmall,thetypical wasportation provided. Butbecausethenumber schools were oftendistantandsolittletrans- dance remainedrelatively low becauseBlack to acquireanadequateeducation.Blackatten- theabilityofBlacks alsoundermined finances student (Frazier, 1949). dent, only $0.19was invested foreachBlack invested foreach inschoolproperty White stu- which datawere available, forevery $1.00 value, statesfor total property in10Southern rate schoolswere of one-roomschools.Interms schoolsinthe18stateswithsepa- elementary 1936 over half(55%)ofthe24,405Blackpublic 34% ofthetotalschoolpopulation.In1935- se the restrictionsontheiractivities were less They were notsubjecttothewhims ofamaster, schools w that fewcombined withthefact secondary be approximately fouryears behind. This policy, White student—inotherwords, heorshewould been inclass472da Black studentinSouthCarolinaw 1931). After eightyears ofschool,thetypical compared toonly 114days forBlacks(Work, average was schoolterm 173days for Whites days forBlacks.However, inSouthCarolinathe Blacks w South. Lifewas thereforedifferent forthose arouse thefearandapprehensionfoundin number intheNor 18th and19thcenturies,Blackswere few in wereBlacks intheNorth any better. Duringthe not concludethattheeducationalexperiences of states.Onemust has focusedontheSouthern tion (Rice,1971). educa- period attainedmorethanasixth-grade to w v ashington, w ere, the ard e Factors otherthandirectdiscriminationin Much ofthisdiscussionBlackeducation xplaining why few Blacksduringthis ho li ere estab y couldprotestag v ack, 1961;Quarles, 1969). as 164days for Whites and144 ed inthev th and West anddidnot lished forBlacks,goesfar ys lessthanthetypical arious Northern states. arious Northern ainst injustices,and ould ha ve ment bothsociall their color, they were restricted intheirmove- Blacks suffered additionalproblems: Becauseof (Beale,1975;Bond,school buildings 1934). driving away of ofteachers,andthedestruction forcible closingofschools,theintimidationand educating Blacksthatfounde ofresentmenttowardthere was anundercurrent not passlaws prohibiting theteachingofBlacks, into theirstates. laws offreeBlacks forbiddingthemigration ,,andOregon had Southerners. seemed nomorefondofBlacksthan communities seekingeducation.Northerners more ofthemwould intotheirstatesor spend money onschoolsforBlacks,fearingthat statesweretion. Many unwillingto Northern strong oppositiontotheirreceiving aneduca- Blacksfoundthattherewasdom intheNorth, (Litwack, 1961). race suitedonly forthemostmenialofpositions same everywhere: Blacksconstitutedaninferior forsuchpracticeswas the And thejustification andSouth. of lifeforBlacksinboththeNorth Discrimination andracialsegregation were facts shared by most . country, andthebeliefinBlackinferioritywas were region ofthe notrestrictedtoaparticular the margin. Both groups werethe margin. Both groups vulnerable American society, whereas Blacks remainedon wereforeign immigrants ableof tobecomepart (1973) notedthatwithvarying ofspeed, degrees inferior cities andtheirchildrenhadtoattendold, been forcedtolive inthepoorestsectionsof centers. Blacks had As withtheimmigrants, whoof immigrants settledinthemajorurban were by similartothosefaced thelarge number f 1961). (Litwack, andinferior curricula quate facilities, in theSouth,withsubstandardteachers,inade- separate schoolswere oftenasunequalthose limited intellectualcapabilityofBlacks,these schools. Reflectingthepre required themtoattendseparateall-Black had e states the early 1800s.By1830mostNorthern mostly during admitted Blacks,thisoccurred acing Blacksinthepub While some Despite having comparatively free- greater Popular beliefsandattitudesaboutBlacks Frazier (1949) remarked that theproblems xcluded Blacksfrom , ando vercrowded schools.Nevertheless, Although Nor White schoolsintheNor y andeconomicall lic schoolsoftheNor vailing beliefinthe White schoolsand xpression inthe ther n statesdid y . Greer th th The Journal of Technology Studies 85 - - as - entors, especial v riers to intellec , 1974). le bar , the w ar This did not preclude the W vernment refused to grant midab vil wners. ue that Black in wn freedom and to interest others xamined (Rossiter The federal go The few Blacks who managed to overcome Blacks who The few work the It is appropriate to describe briefly Before the Ci It is also tr y of the same kinds of reasons, the presence ain their o mounted the for xception to this rule. For most slaves and free most slaves xception to this rule. For outright theft of inventions by the slave owners, the slave by outright theft of inventions educational obstacles and enter careers in sci- educational obstacles still faced bigotryence and technology in other This discrimination aspects of their lives. of recognition to the lack of public extended of Black scientists, names and accomplishments recent- Only and inventors. medical researchers, of out evidence to search scholars begun have ly these Blacks’ that, contributions and discover although Blacks are rare in the history of no means miss- are by American science, they noting that, for It is worth ing or negligible. man long in science were of women and activities have recently historians and only by overlooked been ree American scientists and of some of these Black they in which the ways and to examine inventors sur tracts. them to transfer patent them patents or to allow rights to their o menial labor, and domestic service—activities and domestic labor, menial work- skilled White to be a threat not that would place in their proper Blacks keep ers and would and economic structurein the social (Spivey, the originator Armstrong was while 1978). But Black man to education, it took a of vocational of a prominent feature industrial training make Black education. for its scientificnot known accomplishments. It Blacks to be the sense to expect make not would e and keeping gaining Blacks, the main issue was Blacks with exceptional their freedom. Many ways abilities directed their talents to devising to g histori- by unrecognized in the South, were ly to mechanical devices invented who ans. Slaves burden of labor could not the physical relieve (Baker, protect their rights to the inventions as citi- not recognized were They 1913/1969). zens and therefore could not enter into con tual achievement. preachers in supporting Inevitably, efforts. such among the and orators outnumbered inventors Black community during the antebellum period 1913/1969). (Baker, A ey, v e way of e way v ginia. ir V fecti y instilling “habits as an ef orking classes” and mstrong, a Freedmen’s Ar ears enter Hampton” (Spi m the w raphy and mathematics, history, the history, and mathematics, raphy vilize” the Black b g White goals for Blacks in the social vide a check on what he believed was believed he vide a check on what ould for y er in the innate inferiority of Blacks, . Industrial training w v , to “ci Despite widespread animosity toward Despite widespread The content of Black schooling adequately Industrial education had its beginnings at Industrial education had its beginnings ho w Blacks, they did receive more education in the did receive Blacks, they North,education although the quality of that (1949) reported figures Frazier inferior. for was the proportion of Blacks with 1940 that show only of high school in the South was four years in the North it ranged 25% of the total, whereas how- The reality, the total. from 50% to 75% of America North is that Blacks in or South, ever, an inadequate and inferior education received for more available compared to that when Whites. reflected order Bureau administrator in Hampton, rebellion. of Blacks toward the natural tendency intended to affect education was of His program char- flawed innately a change in the ’s acter because of their low social status, but it was the but status, social it was low of their because conse- the suffered immigrant who individual for whereas economic change, quences of Thus, affected. entire groupBlacks the was race added a significantcaste through dimen- Black in the class life of the lower sion to the urban North. Armstrong thought that the best training for instill self-control one that would Blacks was and pro ensuring that Blacks could not rise beyond what ensuring that Blacks could not rise beyond and seen as their natural sphere as laborers was servants. Hampton Institute under the direction of General Samuel belie Thus, education at Hampton under 1978, p. 26). designed to maintain the Armstrong was be Southernquo. Black students would status trained in the principles of agriculture, unskilled of living and labor” (Spivey, 1978, p. 19). and labor” (Spivey, of living ultimately that Blacks were Armstrong believed destined to “for remain at the bottom of the economic hierarchy no faith in Blacks’ 1978). Having (Spivey, intel- a Armstrong thought it was lectual capacity, them academic training, of time to give waste “reading and elo- stating that courses involving cution, geo a curriculum I think, make sciences . . . would, of . . . those the best powers exhaust that would w

The Journal of Technology Studies 86 schools inNe both freedomandwealth. HeattendedCatholic tion, theyoung Rillieuxhadtheadvantages of Constance Vivant. Becauseofhisfather’s posi- a wealthy plantationowner, andhisslave 1806, Rillieuxwas thesonof Vincent Rillieux, inNewRillieux. Born OrleansonMarch17, ture. The samecouldbesaidofNorbert deriving living acomfortable fromitsmanufac- a patentforhisinvention forhandlingsailsor ingetting Black Philadelphian,hadnodifficulty For example, JamesForten (1766-1842),afree patents toslaves didnotapply tofreeBlacks. cess oftheirdevices (Baker, 1913/1969). wouldinformation impairthecommercialsuc- to have theirracekept secretforfearthatsuch 1970). Among freeBlacks,inventors preferred inventions were originatedby slaves (Haber, situation, itcannever beknown how many who would claimthemastheirown. Given this the plansfor new nationalcapital. Although team chosenb notable cameasasurveyor contribution withthe Hismost eclipses, andmedicinalformulas. years hepublished analmanac of tables, the solareclipseof1789.During thene his mathematicalabilityenabled himto predict over 20years. Hisknowledge ofastronomy and accuratel awoodenhim toconstruct strikingclockso Ploski & worldwide (Baker, 1913/1969;Haber, 1970; and revolutionized theproductionofsugar was inLouisiana aboontothesugar industry g sug theprocessofrefining um panthattransformed in 1846when heinvented andpatentedavacu- (Klein, 1971).Hismajoraccomplishmentcame on steamtechnology toengineeringjournals L youngest inappliedmechanicsat instructor in . At theageof24,hebecame 1761, hiscuriosityaboutmechanicalde equi publicgrated schoolwhere heobtainedthe grandmother, Banneker alsoattendedaninte- 1731. Taught toreadandwriteathomeby his was inBaltimoreCounty, born , in mother andaslave shehadpurchased, Banneker Benjamin Banneker. The sonofafreeBlack tomentiontheaccomplishments of not fail ’Ecole CentraleinP ranulated sug ar valent education.In ofaneighthgrade Government of restrictionsonthegranting A discussionofearly Blackinventors can- . The device yieldedasuperiorproduct— y madethatitk W illiams, 1983; Toppin, 1971). w Orleansandstudiedengineering y todevelop ar—at alo aris and contributed papers aris andcontributed ept perfecttimefor w price. The in xt 10 vices led vention and f the manuf invent adevice thatsolved acriticalproblem in ing thelocomotive enginesinspiredhimto Railroad where hisexperiences withmaintain- ontheMichigan Central took ajobasfireman employment asanengineer.find Heeventually because ofhisraceitw to returning America, McCoy foundthat apprentice asamechanicalengineer. Upon schools inMichig to runaway slaves. Heattendedgrammar 1982; Ploski& Williams, 1983). in to 50pairsse duce 150to700pairsofshoesaday, compared machine, itwas topro- possible foronefactory together. After Matzeligerdeveloped hislasting and bottomhalves shoes ofmanufactured ble—invent amachinethatwould sew thetop process. Hespentlonghoursatg time-consuming bottleneckintheproduction the two hadtobeputtogether parts by hand—a shoes were by beingmanufactured machines, He realizedthatwhile thetopsandbottomsof age of10andwent towork inashoefactory. toPhiladelphiaatthe in 1852.Heimmigrated McCoy, Matzeliger. andJanEarnst were Lewis Latimer, Granville T. Woods, Elijah advance of American industry. Mostnoteworthy of considerableinthemechanical importance a numberofBlackinventors produceddevices 1971). (Haber, 1970;Ploski& Williams, 1983; Toppin, Washington, DC,was namedinhishonor although in1970,Banneker Circlein recognition intheUnitedStates— official accomplishments,hereceived little his scientific publicly recognized inFrance andEnglandfor continuous and automaticlubricationofmoving invented the“lubricatingcup,” which provided time-consuming andcostly procedure. McCoy bymachines andlubricatetheparts hand, a centur from fusing together.metal parts Inthelate19th constantly neededlubrication toprevent the lions ofdollarsthate the ageof37andne grew dramatically. Matzeligerdiedin1889at went down, andthe American shoeindustry vention (Haber, 1970;Logan & Winston, Elijah McCoy was inCanada1844 born Jan Matzeligerwas inDutchGuiana born During thesecondhalfof19thcentury, inancial costtodotheseemingl y , f actor acturing industr wn b y w an andw orkers hadtostopthe y hand. v v er realizedan entuall as impossib y. Heavy machinery The costofshoes ent toScotland y deri reat ph v y ofthemil- le forhimto ed fromhis y impossi ysical - The Journal of Technology Studies 87 y the tation as 3.22 erage w v On Measuring rammar, geometry, rammar, y unheard of b . He graduated first in y unknown to the y unknown y ersity for a disser v tuall rade-point a . Bouchet was the first. Bouchet was Black ale Uni Y e a doctorate from an American univer- e a doctorate from an v Edward Bouchet was born in 1852 to free Bouchet was Edward in the fall University Yale Bouchet entered Most of the Black scientists and inventors Most of the Black scientists ysics from orld of science and literall to recei sity and only the sixth person in the United sity and only Yet, a PhD in physics. States to be awarded historyother than an occasional footnote in the of Black education, Bouchet and his accom- plishments remain vir w Refracting Indices Refracting happened to Bouchet What general. in world facing the adversity a glimpse into provides America. War educated Blacks in post-Civil he , where Haven, parents in New most of Like “ school.” attended a public small, it was the schools for Blacks in the city, In 1868, one teacher. and had only ungraded, the firstBouchet was Black to be accepted into Hopkins Grammar School, a preparatory school for the classical and scientific departments at at Hopkins, years his two During College. Yale he studied and Greek g algebra, and Greek histor chosen valedictorian his class in 1870 and was (Bechtel, 1989). When he gradu- of 1870 and continued to excel. ated in 1874, his g on a 4.0-point scale, the sixth highest in a class to Yale of 124. In 1875, Bouchet returned to During his two in physics. pursue graduate work in the graduateyears school, he paid special ing Edison’s incandescent lamps. He supervised lamps. incandescent ing Edison’s , New lights in of electric the installation In 1884, Montreal, and . Philadelphia, he where the Edison Company, Latimer joined patents instrumental Edison’s in defending was 1982; Winston, & 1970; Logan in court (Haber, 1983). Williams, Ploski & self-taught very gifted, of the 19th century were academic or professional lacked who individuals This should not sciences. training in the physical apply be surprising since the description would scientists and inven- American White to equally in only In fact,tors at the same time. it was 1861 that the first granted a in was doctorate Probably University. Yale science—physics—at accomplishment in the his- the most noteworthy tory of Blacks in science occurred 15 years just Bouchet, a 24- Alexander In 1876, Edward later. a PhD in awarded was Black man year-old ph in geometrical optics entitled - - - ven the ven y being gi gan & Winston, & gan wings and descrip estinghouse, and Bell ilaments that were longer ilaments that were , 1970; Lo W velopment of the Synchronous velopment entions bore his name, including v as named chief draftsman. Needing a , Patent Solicitors. Demonstrating his , Patent erhead conduction system for electric rail y w v Lewis Howard Latimer was born in Latimer was Howard Lewis In the area of electrical engineering, In the area of electrical wn for his de elephone (Haber ways and the “third rail” used in most subway ways he held as the “Black Edison,” systems. Known assigned to were of which 60 patents, many over General Electric, 1971). Toppin, 1983; Williams, 1982; Ploski & At the age of 10, in 1848. forced to quit school and help sup- Latimer was After serving in the United port his family. he War, Service during the Civil States Naval & with Crosby as an office boy employed was Gould superior skill after reluctantl chance to try hand at drafting, Latimer ulti- his matel skilled draftsman to help prepare his patent Graham Bell asked Alexander application, Latimer to prepare the dra tions for the telephone patent issued in 1876. on his own to work began Latimer eventually a method in 1881, he developed and inventions, of making carbon f filaments,lasting than previous improv- greatly Granville T. Woods and Lewis Latimer deserve and Lewis Woods T. Granville Born 1856, in Ohio in special recognition. attended school until the age Woods T. Granville in a machine shop, he employed of 10. First his mechanical aptitude continued to develop on the railroad and reading books on working took electricity in his spare time. He reportedly a course in electrical and mechanical engineer T parts. His inventions were significant were in perfect- parts. His inventions system eventually lubrication overall ing the heavy plants with industrial large used in all McCoy of 40 years, a period Over machinery. for his lubrica- than 50 patents acquired more his race made as he died poor, yet tion devices, it difficult profit to realize any for him the from that made millions for others. inventions it is often claimed Although not documented, is the real McCoy” “It’s that the expression Ploski 1970; (Haber, devices associated with his 1983). & Williams, the o ing but was essentially self-taught. He invented essentially ing but was a telephone transmitter in 1884 but is best kno This system Telegraph. Railway Multiplex stations and between communication enabled railway improved trains and greatly moving period from 1879 to 1899, In the 20-year safety. 23 separate in

The Journal of Technology Studies 88 ral sciencesmade himincreasingly unattractive academic education andhistraininginthenatu- lar, tolimitBouchet’s served His opportunities. Hampton-Tuskegee modelforBlacksinparticu- By theendofcentur tur during thelatterhalfof19thcen- instruction career. The ascendance ofvocational-industrial other thanracehadanimpactonBouchet’ Butbarriers with hissuperiorqualifications. him seriously even forapositiononitsfaculty (Bechtel, 1989;Perkins, 1978). favorableinstructors toindustrialeducation including Bouchet,andreplacedthemwith alltheteachers, managers proceededtofire industrial trainingatHamptonand Tuskegee, the efforts toredirecttheICYalonglineof Washington’s educationalphilosophy. Intheir demic educationandreceptive toBooker T. had becomeopenly hostiletoclassicalandaca- stating thatthecoursesw tute’ their behalf.In1894,astudymadeoftheinsti- Blacks torespondtheefforts beingmadeon nity asthe disillusionedwiththeBlackcommu- mid-, many PhiladelphiaQuakers were Bouchet’s fortheworse. lifetookaturn Bythe during thelasttwo decades ofthe19thcentury, years. However, aswithall American Blacks of 1876andtaughtattheICYforne (Perkins, 1978). invite Bouchettoheadthe new scienceprogram FundthatledCopeto ment oftheScientific ciples ofappliedscience.Itwas theestablish- intheprin- Fundtopromotelearning Scientific the school’s offerings, Copeestablished a geometry, andchemistry. Inaneffort toexpand geography, GreekandLatinclassics,algebra, thatincludedancienthistory,ICY acurriculum Blacks, Copeandtheothermanagersoffered at eral educationandtheunlimitedcapabilitiesof Youth (ICY).Firmbelievers inthevalue oflib- Blacks inPhiladelphia,theInstituteforColored the boardofmanagersaFriends schoolfor by aged andfinanced Alfred Cope,amemberof tion (Bechtel,1989). Wright, hesuccessfully completedhisdisserta- mental physics. Underthedirectionof Arthur attention tochemistry, mineralogy, andexperi- y , andtheo s cur No White college would have considered Bouchet ar Bouchet’s educationwas graduate encour- riculum suggestedthatitbesimplif y no v w questionedtheabilityof ri erw v ed inPhiladelphiathefall helming acceptanceofthe y, thenew managers ere “pitchedtoohigh. xt 26 s ied, ” and craftsmenoutofb wouldlarge corporations putmany tradesmen White workers. toseethattheriseof Itfailed Blacks inthetrades,arousinghostilityof on itsown itmisjudgedthedemandfor terms, kept Blacksineconomically inferiorjobs.Even types aboutBlackintellectualinferiority, andit stereo- for professionalcareers,itperpetuated The movement stoppedstudentsfromstriving of studentshemighthave trainedinscience. only alsoforthefuturegenerations forhimbut movement createdforBouchetwere tragicnot (p. 65). giance tooneschoolofthoughtortheother” . Menwere by labeledandearmarked thealle- a ’s attitudetoward industrialeducation.. Employment andpromotiondependedoftenon social pressure,toangerandeven toblows. . disputants cametorival organizations, tosevere and industrialeducationwas abitterone.“The by DuBois(1973),thedebatebetween academic ed theindustrial-educationphilosophy. As noted as acandidateatBlackcolleges thathadadopt- scholarly Hisideason cell-membrane journals. published two booksandover 60papers in University ofChicago.Duringhiscareer, he 1916, hereceived hisPhDinbiology fromthe Laboratories at mer researchattheMarineBiological University andbegan a20-year periodofsum- from Dar anddevelopment.structure After graduating developed aninterestinbiology, especially cell Incollege he with honorsfromDartmouth. Justreceived1883, Ernest hisbachelor’s degree Julian, andCharlesDrew (Bechtel,1989). to biology andmedicine:E.Just,Percy contributions three Blackswho madescientific ence andengineering.Consider, forexample, and women began tomoveofsci- intothefields asasmallnumberofmen of the20thcentury atthebeginning changeoccurred An important lum inthedirectionof Black colle industrial education,w ted. W. E.B. DuBoisledthismovement against schools, itisnoteworthy thatsomeBlacksresis- implement itthroughcontrib industrial trainingforBlacksandhelpedto Franklin, 1973). The difficulties thattheindustrial-education The difficulties Born inCharleston,SouthCarolina, Born Although Whites enthusiastically endorsed tmouth, hetaughtbiolo ges refusedtochangetheircur W oods Hole,Massachusetts.In usiness (DuBois,1973; hile leadersatsome Tuskegee andHampton. utions toBlack gy atHoward ricu - The Journal of Technology Studies 89 ere y aining y w gel vard irst Black to tant, the e been lar v en more impres- v as the f , or Percy Julian, or , or Percy y learn the names raduate of Har America ha A g Wright w m of research grants, prestigious wis Latimer White . Students rarel et their names and deeds remain obscure. oods, Le To this discussion of unrecognized scien- unrecognized of this discussion To There is little doubt that White scientists of There is little doubt that The achievements of Black intellectuals and The achievements umental in the transformation of American umental in the transformation of e, y W orld in the for v . tists must be added several others. One is others. several be added tists must his doctorate received who Turner, Charles H. He of in 1907. from the University of animal papers in the area many published of insect activity and the phenomenon behavior, for circling” is named referred“Turner’s to as authority on an A. Hinton was William him. for developing disease and responsible venereal detecting . In 1949, for Test the Hinton he became the first of medicine Black professor chemist and chief A. Hall was Lloyd at Harvard. for Griffithdirector of research Laboratories in Chicago. He transformed the meatpacking of curing salts industry with his development for processing and preserving Louis meats. and a leading surgeon was Wright Tompkins in for his work medical researcher best known the intradermal method of smallpox developing He also pioneered in drug therapy vaccination. the firstfor cancer and was to use chlortetracy- cline on humans. Medical School, American in the be elected to a fellowship & 1970; Logan (Haber, of Surgeons College 1983). Williams, 1982; Ploski & Winston, from the scientific recognition this caliber won w positions, and prizes. More impor to continue their research and their teach- urged ing of future scientists. In light of the faced, and discrimination these Black scientists their accomplishments are e si learn the importanceStudents quickly of such Whitney, Eli men as Benjamin Franklin, Graham Bell, and Alexander Thomas Edison, are held up as These individuals Jonas Salk. was work whose greatand inventors scientists instr society , Granville Benjamin Banneker, T scientists in their equally important contributions their equally to the American science and transformation of industry. obscured, ignored, or diminished in importance. ignored, obscured, the pri- of science and research was The world White males. Society provided domain of vate Blacks with more appropriate arenas for g - irst lems of irst to syn s research ving many y and the f America’ ger as also the f lood, and his research lood, ere unable to afford the to afford ere unable ho w w, medical doctor and medical w, ning point in the struggle of Black ain access to as a tur Born in Alabama in 1899, Percy Julian in 1899, Percy Alabama Born in Charles Dre lood plasma is credited with sa Black to be appointed an examiner by the by Black to be appointed an examiner 1970; American Board of Surgery (Haber, 1971). Toppin, 1983; Williams, Ploski & attended DePauw University, where he was where University, attended DePauw Beta Kappa. He taught at and Phi valedictorian State College West and Howard, Fisk, of and the University before attending Harvard and synthetic A specialist in derivative Vienna. cortisone, a cheap and drugs, Julian discovered from arthritis treatment for derived effective the first was oil. In 1935, Julian to syn- soybean important in the treat- thesize physostigmine, ment of glaucoma. He w activity completely changed the scientific changed completely activity opin- demonstrated as he successfully his time ion of that the cells’ are and ectoplasm cytoplasm As important in heredity. as the nucleus equally of the period, of the Black scientists with most in the proper recognition received Just never respected and although he was United States, honored in the scientific of Europe capitals Ploski & 1970; Manning, 1983; (Haber, 1971). Toppin, 1983; Williams, thesize hormones, reducing the cost of greatly to thou- these drugs and making them available sands of people w the post offered natural drugs. He was expensive for the of chief chemist and director of research in Chicago, the firstGlidden Company Black scientist to obtain such a prestigious position. This w scientists to g Williams, 1970; Ploski & facilities (Haber, 1971). 1983; Toppin, in College Amherst at educated was researcher, Massachusetts and took his medical degree from in his in . Early McGill University he became interested in the problems career, associated with the transfusion and storage of He took a teaching position at Howard blood. on his doctor of working and while University science degree at Columbia wrote a dissertation an expert He soon became on blood. on banked separating and storing b on b 1941, he was II. In War World during lives called to England to help with the prob storage and set up the firstblood bank in blood one of the first was England. Drew Blacks to become a diplomat in sur

The Journal of Technology Studies 90 Segregation produced isolation:BlackPhDsin insurmountable obstacletotheBlackscientist. tional discriminationthatcreated analmost toward individuals ofinstitu- arethepatterns 1982; Manning,1983). help hisrace(Haber, 1970;Logan & Winston, Whites toteachatBlackuni research centeroruniversity andwas urged by of despite hisscientif several Just, actsofracialviolence.Ernest andbombedin house inOakbrookwas setafire overnight. DuringhistenureatGlidden, statute prohibitingBlacksfromstaying , forajobinterview becauseofacity Black, andhewould not goto Appleton, DePauw’s becausehewas department chemistry Julian was deniedappointmentasheadof (Bechtel,1989).Percycame aroundacorner White la munity Bouchet w College inLawrenceville, Virginia, Edward tion aswell. withthespecterofracismanddiscrimina- but discovery,the challengeandelationofscientific notonlyearly with Blackscientistswere filled fered discriminationandviolence). were notacknowledged), ordestroyed (they suf- stealing theirideasfrom Whites), hidden(they called freaks),minimized(the individuals hadtobeexplained away (they were inferiority (Winston, 1971). Therefore, such White beliefinBlackintellectualandsocial exist foundationofthe challengedthevery not supposedtoexist, thatthey andthefact did Blacks presentedagrave problem. They were ofthecentury,the turn educatedandintellectual present inBlacks. —characteristics notthoughttobe ple innateabilities;thelatterintelligenceand or create. activitiesThe former requireonly sim- notinvent, produce,orentertain, form, design, According tothestereotype,Blackswere toper- than thatofscholarorscientist(Lewis, 1972). seen by asmoreappropriate thedominantgroup ditional amongpowerless peopleandareoften roles ofgladiatorandjesterhave longbeentra- their placeinthe American socialorder. The success andnotoriety, for arenasmorefitting fered anappointmentatamajor More impor During hisbrieftenureatSt.Paul’s From theperspective of White America at . Ne wyer heaccidently intoasthey bumped as respectedandadmiredinthecom v er theless, hew tant thantheseactsofracism ic discoveries, was never as assaultedby a v ersities inorderto y w ere accusedof American The li ves of - ic community inthe from fullparticipation American scientif- (Julian, 1969).Excludedbecauseoftheirrace fearful environment, was the PhDdegree afarce science ingeneral.Inthistypeofrestrictedand y lence reinforcedby numerouslynchings every actions ofBlacks,theconstantthreatvio- designed torestrictthesocialandpolitical societies (Julian,1969; Winston, 1971). and were fromlocalchaptersoflearned barred lic librariesand White university laboratories located, Blackscholarswere denieduseofpub- the South,where mostBlackcolleges were available equipmentorlibraries.In forscientific their mentors.Blackcolleges hadlittlemoney tist’s pleasureoftrainingstudentstosurpass English. These teachersseldomhadthescien- lacked advanced traininginmathematicsand areas,whodents fromtheinnercityorrural colleges (like JustorJulian)oftentaughtstu- positionsinBlack were enoughtofind fortunate resources andpoorly equippedlabs. Those who of theircareersinhighschoolswithlimited Edward BouchetandCharles Turner spentmost thetic totheneedsofaresearchscientist. and highschools,which were oftenunsympa- science were forcedtoteachinBlackcolleges la ofmedicine,teaching,and ments. Inthefields accomplish- andscientific their qualifications denied thereco America’s mostprestigiousuniversities were the highestle T any Blackwho knew aboutJust,Julian,or rather thanbiology, physics, orchemistry. For dents intocareersineducation,medicine,orlaw talentedstu- continues todirectscientifically to provide marketable skills,apointofview that ofthecentury,Blacks attheturn educationhad they (Manning,1983; faced Winston, 1971).For out ofhisown bitterrecognition ofthereality students frompursuingcareersinsciencegrew ence. Er w obscurity the pragmaticBlack decideditw roles Blackswere to play in American society, made byUnder therules the Whites concerning while aBlack clientele. restrictedtoserving ear urner, thelesson was clear:Even thosewith w onder thatsofe , onecouldf , andtheexclusion from thecommunityof To thiscanbeaddedJimCrow laws Under suchhistoricalconditions,itisno nest Just’s motive indiscouraginghis . v , thesescientistslanguishedin el of education and degrees from el ofeducationanddegrees gnition andrespectbef ind jobsandprosper w Blackschosetostudysci as bettertobe , albeit itting - The Journal of Technology Studies 91 - x . as making xpecta m of track- riculum motivation xpress a desire wn cur and . The evidence is just The evidence . mation that w ocational education . Given the historical con- . Given fect, in the for m, and teacher e interest orld into a more comple atered-do lem, as in the past, remains at hile American industry was hile payoff opportunity or ears ago, v The prob ming the w riculum refor reward Eighty y of the past, parents, edu- break the hold To Yet, below the surface a different image can the surface a different below Yet, e courses in the sciences or e ved to perpetuateved Black social and economic ser locking a generation of Blacks into inferiority, Black chil- Today, jobs. low-status low-paying, schools in an dren are bused to excellent attempt to equalize educational opportunity. are the bus and in the school, they once off Yet from away or intimidated counseled, tracked, academic courses into less rigorous curricula. the typical student at At the turn century, of the learned simple trades and Tuskegee Hampton or domestic skills w going through a transfor and scientifically sophisticated arena (Bechtel, 1989). forward need to move cators, and policymakers tions. the typical Black Today, such skills obsolete. student studies a w math and science courses of higher level devoid age that is in a computer are living we while transfor Historical evidence shows that Blacks in that Blacks shows evidence Historical in and motivation a strong interest America had desire continues This an education. for getting educa- Blacks seek higher numbers of as large is tion. Second for no payoff there was ditions, for most Blacks the picture appears Today, getting an education. found in all profes- as Blacks are more positive (Betchtel, of achievement sions and at all levels 1989). be seen. Less than 2% of all doctoral scientists Black students America are Black, and few in tak complete those who to pursue such careers. For graduate school, the door to a science career is opened. of basic educational opportunity and the level White its desegregated America has experience. as schools and has renounced its past practices and mean-spirited. But those counterproductive practices remain, in ef ing, cur as clear that Blacks were denied the opportunity Blacks were as clear that and extralegal legal by for a quality education advantage to take are able Blacks Today, means. of the bar- of educational opportunities as many third, And been removed. riers of the past have is the identified. are First - ly - as y edu ed v xamine utions of those White society has often le within an ostensib The rare Black scientist w gnize the contrib rent educational policies directed t of the policies that depri y. And while a few (such as a few while And y. ere of superior quality and impor y is more than description and expla- wn because for Separate, unequal, and discriminator Specific supports this argument. evidence The Black scientist is both rare and rela- Histor ard to cur g ere withheld. refused to reco the obstacles placed before to overcome able them. In part, the Black this failure to recognize inferi- scientist stems from beliefs about Black would these individuals acknowledge To ority. of those beliefs be to demonstrate the fallacy and the ef Blacks of equal and quality education. Edwards (1959), in a survey of 300 Black pro- of 300 Black in a survey (1959), Edwards the respondents found that half of fessionals, other consideration to careers serious had given expressed had. Many presently than the one they a primary archi- interest in becoming engineers, buttects, or research scientists felt that Blacks occupa- in these could not earn a decent living a physicist respondents, tions. One of Edwards’s to enter had wanted as a teacher, working now the field changed his mind of engineering. He it became clear that despite his ranking when who White classmates near the top of the class, jobs as student him could get far below were laboratory he could not. technicians while rare because of an educational unknown: tively that produced laborers not scholars, philosophy and unkno an employed teacher or lawyer than an under- than an lawyer teacher or an employed scientist. employed cational policies served to keep a generation of cational policies served to keep and politically, Blacks at the bottom socially, economicall to break able Bouchet, Just, and Julian) were through and acquire a quality education, being Black meant that in most instances the rewards w faced with a lack of research facilities, funds, any that by for achievements and recognition standard w the historical conditions, one can tance. Given treated in Black scientists were understand why But to understand is not to justi- such a manner. Educational policies served to suppress and fy. America, demoralize generations of Blacks in creating discredib open society. has the past taught with What the present. re nation; one can often use the past to e toward Blacks? Several major themes can be major Blacks? Several toward

The Journal of Technology Studies 92 Tennessee StateUniversity, Johnson City. professor intheDepartmentofHistoryatEast Chapter ofEpsilonPi Tau. Johnson City. HeisamemberofGammaZeta Geomatics atEast Tennessee StateUniversity, and ChairoftheDepartment Technology and students in America. careersofBlack continue toderailthescientific that and addresstheeducationaldeficiencies Kusmer, K.(1991). Bond, H.M.(1934). Ballard Haber, L.(1970). Greer, andthepublic Negroes, schools.InM.B. C.(1973).Immigrants, Katz(Ed.), F Employment andEarnings R.(1969). Cruden, Bra Beale, H.K.(1975). Baker, H.E.(1969). References Klein, Julian, P. InS.L. L.(1969).Onbeingscientist,humanist,andNegro. Wormley &L.H.Fenderson Harlan, L.R.(1968). Funke, L.(1920). ineducation. The Negro Franklin, J. H., A. A. Moss,Jr. (2000). Edwards, F. G.(1959). DuBois, W. E.B. (1973). Bechtel, H.K.(1989). razier wle Elwood D. Watson, Ph.D. isanassociate Dr. Keith V. 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