Chapter 14: Reasoning and Hypothesis Testing
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Logical Reasoning
Chapter 2 Logical Reasoning All human activities are conducted following logical reasoning. Most of the time we apply logic unconsciously, but there is always some logic ingrained in the decisions we make in order to con- duct day-to-day life. Unfortunately we also do sometimes think illogically or engage in bad reasoning. Since science is based on logical thinking, one has to learn how to reason logically. The discipline of logic is the systematization of reasoning. It explicitly articulates principles of good reasoning, and system- atizes them. Equipped with this knowledge, we can distinguish between good reasoning and bad reasoning, and can develop our own reasoning capacity. Philosophers have shown that logical reasoning can be broadly divided into two categories—inductive, and deductive. Suppose you are going out of your home, and upon seeing a cloudy sky, you take an umbrella along. What was the logic behind this commonplace action? It is that, you have seen from your childhood that the sky becomes cloudy before it rains. You have seen it once, twice, thrice, and then your mind has con- structed the link “If there is dark cloud in the sky, it may rain”. This is an example of inductive logic, where we reach a general conclusion by repeated observation of particular events. The repeated occurrence of a particular truth leads you to reach a general truth. 2 Chapter 2. Logical Reasoning What do you do next? On a particular day, if you see dark cloud in the sky, you think ‘today it may rain’. You take an um- brella along. -
A Task-Based Taxonomy of Cognitive Biases for Information Visualization
A Task-based Taxonomy of Cognitive Biases for Information Visualization Evanthia Dimara, Steven Franconeri, Catherine Plaisant, Anastasia Bezerianos, and Pierre Dragicevic Three kinds of limitations The Computer The Display 2 Three kinds of limitations The Computer The Display The Human 3 Three kinds of limitations: humans • Human vision ️ has limitations • Human reasoning 易 has limitations The Human 4 ️Perceptual bias Magnitude estimation 5 ️Perceptual bias Magnitude estimation Color perception 6 易 Cognitive bias Behaviors when humans consistently behave irrationally Pohl’s criteria distilled: • Are predictable and consistent • People are unaware they’re doing them • Are not misunderstandings 7 Ambiguity effect, Anchoring or focalism, Anthropocentric thinking, Anthropomorphism or personification, Attentional bias, Attribute substitution, Automation bias, Availability heuristic, Availability cascade, Backfire effect, Bandwagon effect, Base rate fallacy or Base rate neglect, Belief bias, Ben Franklin effect, Berkson's paradox, Bias blind spot, Choice-supportive bias, Clustering illusion, Compassion fade, Confirmation bias, Congruence bias, Conjunction fallacy, Conservatism (belief revision), Continued influence effect, Contrast effect, Courtesy bias, Curse of knowledge, Declinism, Decoy effect, Default effect, Denomination effect, Disposition effect, Distinction bias, Dread aversion, Dunning–Kruger effect, Duration neglect, Empathy gap, End-of-history illusion, Endowment effect, Exaggerated expectation, Experimenter's or expectation bias, -
Evolutionary Psychology and Human Reasoning: Testing the Domain-Specificity Hypothesis Through Wason Selection Task
Evolutionary Psychology and Human Reasoning: Testing the Domain-Specificity Hypothesis through Wason Selection Task Fabrizio Ferrara ([email protected])* Amedeo Esposito ([email protected])* Barbara Pizzini ([email protected])* Olimpia Matarazzo ([email protected])* *Department of Psychology - Second University of Naples, Viale Ellittico 31, Caserta, 81100 Italy Abstract during phylogenetic development. Both these approaches, albeit based on a different conception of the human mind, The better performance in the selection task with deontic rules, compared to the descriptive version, has been share the assumption that it is better equipped for reasoning interpreted by evolutionary psychologists as the evidence that with general (e.g. Cummins 1996, 2013) or specific (e.g. human reasoning has been shaped to deal with either global or Cosmides, 1989; Cosmides & Tooby, 2013) deontic norms specific deontic norms. An alternative hypothesis is that the rather than with epistemic concepts (i.e. the concepts related two types of rules have been embedded in two different forms to knowledge and belief). of reasoning, about and from a rule, the former demanding Experimental evidence achieved mainly by means of the more complex cognitive processes. In a between-subjects study with 640 participants we manipulated the content of the selection task (Wason, 1966) is thought to support this rule (deontic vs. social contract vs. precaution vs. descriptive) claim. In the original formulation, this task consists in and the type of task (reasoning about, traditionally associated selecting the states of affairs necessary to determine the to indicative tasks, vs. reasoning from, traditionally associated truth-value of a descriptive (or indicative) rule expressed to deontic tasks). -
“Dysrationalia” Among University Students: the Role of Cognitive
“Dysrationalia” among university students: The role of cognitive abilities, different aspects of rational thought and self-control in explaining epistemically suspect beliefs Erceg, Nikola; Galić, Zvonimir; Bubić, Andreja Source / Izvornik: Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 2019, 15, 159 - 175 Journal article, Published version Rad u časopisu, Objavljena verzija rada (izdavačev PDF) https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i1.1696 Permanent link / Trajna poveznica: https://urn.nsk.hr/urn:nbn:hr:131:942674 Rights / Prava: Attribution 4.0 International Download date / Datum preuzimanja: 2021-09-29 Repository / Repozitorij: ODRAZ - open repository of the University of Zagreb Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Europe's Journal of Psychology ejop.psychopen.eu | 1841-0413 Research Reports “Dysrationalia” Among University Students: The Role of Cognitive Abilities, Different Aspects of Rational Thought and Self-Control in Explaining Epistemically Suspect Beliefs Nikola Erceg* a, Zvonimir Galić a, Andreja Bubić b [a] Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. [b] Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split, Split, Croatia. Abstract The aim of the study was to investigate the role that cognitive abilities, rational thinking abilities, cognitive styles and self-control play in explaining the endorsement of epistemically suspect beliefs among university students. A total of 159 students participated in the study. We found that different aspects of rational thought (i.e. rational thinking abilities and cognitive styles) and self-control, but not intelligence, significantly predicted the endorsement of epistemically suspect beliefs. Based on these findings, it may be suggested that intelligence and rational thinking, although related, represent two fundamentally different constructs. -
Working Memory, Cognitive Miserliness and Logic As Predictors of Performance on the Cognitive Reflection Test
Working Memory, Cognitive Miserliness and Logic as Predictors of Performance on the Cognitive Reflection Test Edward J. N. Stupple ([email protected]) Centre for Psychological Research, University of Derby Kedleston Road, Derby. DE22 1GB Maggie Gale ([email protected]) Centre for Psychological Research, University of Derby Kedleston Road, Derby. DE22 1GB Christopher R. Richmond ([email protected]) Centre for Psychological Research, University of Derby Kedleston Road, Derby. DE22 1GB Abstract Most participants respond that the answer is 10 cents; however, a slower and more analytic approach to the The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) was devised to measure problem reveals the correct answer to be 5 cents. the inhibition of heuristic responses to favour analytic ones. The CRT has been a spectacular success, attracting more Toplak, West and Stanovich (2011) demonstrated that the than 100 citations in 2012 alone (Scopus). This may be in CRT was a powerful predictor of heuristics and biases task part due to the ease of administration; with only three items performance - proposing it as a metric of the cognitive miserliness central to dual process theories of thinking. This and no requirement for expensive equipment, the practical thesis was examined using reasoning response-times, advantages are considerable. There have, moreover, been normative responses from two reasoning tasks and working numerous correlates of the CRT demonstrated, from a wide memory capacity (WMC) to predict individual differences in range of tasks in the heuristics and biases literature (Toplak performance on the CRT. These data offered limited support et al., 2011) to risk aversion and SAT scores (Frederick, for the view of miserliness as the primary factor in the CRT. -
Reasoning Versus Text Processing in the Wason Selection Task: a Nondeontic Perspective on Perspective Effects
Memory & Cognition 2000,28 (6), 1060-1070 Reasoning versus text processing in the Wason selection task: A nondeontic perspective on perspective effects AMITALMOR University ofSouthern California, Los Angeles, California and STEVEN A. SLOMAN Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island Weargue that perspective effects in the Wason four-card selection task are a product of the linguis tic interpretation of the rule in the context of the problem text and not of the reasoning process un derlying card selection. In three experiments, participants recalled the rule they used in either a se lection or a plausibility rating task. The results showed that (1) participants tended to recall rules compatible with their card selection and not with the rule as stated in the problem and (2) recall was not affected by whether or not participants performed card selection. Weconclude that perspective ef fects in the Wason selection task do not concern how card selection is reasoned about but instead re flect the inferential text processing involved in the comprehension of the problem text. Together with earlier research that showed selection performance in nondeontic contexts to be indistinguishable from selection performance in deontic contexts (Almor & Sloman, 1996; Sperber, Cara, & Girotto, 1995), the present results undermine the claim that reasoning in a deontic context elicits specialized cognitive processes. A central question regarding the nature ofhuman rea 1966) and as a means ofstudying various factors that may soning is whether it operates solely on the basis ofgen help "rehabilitate" people's apparently illogical thinking eral domain-independent principles or whether reason (Griggs & Cox, 1982, 1983; Wason & Shapiro, 1971), the ing is domain-specific. -
Conditional Reasoning: the Importance of Individual Differences*
View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Repositorio Institucional da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela CONDITIONAL REASONING: THE IMPORTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES* Mª Dolores Valiña, Gloria Seoane, Mª José Ferraces & Montserrat Martín University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain) INTRODUCTION The study of thinking and reasoning is a topic of central interest for economists, anthropologists, logicians, pedagogues and of course for psychologists. A central problem in the experimental investigation in Psychology is to describe how people think and reason deductively and inductively. There are three fundamental theoretical approaches to deductive reasoning in the Cognitive Psychology: mental logic, mental models and pragmatic schemas (see Evans, Newstead & Byrne, 1993, for a detailed review). There are several proponents of a universal mental logic (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958) or natural logics (Braine, 1978, 1990, 1994; Braine & O´Brien, 1991; Braine & Rumain, 1983; Osherson, 1974, 1975; Rips, 1983, 1990, 1994). Other authors propose that reasoning is based on construction and evaluation of mental models (Johnson-Laird, 1983; Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 1991). A third approach asserts that reasoning is not based on general inference rules and assumes that people have domain-specific reasoning mechanisms such as pragmatic reasoning schemas inductively acquired (Cheng & Holyoak, 1985, 1989; Cheng, Holyoak, Nisbett & Oliver, 1986; Holyoak & Cheng, 1995) or innates procedures for identify potential deviations from social contracts (Cosmides 1985, 1989; Cosmides & Tooby, 1992) _______________________ * An extended version of this paper has been published in the chapter: “Conditional reasoning: The importance of individual differences”, of the book: Mental Models in Reasoning, J.A. -
A Diffusion Model Analysis of Belief Bias: Different Cognitive Mechanisms Explain How Cogni
A diffusion model analysis of belief bias: Different cognitive mechanisms explain how cogni- tive abilities and thinking styles contribute to conflict resolution in reasoning Anna-Lena Schuberta, Mário B. Ferreirab, André Matac, & Ben Riemenschneiderd aInstitute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany, E-mail: anna- [email protected] bCICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal, E-mail: mferreira@psi- cologia.ulisboa.pt cCICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal, E-mail: aomata@psico- logia.ulisboa.pt dInstitute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany, E-mail: riemenschnei- [email protected] Word count: 17,116 words Author Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Anna-Lena Schubert, Institute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Hauptstrasse 47-51, D-69117 Heidelberg, Germany, Phone: +49 (0) 6221-547354, Fax: +49 (0) 6221-547325, E-mail: anna-lena.schubert@psy- chologie.uni-heidelberg.de. The authors thank Joana Reis for her help in setting up the experi- ment, and Adrian P. Banks and Christopher Hope for sharing their experimental material. THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES AND THINKING STYLES IN REASONING 2 Abstract Recent results have challenged the widespread assumption of dual process models of belief bias that sound reasoning relies on slow, careful reflection, whereas biased reasoning is based on fast intuition. Instead, parallel process models of reasoning suggest that rule- and belief- based problem features are processed in parallel and that reasoning problems that elicit a con- flict between rule- and belief-based problem features may also elicit more than one Type 1 re- sponse. This has important implications for individual-differences research on reasoning, be- cause rule-based responses by certain individuals may reflect that these individuals were ei- ther more likely to give a rule-based default response or that they successfully inhibited and overrode a belief-based default response. -
Rethinking Logical Reasoning Skills from a Strategy Perspective
Rethinking Logical Reasoning Skills from a Strategy Perspective Bradley J. Morris* Grand Valley State University and LRDC, University of Pittsburgh, USA Christian D. Schunn LRDC, University of Pittsburgh, USA Running Head: Logical Reasoning Skills _______________________________ * Correspondence to: Department of Psychology, Grand Valley State University, 2117 AuSable Hall, One Campus Drive, Allendale, MI 49401, USA. E-mail: [email protected], Fax: 1-616-331-2480. Morris & Schunn Logical Reasoning Skills 2 Rethinking Logical Reasoning Skills from a Strategy Perspective Overview The study of logical reasoning has typically proceeded as follows: Researchers (1) discover a response pattern that is either unexplained or provides evidence against an established theory, (2) create a model that explains this response pattern, then (3) expand this model to include a larger range of situations. Researchers tend to investigate a specific type of reasoning (e.g., conditional implication) using a particular variant of an experimental task (e.g., the Wason selection task). The experiments uncover a specific reasoning pattern, for example, that people tend to select options that match the terms in the premises, rather than derive valid responses (Evans, 1972). Once a reasonable explanation is provided for this, researchers typically attempt to expand it to encompass related phenomena, such as the role of ‘bias’ in other situations like weather forecasting (Evans, 1989). Eventually, this explanation may be used to account for all performance on an entire class of reasoning phenomena (e.g. deduction) regardless of task, experience, or age. We term this a unified theory. Some unified theory theorists have suggested that all logical reasoning can be characterized by a single theory, such as one that is rule-based (which involves the application of transformation rules that draw valid conclusions once fired; Rips, 1994). -
Logical Reasoning
updated: 11/29/11 Logical Reasoning Bradley H. Dowden Philosophy Department California State University Sacramento Sacramento, CA 95819 USA ii Preface Copyright © 2011 by Bradley H. Dowden This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. That is, you are free to share, copy, distribute, store, and transmit all or any part of the work under the following conditions: (1) Attribution You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author, namely by citing his name, the book title, and the relevant page numbers (but not in any way that suggests that the book Logical Reasoning or its author endorse you or your use of the work). (2) Noncommercial You may not use this work for commercial purposes (for example, by inserting passages into a book that is sold to students). (3) No Derivative Works You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. An earlier version of the book was published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights to the original author, Bradley Dowden. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author would appreciate your writing to him at [email protected]. iii Praise Comments on the 1993 edition, published by Wadsworth Publishing Company: "There is a great deal of coherence. The chapters build on one another. The organization is sound and the author does a superior job of presenting the structure of arguments. -
How Emotions Affect Logical Reasoning: Evidence from Experiments with Mood-Manipulated Participants, Spider Phobics, and People with Exam Anxiety
Emotion Science How emotions affect logical reasoning: Evidence from experiments with mood-manipulated participants, spider phobics, and people with exam anxiety Nadine Jung, Christina Wranke, Kai Hamburger and Markus Knauff Journal Name: Frontiers in Psychology ISSN: 1664-1078 Article type: Original Research Article Received on: 29 Oct 2013 Accepted on: 22 May 2014 Provisional PDF published on: 22 May 2014 www.frontiersin.org: www.frontiersin.org Citation: Jung N, Wranke C, Hamburger K and Knauff M(2014) How emotions affect logical reasoning: Evidence from experiments with mood-manipulated participants, spider phobics, and people with exam anxiety. Front. Psychol. 5:570. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00570 /Journal/Abstract.aspx?s=361& /Journal/Abstract.aspx?s=361&name=emotion%20science& name=emotion%20science& ART_DOI=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00570 ART_DOI=10.3389 /fpsyg.2014.00570: (If clicking on the link doesn't work, try copying and pasting it into your browser.) Copyright statement: © 2014 Jung, Wranke, Hamburger and Knauff. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This Provisional PDF corresponds to the article as it appeared upon acceptance, after rigorous -
UC Merced Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society
UC Merced Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society Title Rationality-Guided AGI as Cognitive Systems Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xd1940g Journal Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 34(34) ISSN 1069-7977 Authors Abdel-Fattah, Ahmed M.H. Besold, Tarek R. Gust, Helmar et al. Publication Date 2012 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Rationality-Guided AGI as Cognitive Systems Ahmed Abdel-Fattah, Tarek R. Besold, Helmar Gust, Ulf Krumnack, Martin Schmidt, Kai-Uwe Kuhnberger¨ ({ahabdelfatta | tbesold | hgust | krumnack | martisch | kkuehnbe}@uni-osnabrueck.de) Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Osnabr¨uck, Albrechtstr. 28, 49076 Osnabr¨uck, Germany Pei Wang ([email protected]) Department of Computer and Information Sciences, College of Science & Technology, Temple University, 1805 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122 USA Abstract methodologies (Baum, Hutter, & Kitzelmann, 2010). Here, The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) within cogni- we approach cognition in AGI systems by particularly pro- tive science (CogSci) necessitates further elaborations on, and moting “rationality” as one of such indispensable criteria, and modelings of, several indispensable cognitive criteria. We ap- analyze some divergent, sometimes seemingly irrational, be- proach this issue by emphasizing the close relation between ar- tificial general intelligence (AGI) and CogSci, and discussing, haviors of humans. particularly, “rationality” as one of such indispensable criteria. In this article, our goal is twofold. We first concern We give arguments evincing that normative models of human- ourselves with explicitly allocating ideas from AGI within like rationality are vital in AGI systems, where the treatment of deviations from traditional rationality models is also nec- CogSci.