A Brief History of the Theory of Spontaneous Generation

CEN Tech. J., vol. 7(1), 1993, pp. 73–81 A Brief History of the Theory of Spontaneous Generation DR JERRY BERGMAN ABSTRACT The belief in spontaneous generation was traced from the early Greeks to the present day. It was found that spontaneous generation has been almost universally accepted as true in the west, at least for so-called lower forms of life, until very recently. The work of Pasteur, Redi and others was highly influential in demonstrating that spontaneous generation does not normally take place today. Nonetheless, evolutionists often assume that some form of spontaneous generation occurred in the far distant past, even though they believe that it is unlikely that it could occur today. A review of this history is important in helping present day researchers understand the importance of values and belief structures, even in areas of science, in influencing what a person accepts as ‘scientific’ or true. It was concluded that the debate still continues in a different form today, even though there exists no direct empirical evidence that spontaneous genera tion can take place today, or ever could have taken place. INTRODUCTION concluding that the ‘belief in the spontaneous generation of plants and of Historically, a specific challenge to the acceptance of small animals from inanimate matter, not only at ‘pure creationism’ which has also been one of the major creation but also ever since, was almost universal to obstacles in its acceptance was the theory of spontaneous the end of the seventeenth century.’5 generation. This belief held that life could and regularly We are not here concerned with the means or mecha did spring from non-living matter. Because the ancients did nism of the origin of life, only with the historical belief not realize the enormous chemical and biological complex that life can spontaneously generate and the conflict of ity of life, they did not believe that spontaneous generation this belief with the basic concept of creationism. A problem was a particularly unusual or amazing event.1 It was with the creation concept is, as Bube notes, that it has a accepted by Miletus (600 BC), Anaxagorus (510–428 BC), variety of meanings. Our use of the phrase here will be Epicurus (341–270 BC), Aristotle (348–322 BC), Basilius limited to the belief in an instantaneous and totally super (AD 315–379) and even Augustine (AD 354–430), natural fiat act of God as opposed to, or as an alternative to, Paracelsus (AD 1493–1541), Van Helmont (AD 1578– the belief in a process which expresses the creative activity 1657), Descartes (AD 1596–1650), Harvey (AD 1578– of God as operating indirectly, such as setting up the 1657), Needham (AD 1713–1781) and Buffon (AD 1707– conditions which allow life to come forth on its own from 1788).2 non-living matter by purely naturalistic means.6 A scientist Belief in spontaneous generation was widespread up who observed what appeared to be a genuine event of fiat until as late as the 1850s and created a major roadblock to divine creation would have to conclude scientifically that the full acceptance of a need for outside design and inter an event of spontaneous generation had occurred, and to vention for life to exist.3 As Gardner noted, conclude that it was a divine creation event would require ‘The theory of spontaneous generation was com ruling out natural causes. This is what Pasteur and others monly accepted from the earliest periods of biological did. The phrase spontaneous generation specifically history until the middle of the last century [around refers to an event caused by known natural forces of the 1850].’4 universe which under certain ‘natural’ conditions will In a classic study of cosmology, Collier went even further, always produce life if the necessary conditions are present. 73 Spontaneous Generation These certain conditions were held for centuries to be both their shells and adapted themselves to their new circum sufficient and common, regularly causing ‘life’ to sponta stances. Sartan noted that Anaximander taught that ‘man neously form from non-living matter. A creationist be must derive from other animals, because his own period lieves that ‘natural’ processes are not capable of creating or of immaturity is too long and too frail.’11 developing life on their own, and that some outside living Other aspects of his theory which were remarkably intelligence is necessary to produce life. In other words, similar to modern evolution theory include the teaching that regardless of the amount of time, natural non-living condi ‘when the world’s integument burst and conditions tions and laws are not capable of spontaneously producing changed, these descendants modified their mode of life without outside intelligence. living and became adapted to the new environmental situation . different kinds of living things came into EARLY BELIEFS IN being by transmutation. Man was supposed to have SPONTANEOUS GENERATION come from lower species of animals, probably aquatic.’12 One of the oldest recorded explanations for the non- Other early Greek writers explained the existence of supernatural origin of living things was the theory of the living world in similar terms. Lucretius believed that the spontaneous generation. Many persons once held that earth was ‘mortal’ and both existed and operated without a ‘plants and animals . [arose] . from mud in the need for any divine intervention. It was therefore necessary bottom of a pool or from various other materials, to explain what caused all natural phenomena — the night- rather than through reproductive processes of parent day cycle, the movements of the sun, moon and stars, and organisms or direct creation by a creator.’7 the existence of plant and animal life — solely in natural Respected philosophers such as Anaximander (611–547 BC) istic terms.13 To account for the existence of the living taught that spontaneous generation took place in the residue world, Lucretius, as did many ancient scholars, accepted of mud and mist on the earth while the water in the mud was the spontaneous generation explanation. being evaporated by the sun. Anaximander’s theory was Up to the middle 1800s, the public and most scientists similar to the modern theory of evolutionary abiogenesis, still believed that some organisms could spontaneously the belief that life can develop from non-life without generate themselves. As late as 1852 ‘the manner in which intelligent direction. He taught that after fish were sponta our earth was originally stocked with its organic [life] was neously generated, ‘their descendants left the water and still hotly debated among researchers.’14 It was held by reached dry land’ to later evolve into reptiles and mam many scientists that spontaneous generation was the only mals.8,9 explanation for the existence of organisms in the air, the That spontaneous generation was commonly accepted cold parts of the earth, and deep within the water. Martin during most of history is evident from the following quote states, from Vallery-Radot: ‘One of the recent works of Ehrenburgh —a name ‘It is regrettable that Biot —whose passion for read that carries with it an authority second to none in that ing was so indefatigable that he complained of not field —advocates the doctrine of spontaneous gen finding enough books in the library at the Institute — eration of the microscopic animalcules of the atmos should not have thought of writing the history of this phere by means of atmospheric agencies alone.’15 question of spontaneous generation. He could have He argued that spontaneous generation was also held by gone back to Aristotle, quoted Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, most scientists then to be the total explanation for the lower Pliny. Philosophers, poets, naturalists, all believed in organisms both in the animal and plant kingdoms: spontaneous generation. In the sixteenth century, ‘The occurrence of the Alpine plants of Europe at the Van Helmont — who should not be judged by that one remotest point of the Andes, and the wide diffusion of instance —gave a celebrated recipe to create mice: the most humbly organized plants in similar localities any one could work that prodigy by putting some dirty throughout the globe, are regarded by this school as linen in a receptacle, together with a few grains of fact incapable of explanation by any other hypothesis wheat or apiece of cheese. Some time later an Italian, than that which affirms their spontaneous generation Buonanni, announced a fact no less fantastic: certain there.’16 timberwood he said, after rotting in the sea, produced Martin also claimed that by the middle 1800s this viewpoint worms which engendered butterflies, and those but had been confirmed by ‘recent tendencies of investiga terflies became birds.’10 tion.’17 Once the spontaneous generation of life was accepted Most religious and scientific authorities, many up to the as valid, it was not difficult for Anaximander to hypothesize 1850s, also supported the spontaneous generation doctrine. a series of developments which would account for the origin Maayen states, of higher forms of life. He concluded that the first animals ‘The exact observations which have been made, prove were generated in water surrounded by a protective husk or that nature is still able to create imperfect animals, as shell. These animals later migrated to dry land, developed well as the lower plants, without seeds or eggs [in other 74 Spontaneous Generation words, by spontaneous generation]. Only organic type.’21 matter, water, and air, the essential conditions of Darwin also wrote a letter to Hooker in 1870, in which he living beings, are necessary, with sufficient heat, to stated, produce animal forms.’18 ‘Spontaneous generation seems almost as great a Martin comments that mould which forms on bread is ‘a puzzle as preordination.

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