DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/H5BTP

Deviant Fandoms: The Social Character of Terrorism Fandom Production and

Consumption

Ronald Lorenzo, Prairie View A & M Uniersity Bilal Sert, Prairie View A & M University

Between April 2013 and June 2018, United States began to cover how ISIS was estimates by International Centre for the waging and winning a media war. These Study of Radicalisation estimated that media outlets reported the story with titles around 42,000 individuals had been such as “ISIS Has a Really Slick and radicalized by the Islamic State in Iraq and Sophisticated Media Department,” “Why is Syria (known by the acronym ISIS) ISIS winning the media war?,” and “Who is (Khomami). As early as 2015, estimates by behind Isis’s terrifying online propaganda thinktanks such as the National Economic operation?” (Becker; Koerner; Kingsley). Bureau placed the number of recruits The use of social media by ISIS has been traveling to Syria to join ISIS at 30,000 well documented, both in the popular press (Benmelech and Klor, 1). Surprisingly, and in academic research. Benmelech and Klor documented that In this paper, we seek to establish a recruits to ISIS were likely to come from theoretical framework for understanding and countries with high per capita gross studying the phenomenon of social media domestic product, low income inequality, use by terrorist organizations. As researchers and highly developed political institutions based in the United States, we acknowledge (Benmelech and Klor, 2). Recruits came, not that most terrorism that takes place in the from economically underdeveloped nation- United States is domestic in origin and not states, but from places such as New Zealand, affiliated with Islamist terrorism. Regardless Canada, France, the United Kingdom, and of its media content, whether a white the United States. supremacist message or an Islamist message, Governments from North America, the effect of the media on its audience is Western Europe, and elsewhere also became similar. Rather than testing a hypothesis, we concerned with the media sophistication of are extending and building on established ISIS. News stories on ISIS seemed to sociological theory to interpret the communicate recurring themes. One theme, phenomenon of terroristic social media as outlines above, was the unlikely messaging in contemporary society provenance of many of its recruits. Another theme, picked up by news organizations, The Social Character of Social Media was on the sophisticated use of media, including social media, used to recruit The concept of social character was first young people into ISIS. Media outlets in the described by psychologist Erich Fromm in

Fear of Freedom (2001 [1942]). Within and analysis of social character types, and sociology, David Riesman further amplified the transformation in American society from and applied the concept to study society and among them. Riesman described tradition- the types of individuals within (Mestrovic directed, inner-directed, and other-directed 1997: 44). Social character, beyond serving social character types. Riesman openly as a psychological concept also serves as a stated that the three social character types descriptor for sociological phenomena. At were not presented in hierarchical order first glance, social character may appear to from less to more developed. Rather, the be very similar to the psychological three character types were modes of social phenomenon of personality, yet it is not organization that appear in historical order. (Riesman 3). While personality concerns the The transition in societies from an earlier more or less permanent attributes of the type of social character (tradition-directed) individual self, social character relates to the to a later type (inner-directed), or from way drives and satisfactions are socially inner-directed to other-directed, should not organized within the individual (Riesman 3). be seen as progress, improvement, or Social character is a shared product of a evolution. society, even when found within individuals In historically development, the first (Riesman 3). Social character, then, is a type of social character, or tradition-directed product that develops from the experiences social character, is one in which the social held in common by groups, even entire self learns rigid rules and roles from one’s societies (Riesman 4). society. Tradition-directed societies are ones Riesman’s best known work on social which value traditions and extended character is The Lonely Crowd: A Study of families. In these tradition-directed societies, the Changing American Character ([1950] people do not think of themselves as 2001). Riesman, who never held a doctorate individuals, but as members of a group, in sociology and worked as an attorney, co- typically an extended family such as a clan wrote The Lonely Crowd with Nathan or tribe. Each character type is animated by Glazer and Reuel Denney. A national best- fears and aspirations, and in the case of seller with over a million copies sold in tradition-directed character types they fear 1954, the success of The Lonely Crowd shame and aspire towards achievements in catapulted Riesman to national prominence honor (Riesman 24). Shame and honor exist (Horowitz, 1006). After appearing on the in tradition-directed societies as complete front cover of Time Magazine, Riesman was opposites of each other. a household name (Horowitz, 1006). The Next, in its historical development is the Lonely Crowd is considered a classic in social character of inner-directedness. social and cultural criticism. To this day, Individuals who are inner-directed social Riesman’s book is still the bestselling book character types are guided by goals and in sociology. motivated from within by principles. For The American public’s fascination with inner-directed types, it is not the allegiance The Lonely Crowd was in its rich description to families or tribes that guides goals and

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fears, but the guidance towards Two caveats should be noted in individualized goals and fears are set in understanding social character types. First, motion by adult-authorities in the the character types should be understood as individual’s world (Riesman, 24). In this ideal types. Ideal types are abstractions, and case, the person is an individual with very they do not exist in pure form in actual specific notions of goals and fears, and is society. Rather, ideal types serve as models guided through life by these internal against which specific people and societies motivations (Riesman, 24). Riesman used can be compared. A person in contemporary the metaphor of the gyroscope to describe American society may be a mixture of the this mental mechanism in inner-directed three types with, one type dominating. In types, which alerted the inner-directed present society, the most prevailing type is individual when he or she was off course in that of other-directed social character. life (Riesman, 24). Unlike the tradition- A second caveat is that other-directed directed type, for whom shame existed as character types are motivated by approval the emotion to avoid at all costs, the primary above and beyond that of the other two emotion organizing the life of inner-directed character types. Where the other-directed types is guilt. character type is distinguished from Compared to the inner-directed type, the tradition-directeds and inner-directeds is in person with other-directed social character the value of acceptance: being liked and has no internal gyroscope of any kind popular is placed above all other values or (Riesman, 25). Contrary to the tradition- principles. As a contrast to this value, directed or inner-directed type, the other- tradition-directed and inner-directed people directed person is motivated entirely by like to be liked and feel accepted within society (Riesman, 25). The other-directed their own respective societies, but not at the type responds to cues from the social cost of another value. For tradition-directed environment, taking his or her signals from types, being liked never trumps shame, and others (Riesman, 25). The metaphor that for inner-directed types, being liked is not as Riesman uses to explain the mental important as being true to one’s principles or workings of the other-directed type is that of goals. the radar, constantly scanning the social The use of social media by terrorist environment for cues on everything organizations appeals to the other-directed (Riesman, 25). Without internal principles attributes of their consumers. Social media or family honor to guide his or her actions or and closely related internet platforms are beliefs, the other-directed character type is attuned to the value of other-directed types instead motivated by approval and anxiety and other-directed society. Hence, other- (Riesman, 25). Much like shame and honor directed types place value on how accepted are polar opposites in the social world of the something is. The more acceptance, the less inner-directed type, anxiety and approval are anxiety they can feel about enjoying a song, the polar opposites in the world of the other- a movie, or a video on Youtube. Even directed. though Riesman wrote The Lonely Crowd

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nearly 70 years ago, present day society in requires feeling out with skill and the United States is an exaggeration but not sensitivity the probable tastes of the a contradiction of the trends that Riesman others and then swapping mutual could see as early as 1950s America. Other- likes and dislikes to maneuver directed individuals today do not eat a intimacy. (73) restaurant unless it has the approval of users on Yelp!, a social media platform for In the era of social media, where everything evaluating such businesses. When they eat at is graded on a “thumps up/thumbs down,” that restaurant, they seek approval over their “like/dislike” scale on smartphone apps, it is food selection by photographing it and eerie to realize the prophetic quality of sharing the image on social media platforms Riesman’s insight. Likewise, other- in order to be reassured by their friends that directedness and fandoms go hand in hand. the food, in fact, does look delicious. Other- In academic studies and journalist directed types will even plan entire coverage of terrorism, social media, and the vacations on the basis of the vacation being recruitment of ISIS supporters and white photogenic enough for social media supremacists, one insight that has not been (Delgado). A neologism, the word mentioned is this: recruits and potential “instagrammable,” has even entered the recruits of terrorist organizations behave as language: other directed types are if they are members of a fandom. Fandoms progressively influenced by how in American popular culture form around “instagrammable,” or photogenic, something beloved intellectual properties, which take is on social media. the form of movies, television shows, comic books, toys, and video games. Examples of Terrorist Fandom fandoms are those based on Star Wars, Marvel comics (and now Marvel Universe Riesman described fandom in relation to movies), Transformers, and Japanese other-directedness (73). Other-directed types Animation (known as anime among its are highly susceptible to the “morality of the fans). Each fandom creates its own set of group,” meaning the opinions of one’s peers words and slang, or lingoes, with each (73). Riesman states: fandom deciding on the preferences for consumption for the members of its groups. Each particular peer group has its While fandoms are generally considered fandoms and lingoes. Safety consists subcultures, or groups whose norms and not in mastering a difficult craft but value might deviate slightly from the in mastering a battery of consumer mainstream, they are not generally preferences and the mode of their considered seriously deviant or criminal. expression. The preferences are for Terrorist fandoms, on the other hand, are articles or “heroes” of consumption deviant and criminal by definition. and for members of the group itself. In regard to Islamist, terrorist The proper mode of expression propaganda, outsiders of its fandom see the

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“hard side” of terrorism. ISIS, for example, spared the anxiety of having to commit to was notorious for producing and circulating one terrorist goal or preference: each new via social media and the internet, videos of day brought a new message from the Milky horrific violence. In infamous videos, ISIS Way galaxy of terrorist themes. terrorists set fire to a captured pilot of the Winter’s study also makes an important Syrian Air Force, or recorded themselves point supporting Riesman’s understanding decapitating prisoners (Hassan). However, of other-directed types: over half of the the other-directed side of Islamist terrorism propaganda events were of daily life inside and its recruits complete the picture, and ISIS controlled territories in Iraq and Syria their other-directed character remains to be (7). Riesman states that a fate for the other- explained. directed is in the death of imagination: For example, in one 30 day time period, an analyst for Quillian, a counterterrorism Imagination withers in most of think tank, analyzed 1,146 ISIS propaganda the [other-directed] children by events (Winter, 5). Winter, the author of the adolescence. What survives is report, noted that the message of the neither artistic craft nor artistic propaganda videos functioned almost as fantasy but the socialization of taste “brand management” (6). Propaganda and interest that can already be seen videos and other social media messages in process in the stylization of depicted ever changing themes, almost on a perception in the children’s painting daily basis, which ranged from themes of and stories [at school]. The stories of “the ISIS caliphate as utopia,” “brutality,” the later progressive grades are apt to “victimhood,” “mercy,” and “belonging.” be characterized by “realism.” (62) Riesman stated that a characteristic of the other-directed person was in fear of In other-directed societies, there is an commitment to one thing and a preference abundance of reality television shows. Most for a vast array of marginally differentiated of the shows are interchangeable one with products (139). An inner-directed person’s the other, its characters interchangeable one mental gyroscope was directed to one goal with the other, and the shows are marked by or preference, similar to a guiding star, but gradations of marginal differentiation. The other-directed personality types are directed episodes are forgettable, requiring neither to ever changing goals and preferences, commitment nor investment by the similar to a Milky Way galaxy of choices audience, which is to the liking of other- (Riesman, 139). The other-directed aspect of directed types. ISIS propaganda videos, online terrorist propaganda from ISIS tweets, blogs, and other propaganda events seemed to be “brutality” one day, “mercy” were, in a sense, like a reality show. the next, “utopia” a third, and so on. Even Normal fandoms outside of terrorism terrorist recruits, who seemed to be mostly function in the same way. Being a member young people from other-directed societies of the fandom becomes like following a (USA, Canada, UK, France, etc.), were reality television show. A fan can read blogs

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about Marvel superheroes, watch Youtube identify with the chatty, young, videos reviewing movies, watch Youtube female jihadists, many of whom post videos commenting on other Youtube videos messages saying how happy they are reviewing movies, follow opinion leaders on to be living in an Islamic land. social media platforms such as Twitter, and Longer blogs, and the Ask.fm sites so on. And the Marvel fandom is of foreign fighters, give practical and interchangeable with Star Wars, Magic: The motivational tips. (Khaleeli) Gathering, and other objects of fandom in the sense that they operate in similar, other- The images of kittens playing with ISIS directed ways. fighters gives potential recruits an image of Terrorist fandoms follow similar patterns something pleasant in contrast to the of involvement and commitment. Following hardcore imagery of beheadings. In other the shooting of the Emanuel AME Church in words, it gives another choice in the Milky Charleston, South Carolina, white Way galaxy of choices, and it falls in line supremacists started forming fandoms of the with other-directed principles of “keeping it killing (Ghansah). Calling themselves real,” being “nice,” and “having fun.” For “Roofies” as a take-off on the last name of potential other-directed recruits, seeing the the murderer, Dylan Roof, fans of deviant, terrorist who is dedicated to his cause white supremacist fandoms used online without distractions (in other words, inner- social media communities in order to directed) is no fun. Other-directed terrorists express their admiration and proclaim their want “fun” in fundamentalism. allegiance to Roof’s ideologies (Ghansah). Some observers have been critical of Another quality of ISIS propaganda, journalistic coverage of ISIS social media for example, also dealt with imagery that is propaganda and point out its low production bizarre by inner-directed standards. Two value and amateurish quality. An academic such types of imagery caught the attention appraisal of the situation sums up the of western newspapers, and it dealt with situation thus: ISIS fighters posing with jars of Nutella, a hazelnut cocoa spread popular in western Countless other journalists countries, or of ISIS fighters posing with praised the Islamic State’s masterly kittens (Khaleeli). A journalist covering the use of social media, pointing out phenomenon of Isis Nutella and ISIS kittens how “slick” and on-point its message sums up the dynamic by accurately was. identifying the peer-oriented nature of social These fawning appraisals helped media propaganda: burnish the group’s invincible image and might have spurred ISIS to Yet this incongruous, peer-led create yet more videos, ramping up approach [my emphasis] has allowed the shock quotient as it went. As the Isis to reach beyond its usual Spanish photographer Ricardo channels. Prospective recruits can Vilanova, who spent eight months in

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an ISIS jail, told the BBC, “I think One element may be the apparent the West is also to blame because we freedom of the entertainer to express became a loudspeaker for the Islamic emotions that others cannot or dare State. Every time there was an not express. Again, sincerity means execution, anything related with the performance in a style which is not Islamic State would get the front aggressive or cynical, which may pages. I believed that encouraged even be defenseless, as the question- them to get crueler and amplify their answering or press-conferencing message.” technique of some politicians appear I count two problems with the to be. The performers puts himself at media’s response to ISIS videos: It the mercy of both his audience and was ethically dubious to praise what his emotions. Thus sincerity is on the was often straight-up snuff, and the side of the performer who evokes the videos were not really all that good. audience’s tolerance for him: it Many were no good at all. (Cottee) would not be fair to be too critical of the person who has left himself wide The assessment that online propaganda by open and extended the glad hand of terrorist groups is amateurish yet effective in friendliness. radicalizing or recruiting individuals has to But the popular emphasis on be reconciled. Why is it that amateurish sincerity means more than this. It videos for ISIS or neonazi groups compete means that the source of criteria for effectively against slick, multi-million dollar judgment has shifted from the campaigns by household brands such as content of the performance and its Coca-Cola or McDonald’s in winning the goodness or badness [my emphasis], loyalty of some individuals? As stated aesthetically speaking, to the above, the idea of an ISIS caliphate, or white personality of the performer. He is nationalism, or racist ideology generally, judged for his attitude toward the have become brands (Winter). audience, an attitude which is either The reason that a hastily photoshopped sincere or insincere, rather than by image on social media works to draw the his relation to his craft, that is, his sympathy of would-be terrorists is that it honesty and skill. (194) appeals to other-directed sensibilities. Riesman states that in other-directed Terrorist videos and other forms of dealings, what counts is not necessarily propaganda, whether they are ISIS videos or production value but a feeling that the propaganda from white supremacist web message is “sincere” (194). Other-directed sites need not be slick, professionally reactions to performances, and propaganda produced media products. What makes such for the other-directed becomes a form of propaganda effective in performance are these: manipulating their audiences is in the apparent sincerity of its message.

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Consumers of terrorist propaganda believe its love for the object of the fandom, is a that the message contained in a terrorist form of prosumption. Prosumption was first video, video game, or ask.fm audiocast is coined and described by Alvin Toffler sincere, even more sincere than the message (1980) in The Third Wave. Writing before for consuming brands with multi-billion Toffler, Riesman wrote about peer groups as dollar budgets. “consumer unions” consuming themselves: Sincerity works in two directions. Riesman states of sincerity among the For indeed, over and beyond the audience itself: socialization of consumption preferences and the exchange of By ignoring what the audience consumption shoptalk by this believes itself to lack (ability to consumers’ union [a peer group, in perform) and emphasizing the the case of popular culture, a qualities that it believes itself fandom], the membership is engaged secretly to possess (capacity for in consuming itself. That is, people sincerity), the audience is enabled, to and friendships are viewed as the a degree, to patronize the artist just greatest of all consumables. (81) as it patronizes the bumbling participants in a give-away show. The other-directed mode of life is one in (195) which the boundaries of consumer and producer become progressively blurred. Fast In a sense, this is the origin of fan-generated food, which is an other-directed version of content. Among fandoms such as Star Wars, restaurants, with a similar history paralleling Marvel Universe, and Anime, fans create the rise of other-directed types, provide this their own fan-generated content in the way type of prosumptive experience: not relying of alternate universe coffee houses, cosplay on waiters or waitresses, the consumer takes (creating and wearing elaborate costumes his or her own food to the table, pours his or based on characters), and fan fiction. Not her drink out of the drink fountain, and merely satisfied to consume media content, buses his or her table at the end of the meal. other-directed fans create their own, semi- Likewise, terrorist propaganda and even original media content using characters, terrorist actions are prosumed products by settings, situations, and ideas from the object members of terrorist fandoms: of their fandom. Rather than create a new space opera from scratch, Star Wars fans, But while parts of Isis’s for example, may write short stories or messaging are centralised and run by novellas using characters taken from the Star professionals, its online strength is Wars movie franchise. also derived from the participation of The other-directed creation of fan- a large swath of independent actors. generated content, almost always of very First, there is Isis’s online fanclub: low quality production value yet sincere in thousands of Isis supporters with no

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official role within the group who board participating in discussions about boost its brand by retweeting its science fiction. hashtags, and translating its Arabic members’ messages for potential Conclusion sympathisers in the west. Many of them make Photoshopped slogans to As of 2019, media reports that ISIS in promote the group – in fact, many of Syria is quickly losing territory and facing Isis’s slick viral adverts come about an imminent defeat (McKernan). ISIS may this way, claims al-Janabi. “The well be headed towards a physical graphic design is mostly independent destruction in Syria, but socially significant and done by individuals. For is that it has demonstrated the new repertoire example, that picture that said for terrorist public relations and marketing. ‘Baghdad, we are coming’ – nobody However, the new repertoire for terrorist asked [its creators] to do it, but they public relations was not invented or created did it anyway.” by ISIS: it is an extension of the other- And then there are the Isis directed character of its followers and of the militants themselves. They tweet other-directed character of social media. about their experiences in the field, Similarly, white supremacist groups in the and publish their own private United States also use many of the same pictures – sometimes gory images of tactics to produce and prosume its message severed heads, sometimes mundane among the white supremacist fandom. snaps of food and cats – often to Terrorist fandom rejects the norms, appreciative audiences. (Kingsley) values, and beliefs of western society while adopting, paradoxically, much of its social To the other-directed individuals under the character. This paradigm shift in seeing thrall of ISIS or white supremacists would-be terrorist recruits and supporters as ideology, creating fan-generated, deviant fans of a deviant, criminal fandom opens propaganda of one’s own bears a similarity new possibilities for research, and, to the way that a normal person who ultimately, control. Fandom studies can and happens to be a fan of Dr. Who, the should be extended to include terrorist television series, will write a short story of fandoms. Research on how law abiding fans fan fiction to share with other fans online. form virtual and real communities, create The gravity of terrorism becomes fanfiction, and migrate to new fandoms normalized in the terrorist fandom: going to when old fandoms fade away can help Syria to join in on the cause becomes treated answer questions on why would-be terrorists as if a fan for Marvel Comics was traveling become radicalized, seek out other to San Diego to a major comic convention; likeminded individuals, self-propagandize, creating an account and participating in a and perhaps migrate to different forms of white supremacist message board becomes criminal activity. normalized as if one was on a message

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