Wisdom in Education
Volume 5 Issue 2 Article 2
11-1-2015
Deconstructing Dominant Discourse Using Self-deprecating Humor: A Discourse Analysis of a Consulting with Japanese Female about Hikikomori and NEET
Hatsuho Ayashiro University of Fukui, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Ayashiro, Hatsuho (2015) "Deconstructing Dominant Discourse Using Self-deprecating Humor: A Discourse Analysis of a Consulting with Japanese Female about Hikikomori and NEET," Wisdom in Education: Vol. 5 : Iss. 2 , Article 2. Available at: https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/wie/vol5/iss2/2
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by CSUSB ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Wisdom in Education by an authorized editor of CSUSB ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Deconstructing Dominant Discourse Using Self-deprecating Humor: A Discourse Analysis of a Consulting with Japanese Female about Hikikomori and NEET
Abstract This study examines how dominant discourses are deconstructed in a consulting, particularly focusing on self-deprecating humor. Data were collected from a session with a Japanese client whose son was in hikikomori or NEET state, and a transcript of the session was analyzed using positioning theory. Examining several extracts shows how the client’s positioning of her son and herself is influenced by some dominant discourses, such as deficit discourse and so on. These dominant discourses are deconstructed by self-deprecating humor, because such ironical self-positioning makes these discourses visible, and defeats the self made by society. We discuss the findings with the word “queer” and cultural power of self-deprecating humor. This study contributes to understanding the way of cultural resistance to dominant discourse and the value of discourse analysis for reflexive practice.
Keywords dominant discourse, positioning theory, humor, hikikomori, NEET
Author Statement Specially-Assigned Assistant Professor, University of Fukui (Japan)
A former visiting scholar, California State University, San Bernardino
A clinical psychologist in Japan
Cover Page Footnote I would like to acknowledge Mrs. Suzuki, who was my client in this paper. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Winslade, who was my supervisor in California State University San Bernardino. Without them, I could not have written the paper.
This article is available in Wisdom in Education: https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/wie/vol5/iss2/2 Ayashiro: Deconstructing Dominant Discourse Using Self-deprecating Humor
What is dominant discourse? hard-workers, but I know many Japanese I am from Japan. What occurred to people who are not, and some Western you when you read that? You might have people who are also hard-workers. However, brought to mind an image of a food (such as these images about Japan are popular in sushi), a piece of clothing (such as a kimono), Western countries and may have produced a city (such as Tokyo), a form of particular exotic representations. Thus, entertainment (such as anime), a religion (such dominant discourse highlights one aspect and as Zen), a philosophy (such as Bushido), a makes people believe that it is true, while it sport (such as sumo), geography (such as Mt. suppresses other possible interpretations. Fuji), a people with particular qualities (such A dominant discourse, however, is as hard-workers) and so on. Even though you one that strongly influences us. For example, do not know about Japan or Japanese very as a visiting scholar in California State much, you can talk about Japan, partly University San Bernardino, I often studied at because you have learned those images my office until late at night. People would consciously or unconsciously from daily life at often say to me as a result, “You are school, in conversations with friends, and Japanese.” Such utterances reflect dominant through the media. Sometimes you might discourse about Japanese people in the have conveyed those images to your characterization of a Japanese person as a neighborhood in some form of talk such as hard-worker. At first, I did not think so. In discussing, chattering, gossiping, writing fact, I did not spend much time studying, (letters or brief essays), and texting (with because I always got up late in the morning Twitter or Facebook). Those images, (to be honest, at noon), and then I came to produced and neglected through human the office much later than other people. After interactions, construct what Japan is and who a while, however, I started to think that I Japanese people are. In other words, your studied hard till late at night, because I was images have the power to produce, maintain Japanese, and that I was a little bit stranger and reproduce particular interpretations. To than others, as if I was a workaholic. This is put it simply, the images are forms of an example of the power of dominant discourse. Technically speaking, discourse is a discourse. Dominant discourse invites us to kind of flame of our interpretation (Burr, judge ourselves against social norms and to 1995), and discourses can be considered as normalize ourselves along the lines of force social practices which construct things created by the discourse, while not usually (Foucault, 1972). noticing the power of the discourse While there are many different (Hare-Mustin, 1994; Monk, Winslade, & discourses, there are some that affect relations Sinclair, 2008; Soal & Kottler, 1996). If I had between people and create forms of not reminded myself of the fact that I had dominance. They are called dominant gotten up late at noon, I might have kept discourses (Hare-Mustin, 1994). The above seeing myself as strange, in accordance with images do partly reflect Japan, but they do not the dominant discourse. represent Japan well. Most Japanese eat sushi only occasionally, because it is expensive in Deconstructing dominant discourse in most cases. Also, many Japanese are as therapy and counseling unfamiliar with kimonos, sumo, Zen, and The idea of dominant discourse is Bushido as most Western people are. In important for therapists and counselors, addition, at least as far as I am concerned, I because many people who need therapy and have never been to Mt. Fuji, I have lived in a counseling are influenced negatively by the city in Kanawaga, and I know little about dominant discourses that prevail in their anime. I agree that many Japanese people are societies (Soal & Kottler, 1996). Indeed, many
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dominant discourses are not bad, but, since In this paper, we use discourse dominant discourse is familiar and analysis from the viewpoint of positioning taken-for-granted by a given society (Monk, theory (Harré & van Langenhove, 1999) for Winslade, & Sinclair, 2008), it often constructs analyzing data. Discourse analysis is literally a particularly minorities in a way that they method for analyzing discourse. However, would not prefer, and sometimes even forces discourse analysis is not a standardized them to think about themselves in that way. systematic methodology, so much as a White (2011a) pointed out that many clients psychological approach based on social cap off their problem narratives with negative constructionism (Willig, 2001). Therefore, identity conclusions, such as, “This shows there are many different ideas and methods, how inadequate I am” (p. 5). According to even though they use the same term of White, it is because modern power presses discourse based on postmodern ideas. them to construct themselves along the lines In therapy and counseling fields, specified by dominant discourses. It is hard to researchers have used discourse analysis challenge dominant discourses, however, mainly for examining two aspects: session because “they are part of the identity of most interactions that construct or deconstruct members of any society, and they influence clients’ problems, and the impact of wider attitudes and behaviors” (Hare-Mustin, 1994, socio-cultural discourse on clients and pp. 1-2). Therefore, from the viewpoint of the therapists (Georgaca & Avdi, 2009). That is to concept of discourse, the aim of therapy can say, the word discourse implies be seen as to deconstruct dominant discourse micro-interaction processes in some cases, (Georgaca & Avdi, 2009). while it means macro-interpretation flames So, how is dominant discourse towering over us in other cases. However, deconstructed in therapy and counseling? both perspectives should be considered when There are many papers that focus on this examining therapy and counseling practices. question (for example, Kararza & Avdi, 2011; We believe that positioning theory is useful Madill & Barkham, 1997). In this paper, we for analyzing these two aspects together. illustrate how dominant discourse can be Positioning theory (Davies & Harré, deconstructed by the use of self-deprecating 1990; Harré & Moghaddam, 2003; Harré & humor. Self-deprecating humor has not been van Langenhove, 1999) examines how people focused on in this way before now, though it position themselves and others in discourse. has been pointed out that humor is useful for When examining positioning, using the deconstructing dominant discourses, concept of the positioning triad or positioning especially for minorities (Hardy & Phillips, triangle is recommended by the above 2004). Tsukawaki, Fukuda and Higuchi (2011) authors, which consists of three aspects: found that expressing self-deprecating humor position, speech act, and storyline. (strictly speaking it translates as A position is a cluster of rights and “self-defeating humor”) contributes positively duties given to people in a particular to mental health in Japan, while previous discourse. For example, once when I went to research in Western countries has assumed a department office, a staff member looked at that it is bad for mental health. In this paper, me suspiciously and said to me, “That is a we will show how deconstructing dominant staff entrance,” because she positioned me as discourse can be related to local, rather than a student, not a visiting scholar. At the same universal culture. time, I also lost a right to use the entrance and had imposed on me the duty of using another Discourse Analysis and Positioning one, even though, as a visiting scholar, I had Theory used the staff entrance freely before.
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Note that her utterance, “That is a positioning was influenced by a macro staff entrance,” functioned as a prohibition on discourse. However, macro discourse can be students against using a staff entrance. When changed by micro discourse. If I could have saying something becomes doing something it explained myself in a different way, there is called a speech act (Austin, 1962). Note that would have arisen a different positioning her utterance becomes a prohibition because triangle. In fact, after questioning, answering, she positioned herself as a staff member in explaining, and listening, she finally realized the department, and me as not belonging to that I was a visiting scholar. Then, she that category. If I were positioned as a staff immediately introduced herself to me, and member, her utterance would become a lent me a hand truck with a smile. It reflected different kind of speech act, such as making how a positioning shift in micro interaction sure. Thus, position and speech act are could change our positioning within a macro related. discourse. Thus, positioning theory helps us Positioning and speech acts also link understand interactions from within both to the concept of storyline. After the above micro and macro discourses. interaction, I said to her, “Can I use a hand truck? I want to carry water into my office.” Hikikomori and NEET And then she said, “Whose office?” In this paper, using positioning theory, Interestingly, she did not take my utterance we examine a case of a counseling literally. Her distrustful look suggested that consultation about hikikomori and NEET, she must think of me as a student who had which was conducted in a counseling office in said or done something wrong, or who was Japan. Hikikomori and NEET are serious possibly being rude and lying, because I had social problems in Japan. We think that they used the staff entrance without a diffident are good examples of dominant discourses in look and I had tried to use a hand truck which Japan. was only allowed to be used by faculty Hikikomori is the Japanese word that members. In any case, it is reasonable to think means withdrawal. In a helping context, the that her storylines included a contrast between word represents “those who have withdrawn a good staff member and a bad student. From into their homes for over half a year, and have the storyline, we can understand clearly her had no relationship with others, except for speech act, “Whose office?” It was not only a their family, and no social participation during question, but also a speech act expressing a that time. It cannot be assumed that other doubt. It could explain why the word “my” in mental disorders are the main causes of the “my office” had been ignored. Thus, position, problem” (Saito, 2003; translated by the speech act and storyline are interconnected author). closely. Although NEET is similar to The staff member’s positioning of hikikomori, the word, which originated in me happened in a micro-interaction. England, stands for not participating in Meanwhile, the positioning was based on education, employment, and training (Social wider contextual issues. As we know, students Exclusion Unit, 1999). While NEET originally do not care about school rules as much as do applies to young people aged between sixteen the staff. Faculty members should instruct and eighteen, the definition in Japan extends their students, and especially international to “those of the non-working population who students, as they often misunderstand due to do not do housework or go to school, ranging language and culture problems. In addition, in from 15 to 34 years old” (The Ministry of this case, there might be a discourse that Health, Labour & Welfare, 2013; translated by young people must be students, because I the author). looked much younger than I was. Thus, her
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Although these two words refer to NEET during the fortieth session. At the next particular ontological states by definition, they session (the 41st session), she told me that she remind most people in Japan of negative would accept my proposal and she had seen a dominant discourses, or deficit discourses, as support website on the list. She also said that described hereafter. Thus, this study also she had felt uneasy about my proposal, shows how a client is affected negatively by because doing so would label her son as these two dominant discourses, as well as how hikikomori. After the session, she had begun self-deprecating humor is effective in to think of using such support more deconstructing these discourses. constructively than before, though she still felt Strictly speaking, hikikomori and hesitant about using it. Thus, we think that NEET have different definitions. In this dominant discourses about hikikomori and paper, however, we regard these words as the NEET were deconstructed to a certain extent, same, because most Japanese use these words from the 40th session to the 41st session. with the same meaning, and the client in this The consultation was stopped at the paper did not distinguish between them. 64th session, because she had gone to the quake-hit area in order to support refugees as a health nurse. Our consulting never resumed METHOD and came to an end at her request. The Client The client, Mrs. Suzuki (pseudonym), Data Collection was a 60 year-old female. She had a son who The data for this study was had stayed at home and had seldom gone out recorded by a digital voice recorder and for about ten years, since he had failed a transcribed by the therapist after each session. university entrance exam. She was very We also used the data written by Mrs. Suzuki worried about his future. Although her son about her daily episodes as memoranda. She refused to come to our consulting office, she gave these to me every session so that I could hoped that she could consult a counselor understand what had happened in her about him. Through our regular sessions, she interactions with her son. The data from the gained much more confidence about relating intake interview to the 41st session was to him. In addition, the relationship between analyzed, but the aim of this paper is to her and her son, that had been seriously examine how a particular example of problematic at the beginning of the dominant discourse was deconstructed, which consulting, had gotten rather better. seemed to happen between the 40th session She did not want to use any social or and the 41st session. private supports for hikikomori or NEET, because she had seen that some staff Data Analysis members in a public health center dealt with This study uses discourse analysis, their clients badly when she was a member of based on positioning theory. As mentioned the center as a health nurse. Meanwhile, she above, discourse analysis is an approach to the wanted to know how to change her son’s analysis of conversation, rather than a hikikomori state, with her support. I thought particular method, and it has no agreed-upon that it was unlikely that her son would change standardized procedure (Burr, 1995; McLeod, his state on his own, however, because he was 2001). It is also the same in the case of still in the same situation as at the beginning positioning theory. We nevertheless followed of our consultations two years previously. the sixteen steps suggested by Billig (1998), Since her son had refused to come to and analyzed the data from the viewpoint of me or seek any other support, I gave her a list positioning theory as follows, because we of some support services for hikikomori or
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thought that the analysis procedure should be involved positioning herself as a problematic clear as much as possible. parent. First, we read repeatedly the documents of the consultations and extracted Positioning her son as non-hikikomori the parts where Mrs. Suzuki referred to From the beginning of our consulting, hikikomori (including NEET). Next, we Mrs. Suzuki had narrated the story of her son identified some dominant discourses about as not hikikomori. Telling the story in this way hikikomori, examining how she talked about functioned as the performing of a speech act them. Thirdly, we examined how she of resistance to deficit discourse, which is positioned herself and her son in relation to comprised of a set of vocabularies these dominant discourses, from the emphasizing abnormal aspects and viewpoint of positioning theory. Finally, we positioning an individual as incompetent examined how the dominant discourses had (Gergen, 1994; Winslade & Monk, 2001). For been deconstructed. For that purpose, we example, she talked about hikikomori in the analyzed some data from the 41st session in 35th session (see table 1). According to her detail, because in this session she told the explanation, hikikomori referred to people therapist about several daily episodes who did nothing but eating and sleeping, and experienced between the 40th and the 41st were fat (lines 4-5). From her viewpoint, it session. indicated personal problems, such as laziness. She also regarded hikikomori as applying to Ethical Approval those who were not able to “go out” (line 7) I sent a letter to Mrs. Suzuki one year because of their problems. She meant that after the therapy was interrupted, and told her hikikomori people were not capable of going that I was interested in what had happened in out, or of making a breakthrough in their our sessions and asked to use the recorded withdrawal. data, the session documents, and the It is possible to conclude that such documents written by her. She signed the positioning in relation to hikikomori might consent form, agreeing to its use. Approval reflect resistance to deficit discourse. If her was obtained from the office where I worked son were positioned as hikikomori, it would and from the Institutional Review Board in a mean that there was little possibility of his research institute to which I belonged. I have changing. That was one of the reasons that changed some of the nouns in the data, so as she said, “If a slight shift happens, (…) I not to identify the client. suppose he will go out (…) I feel like that” (lines 1-2). In other words, positioning her son as not hikikomori would prevent her RESULTS from losing hope for him to change. Such Analyzing the data, we found that positioning could be risky, however, because Mrs. Suzuki adopted two main positions in it could divert her and her son away from any our consultations: one involved positioning support for hikikomori. her son as non-hikikomori, and another
Table 1 1 S*: If a slight shift happens, well, I suppose he will go out (1.4) but, I, you know, I 2 don’t know, but I feel like that 3 (…) 4 S: I may have prejudice of the hikikomori. well, it is like, those who do nothing, 5 only eat and sleep, you know, get really fat and so on. such hikikomori, as I can
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6 say so without knowing other hikikomori people, I think that, with those 7 ((states)) they can’t go out *S stands for Mrs. Suzuki.
Positioning herself as a problematic it. Along the line of the dominant norm, her parent “initiative” could be seen as inappropriate for Mrs. Suzuki had sometimes narrated a wife, and therefore, she could pose a the story in a way that constituted her as one problem for her family. of the causes of her son’s state, positioning Sometimes, positioning as a herself as a problematic parent. In extract 2, problematic parent is also authorized by a she thought of herself as a bad mother who scientific discourse, especially a psychological was “some fraction of the cause” (line 3) and one. For example, she used the psychological like “Jung’s great mother” (line 6). She also term, “Jung’s great mother” (line 6), when she regarded herself as a bad wife, saying that explained that she had done something taking initiatives with her husband had wrong. She also said, “As you research, if I’ve affected her son negatively (lines 7-11). Such affected (him) negatively, I didn’t notice it.” positioning was influenced by a “problematic The “you” meant clinical psychologists in parent” discourse in which children’s general, rather than just me, because she knew problems originate from their parents’ that I was a clinical psychologist in a research problems, such as wrongful nurturing, lack of institute. The suggestion was that she took loving, a bad relationship between the parents, more account of psychological knowledge their personal problems, and so on. This than she actually acknowledged. In other discourse is very common and strong in words, she accepted the judgment of Japan. For example, a TV personality had to “science,” even though she did not know her resign his programs recently, because his son actual crime. Believing in “scientific” was arrested, even though his son was over perspectives more than one’s own ideas is thirty years old. First, the TV personality said very common in counseling or therapy, not that he bore no responsibility, because his son just in this client’s case. was an adult. This statement led him to resign Note that her positioning might be from his programs, however, since it affected by dominant gender discourse as the provoked people’s antipathy. That antipathy intersection of the discourses above. Both the was also affected by the scandal of his sexual problematic parent discourse and the harassment of another newscaster. So his patriarchal discourse stress an “ideal” role for son’s arrest was easily interpreted from within a woman, such as caretaking or maintaining a a problematic parent discourse, such as, “Like moderate emotional demeanor. Scientific father, like son.” discourse also connects to the gender role. In Mrs. Suzuki’s positioning as a Japan, a woman is much less likely to be problematic parent connects to patriarchal associated with science than a man. For discourse. As she suspects that she would example, a Japanese woman scientist became affect her son negatively, she refers to her famous recently, because she made a big relationship with her husband, “Although I’ve discovery and her article was published in saved my husband’s face seemingly, I’ve often Nature. However, her personality and lifestyle taken the initiative in doing anything virtually” were reported much more than the discovery (lines 6-7). This utterance suggests that a wife itself or her impact on the scientific field. should follow her husband on the basis of Most of the television and internet news said patriarchal gender discourse. In Japan, such that she was beautiful, that she usually dressed discourse is still as common as in other in Kappougi (traditional clothing for a countries, although there are many who resist housewife in Japan), that her favorite color
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was pink, and so on. Dominant gender Positioning as a problematic parent discourse implies that science is not the area could be negatively inflected, because telling for a woman, or a woman should not be a the story in this way could constitute a speech productive agent of science, but a passive act of self-reproach or remorse. However, it recipient of it. Therefore, we think that Mrs. was hard to stop positioning herself as such. Suzuki’s positioning is affected by the ways in She kept arguing that she was a bad parent, which multiple discourses about gender are though the therapist denied this idea in lines interconnected. Positioning her as a 1-2 and line 9. It was more important, even problematic parent imposes different duties though it cast doubt on her own ideas, to on her at the same time, such as saving a agree with the therapist’s statement (line 10). husband’s face, being a great mother, and Her deferral to the discourse, despite her accepting scientific evidence. Thus, her agreement with the therapist, reflected the positioning should be seen in terms of the force of the discourse that made her judge intersectionality (Crenshaw, 2008), rather than herself against its norms. (See table 2) seeing each discrete discourse separately.
Table 2 1 Th*: I don’t think that the current state of your son is directly linked to what’s 2 wrong with you. 3 S: but, I was some fractions of the cause, right? actually, there are people who 4 don’t become like that. 5 (…) 6 S: maybe, Jung’s great mother can be true of me. I’m not quite sure, though. 7 although I’ve saved my husband’s face seemingly, I’ve often taken the 8 initiative in doing anything virtually. Now is so, too. 9 Th: I think it isn’t that bad 10 S: I think so, but as you research, if I’ve affected ((him)) negatively, I didn’t 11 notice it. *Th stands for the therapist.
Table 3*1 1 S: When watching news about the abolition of Wakamono Jiritsu Juku,*2 my son 2 said, “Although they say the organization is for NEET, it is lukewarm. It is 3 impossible to make a route to a full-time worker in that way! Those who are 4 taking part in it are not NEET. I am a perfect NEET.” I wondered if he 5 tried to get emotional stability by justifying his current situation. But when 6 he said, “I am a perfect NEET,” I almost burst out laughing, because his 7 way of talking was a little bit funny. Maybe it was the first time for my son 8 to call himself NEET. *1 This Table was not transcribed but reproduced from the session document and the client’s document, because the therapist did not record this session with a recorder. *2 Wakamono Jiritsu Juku is a government project providing employment support for NEET.
Deconstructing dominant discourses by As mentioned above, Mrs. Suzuki self-deprecating humor had started to think about using support services for hikikomori after the 41st session.
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What led her to make this change? In fact, we deliberate self-positioning, a move by which cannot find a clear specific reason, because people express their identities agentically (Van she did not say anything clearly and we only Langenhove & Harre, 1999). It was noticed the change when analyzing the data paradoxically an indicator of the power to several years after the consultations. In the deconstruct dominant discourses. Usually, a 41st session, however, she reported an person who is positioned as NEET does not exceptional episode, just before she told the self-position as NEET deliberately, because therapist that she had felt uneasy about the the word constructs him or her negatively. therapist’s proposal in the 40th session. She Apparently, her son’s declaration was could, however, accept it and had looked at a unnatural. It is conceivably one of the reasons website. Therefore, we suspect that the that she heard “his way of talking was a little exceptional episode was a turning point. Table bit funny” (line 7). We think that such unusual 3 showed this exceptional episode. self-positioning might have deconstructed the The story contrasts with the social force of the dominant discourse for her positioning of her son as non-hikikomori and at least a little, because it made the powerful non-NEET and of herself as a problematic but obscure norms visible, clarifying what was parent. When she listened to her son’s natural and what was not. declaration of NEET, she almost laughed However, it is possible that (lines 6-7). If she had not wanted to position positioning himself as NEET reflected his her son as NEET in order to avoid deficit obedience to the dominant discourse, or the discourse as in extract 1, or if she had desperation of his state. Why didn’t she hear positioned herself as a problematic parent as his utterances in this way? Note that her son in extract 2, she would have denied her son’s said that he was “a perfect NEET” (line 6). It statement or reproached herself, instead of is possible to interpret the statement as laughing. It suggests that her son’s way of self-deprecating humor, not just as obedient saying, “I am a perfect NEET” (line 6), made self-positioning. The expression suggested her respond to the dominant discourses in a that he thought of himself as a person who different or exceptional way. Therefore, we fitted the label made by the dominant society believe that her son’s statement, to some “perfectly.” Moreover, he was criticizing the extent at least, served for him as mild application of the word, claiming that, deconstructive of the dominant discourses “Those who are taking part in it are not from which she had suffered. So, why did her NEET” (line 4). He was implicitly asserting son’s declaration make this deconstruction that he should be called NEET, while people possible? We think that a possible reason was usually avoid being labeled as such. This self-deprecating humor. assertion is contradictory and, therefore, The words, hikikomori and NEET, ironical. In fact, she almost burst out laughing had social force behind them that positioned in response to his way of talking. Thus, his her and her son negatively, to the extent that statement is not a straightforward example of she and her son had not been able to avoid self-positioning as NEET, at least for her. In these forces and could not change the social other words, she heard her son’s “NEET” meanings of these words by themselves. In a positioning as the kind of humor that aims to sense, these words exerted dominance over make people laugh using self-deprecation. her and her son. This is called forced Because of the power of the dominant self-positioning, in which people are discourse, Mrs. Suzuki positioned her son as positioned by others, not by themselves (Van non-hikikomori and non-NEET and herself Langenhove & Harre, 1999). as a problematic parent. However, when her By contrast, his utterance, “I am a son called himself “a perfect NEET,” she perfect NEET,” (lines 5-6) can be seen as responded to his positioning in an unusual
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way, such as laughing and thinking that “it discourse can be deconstructed. The was a little bit funny”. After that time, she dominant discourses about hikikomori and had begun to think of using support services NEET were deconstructed through for hikikomori or NEET more constructively self-deprecating humor, because it clarified than before. Therefore, we think that her and challenged their powers. The power of son’s statement gave her new possibilities to these discourses is strong, but usually deal with her son’s difficult situation, as his invisible. Such deconstruction made it visible self-positioning sounded self-deprecating and allowed the client to think of using some humor for her. support services for hikikomori and NEET Indeed, there are other possibilities for constructively. Thus, this study also reveals her to think about using such support some aspects of how dominant discourses services. She might decide to think of using limit a client’s possibility and also how them, because of the television program. She deconstructing them produces a positive might look at the website for some reasons. change. Her husband or her friends might recommend In this study, it was found that it to her. She might think about it, just self-deprecating humor has deconstructive because the therapist told her about that in power in relation to dominant discourses, the last session. Similarly, there are other because it can produce contradictory as well interpretations of her son’s self-positioning. as humorous utterances. Contradiction and He might position himself as a patient with irony have the power to deconstruct the little hope and embrace a deficit discourse. strength of the dominance of particular His positioning might challenge a social discourses. Because dominant discourse discourse, in which NEET or hikikomori was reflects a kind of common sense, it is, seen just as a personal problem, rather than a therefore, seen as natural (Hare-Mustin, 1994; social problem. He might see himself as a Monk et al., 2008). Usually, people who are professional who had some opinions in labeled as hikikomori or NEET do not opposition to the social discourse in which position themselves as such. They are more NEET could be resolved if they were given commonly positioned in this discourse from jobs. We should think about his statement as the outside forcefully and negatively. Thus, reflecting the intersection of multiple deliberate self-positioning and dominant discourses, just like Mrs. Suzuki’s. self-deprecation can produce “unnatural” However, it is a fact that Mrs. Suzuki utterances, and denaturalize the “natural” responded to her son’s self-positioning as assumptions produced within dominant NEET in an unusual and exceptional way by discourse. laughing, and it is reasonable to think that she It would be problematic for a person heard his self-positioning as a kind of to position himself or herself with a negative self-deprecating humor as analyzed above. label or to diminish himself or herself with Thus, at least a little, self-deprecating humor irony. Humor is not perfect, and sometimes helped to deconstruct the dominant discourse hurts people. Why might such a speech act affecting her negatively, and gave her the have a positive effect, even though it could possibility of an alternative positioning in the produce contradictory utterances? Why did it dominant discourse. not hurt Mrs. Suzuki? One reason might lie in the “self” of self-deprecating humor. We Discussion and conclusions think that the “self” does not represent her Through analyzing a consultation son’s personal sense of self, but his social about hikikomori and NEET, this paper identity, as NEET does. In other words, the examines how dominant discourse can “self” is recognized as a product of social position a client negatively, and also how such dominant discourse.
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This “self” had originated from social use the word “NEET” ironically made room discourse and had been given to particular for him to produce new and different people with or without their agreement. That identities along lines not governed by is to say, this self is forced self-positioning. dominant discourse. Eve Sedgwick, a Therefore, referring to himself as NEET sociologist, said in an interview that when reflected an alternative possibility that he LGBT persons called themselves queer, there could position himself as such by himself, was a crucial distinction between this and rather than having it foisted on him by social when others called them queer (Jagose, 1996). discourse, or by others. In other words, he Similarly, we think, when Mrs. Suzuki’s son had taken up a position of agency through positioned himself as NEET in an ironic which he could construct himself. In utterance he made the dominance of the consequence, it was more important that his dominant discourse visible, and thus deliberate self-positioning was expressed produced the possibility of an alternative ironically as self-deprecating humor, when he discourse. used the word “perfect.” In this moment, he There are, however, differences also defeated the self that was produced by between the word “queer” and “NEET” or dominant society and that had been “hikikomori”. Perhaps the former has more positioning him negatively. Note that what positive connotations than the latter two was defeated was not him, but his social self, words. These words are similar to “queer”, or the product of the dominant discourse. however, in that they carry the implication of Thus, saying, “I am a perfect NEET,” does self-deprecation, and they can be used to not necessarily construct a negative identity. object to dominant discourse and then the Constructing a negative self can have the original negative meaning of the words can power to deconstruct dominant discourse in change to a more or less positive meaning some cases, especially when it creates when the parties use them themselves, as humorous effect and agency. Sedgwick suggests. There are several important It is also possible that there are many implications that derive from this study. In different words that are seemingly negative particular, it seems useful to connect this but have the power to deconstruct dominant study with the word “queer” used often in the discourses. It can be significant to find other gender study and a Japanese idea about words like “queer” or “NEET”. However, we self-deprecating humor. should not assume that such powerful effects are possible for all people and at any time. In Queer and NEET fact, while one researcher argued that the The paradoxical usage of NEET is word “hikikomori” was a new word that similar to the use of the word “queer” by could be used by some to narrate their lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender identities, especially when they had no other (LGBT) persons. The word “queer” was vocabulary with which to express their originally a discriminatory word for sexual and experience (Ishikawa, 2007), another gender minorities, but now it often works as researcher pointed out that “hikikomori” was an expression of dissension from dominant regarded as a negative category by many gender norms and serves as a way of people, because it totalized them (Shiokura, reclaiming their rights by LGBT persons. 1999). Some people have claimed that the Halperin (1995) pointed out that “queer” was word “hikikomori” brought them comfort, a word that countered the production of because it placed them in a category to which various identities not along the lines specified they were able to belong, while at the same by dominant norms. The same mechanism time they also felt displeased with its negative can be true in this case. For the client’s son to connotations (Ninomiya, A, Nabetani,
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Kakonee, Iwata, & Nagatomi, 2000). It is have no way of knowing whether the important to include the party’s own dominant discourse about hikikomori and perspective when examining a power of a NEET was deconstructed for him. Actually self-positioning word. Again, we have to we are not even sure that he was using remember Sedgwick’s suggestion that there is self-deprecating humor when he said “I am a a crucial distinction between whether the perfect NEET.” In this study, we only person concerned says it or others do so. analyzed her report that her son had called himself NEET in a funny way. Because of Cultural power of self-deprecating humor that, we cannot conclude definitively that It is also important to acknowledge self-positioning and self-deprecating humor that the effects of self-deprecating humor have an automatic deconstructive power for upon dominant discourse could be based in her son, even if he used self-deprecating Japanese culture. In Japan, self-deprecating humor. They might be ineffective for him in humor is very popular and familiar. contrast to his mother. Future studies might Tsukawaki, Fukuda and Higuchi (2011) found examine how people in such a situation use that expressing self-deprecating humor words and how the dominant discourses are contributed to mental health positively from deconstructed. analyzing responses to survey questionnaires In addition, we should consider that by undergraduate students in Japan. They she stopped the consultations. Although she pointed out that the result contrasted with had developed much more confidence in previous research in European and American relating to her son, and the relationship countries that had concluded that expressing between her and her son had become rather self-deprecating humor, or using better, her son’s state had not changed at the self-defeating humor by definition, was bad end of the consultations. It does not for mental health. They discussed the necessarily mean that the consultations were a difference in terms of whether or not it failure, but we need to consider why she did involved too much self-sacrifice. We suspect, not resume. In future, we should examine all however, that the interesting distinction with sessions. regard to self-deprecating humor results from Despite these limitations, our study cultural differences between Western still offers some insight into how dominant countries and Japan. Given this perspective, discourse can be deconstructed. While self-deprecating humor might be more dominant discourse can be very strong, there powerful in Japan than in other countries. It is also resistance to it everywhere (White, means that the function of ironical 2011a). To recognize these possibilities and self-positioning in deconstructing dominant extend them is very useful for helping clients discourses may be not only limited by cultural who suffer from its effects. Meanwhile, clients, context, but also reversed between different and even therapists, do not often notice the cultural contexts. Thus, we should pay opportunity for resistance, because dominant attention to unique expressions of cultural discourse is common sense and deeply affects resistance to dominant norms, as well as to a us (Hare-Mustin, 1994; Monk et al, 2008). variety of dominant discourses themselves. Thus, it is necessary to become carefully reflexive about our practices. However, this is Limitations and Future Research easier said than done. Such deconstruction There are several limitations to this acts against our common sense in a way. One study. First of all, the exceptional episode implication is that to doubt our common analyzed in this study was reported by Mrs. sense is sometimes important, in order to Suzuki, not by her son. Note that the analysis notice the chance to help clients. Although it can apply for her, but not for her son. We is impossible to remove dominant discourse
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from society, it is not necessary to act in theory helps us to be reflexive, as this study concert with it (White, 2011b). We believe shows, though it is not “perfect.” that discourse analysis including positioning
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