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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE the Global War on Terror UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE The Global War on Terror: Race, Gender, and Empire After 9/11 A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in Sociology By Sabrina Akbar Alimahomed June 2011 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Edna Bonacich, Chairperson Dr. Scott Brooks Dr. Ellen Reese Copyright by Sabrina Akbar Alimahomed June 2011 The Dissertation of Sabrina Akbar Alimahomed is approved: Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside Acknowledgements My graduate career including this dissertation has been supported by many important people in my life. I would like to express my most heartfelt thanks to my husband Jake Alimahomed-Wilson who gave his unconditional encouragement, love, and inspiration beginning with our undergraduate years at UC Berkeley all the way through to the end of our graduate school experience at UC Riverside. He often acted as a sounding board for my ideas and most importantly listened and encouraged me when I felt most defeated during graduate school. I also wrote much of this dissertation while pregnant with my daughter, Shanti Alimahomed-Wilson who has taught me in just a short few months the depth of love I never thought imaginable. Envisioning her at my graduation along with her many kicks in my tummy made me determined to finish the dissertation. I am deeply thankful to Mary and Jay Wilson who welcomed me into their family as a daughter and warmly encouraged me to finish my dissertation, especially after losing my mom. I would also like to thank my mentor Dr. Edna Bonacich who supported me enthusiastically throughout my entire graduate career. She served as an important role model to me as a Marxist whose intellectual commitments were both radical and social justice oriented. She truly was an optimist and always believed in the importance of my ideas. She loyally stood by me when I needed it the most. I am humbled to have worked with such an amazing scholar, teacher, and activist. I am also thankful to my committee member Dr. Scott Brooks who always showed tremendous insight into my project ideas, encouraging often the most creative ones. His trailblazing scholarship and keen iv intellectual eye always served as an important reminder to me to follow my heart and intuition even when I doubted it the most. I always felt that his teaching and advice went far beyond the reaches of the classroom and were sage lessons about life. My deepest thanks is also to my committee member Dr. Ellen Reese who always gave me incredible detailed feedback, wise career advice, and would go to great lengths to help me in any way that I needed. She was an unwavering advocate and often envisioned goals I never thought possible for my future. Most of all, she challenged me to be a better scholar because of her own dedication to high quality research that aimed to have an impact on important social issues. Thanks to Marwa Itwani who assisted in my interviews and whose passion for the project was always tremendous. Also, my deepest appreciation is for Ameena Qazi and Affad Shaikh at the Council of American Islamic Relations for their support. Their work in the community was a constant reminder of the importance of documenting the impact of this historical moment on the Muslim community. I also am grateful for all the young men and women who let me interview them for this project and so willingly shared their deepest frustrations and opinions about the social conditions of their lives. v Dedication This dissertation is dedicated in loving memory of my mom. I began it while she was still alive and she unfortunately passed away before I completed it. I barely managed to find the strength to finish it after she died, but remembered that she never gave up on any endeavor she started. I also knew that she sacrificed everything to make sure that I had an opportunity to achieve a higher education. She suffered insurmountable obstacles where most people would have given up, but she always persevered with a calm demeanor and smile on her face. Her unconditional love and support were instrumental to me and my success as a person. She always made me feel as if I was the most important gift she ever had experienced in life. She taught me to never hesitate to stand up for someone else who was being ‘done wrong’, even if it meant jeopardizing yourself. Her wise advice always reminded of the most important things in life: laughter, humbleness, and compassion for others. vi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Global War on Terror: Race, Gender, and Empire after 9/11 by Sabrina Akbar Alimahomed Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in Sociology University of California, Riverside, June 2011 Dr. Edna Bonacich, Chairperson This research examines the ways in which race, gender, and capital structure the “War on Terror” by systematically unpacking the connections, and contradictions, in both the global and domestic arenas of US politics and representation of Muslims. The War on Terror is the most privatized war in the history of the US, which provides an important site of analysis to explore the burgeoning industry created and sustained by fear of terrorism. The scapegoating of Muslims as suspected terrorists allows for the uninhibited development and justification for the increasingly privatized Homeland Security State. This research draws upon both the lived experiences of 60 young adult Muslims in Los Angeles along with extensive archival data on Muslim discrimination, to provide a comprehensive overview of the racialized and gendered processes shaping the representation, oppression, and emergent identities of the Muslim diaspora. I situate their experiences within the context of three central dimensions of the War on Terror; state practices and policies, public discrimination and hate crimes, and ideological representations. My research further juxtaposes the imperial deployment of women’s rights discourses in justifying the “War on Terror” abroad alongside the widespread vii infringement on Muslim women’s civil liberties in the US diaspora. While Arab and Muslim American communities have been frequent targets of repression, I argue that gender significantly structures the post-9/11 backlash in qualitatively different ways for men and women. That is, Muslim men have been characterized as dangerous, violent, and highly suspect within the popular imaginary and much of Western media, which has lead to the sanctioning of civil and human rights violations, largely through detainment, deportation, and surveillance. In contrast, Muslim women are consistently portrayed as voiceless victims without agency, further invisibilizing their own lived experiences of systemic discrimination as well as the ways in which diasporic Muslim women navigate and resist such structures of exclusion. viii Table of Contents Chapter 1 – The War on Terror: Local Impact, Global Interests………….……………..1 Chapter 2 – Homeland Security Inc: Race, Capital, and the War on Terror……………35 Chapter 3 – Cointelpro 2.0: FBI Investigations, Surveillance, and Racial Profiling of Los Angeles Muslim Communities….……………………………………..71 Chapter 4 – Unveiling the War Against Muslim Women………………………………101 Chapter 5 – Generation Islam: Arab Americans and Racial Politics after 9/11……..…126 Chapter 6 – Conclusion……………………………………………………………........150 Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………..177 ix List of Figures Figure 1: Number of FBI Cases by Year………………………………………………...83 Figure 2: Citizenship Status……………………………………………………………...85 Figure 3: Gender Demographics of FBI Cases…………………………………………..89 Figure 4: Travel Delays and Stops……………………………………………………….90 Figure 5: FBI Questioning Pattern……………………………………………………….93 Figure 6: Timeline of FBI Investigations……………………………………………….100 x CHAPTER 1 THE WAR ON TERROR: LOCAL IMPACT, GLOBAL INTERESTS The US government has invested more than a trillion dollars in the War on Terror (Dagget 2010). It has now become the second most expensive war since WWII. During the worst economic recession since the Depression, we still are witnessing an unimpeded financial commitment to these war efforts. Also, government spending has collectively risen under two opposing political administrations over the last ten years. The War on Terror has not only commanded a vast financial investment but also has been accompanied by a massive reorganization of the federal government under the guise of Homeland Security. This profound shift in capital towards fighting the war on terrorism is sustained by intersecting logics of race, gender, colonialism, and sexuality which normalize the US federal government’s vested position in fighting terrorism. The defense of the US nation state in response to the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001 has legitimated the continued subordination of US Muslims. This population has been stripped of their basic humanity under the guise of fighting terrorism. While the mass media and government officials would have the US public believe that fighting terrorism is the only reason the US is waging war, it is quite evident that capital has other motives. Capital has a definitive stake in sustaining the War on Terror on both domestic and global fronts (Chomsky 2001; Eisenstein 2004; Harvey 2005). Eisenstein (2004) problematizes the corporate interests and profit motives of the US waged wars in the Middle East arguing that the postwar reconstruction will ensure the most lucrative 1 contracts and positions for those corporations affiliated with the Bush administration. Furthermore, she argues that the corporatization of Iraq by the US serves as an unquestioned outcome and necessity of the occupation. Therefore, the increasing role of US private corporations in postwar reconstruction serves as a proxy for ‘development’ in Iraq which implicitly reinforces the West and capitalism as progressive and the East as backwards and pre-modern. The interest of Western capital in the Middle East is clearly not a new phenomenon but has its roots in prior colonialist histories. In this sense, capitalism has always been accompanied by Western imperialist ideologies about Islam and the Middle East.
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