DOCSLIB.ORG

Fires in Rome: the Ancient City As a Fire Régime

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Fires in Rome: the Ancient City As a Fire Régime Fires in Rome: the ancient city as a fire régime by Margaret Desmond Volume 1 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy University of Dublin Trinity College 2019 Declaration I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at this or any other university and it is entirely my own work. I agree to deposit this thesis in the University’s open access institutional repository or allow the Library to do so on my behalf, subject to Irish Copyright Legislation and Trinity College Library conditions of use and acknowledgement. ------------- Margaret Desmond Summary The aim of this thesis is to explore the concept of fire as a process in ancient Rome using the model of the city as a ‘fire régime’, a model where systems of building and managing cities have developed in relation to specific patterns of fire engendered by local and environmental conditions. This approach presents a framework where fires are explored as a continuum or a process to which a general typology of urban fire is applied, and where Rome, like all cities, was a habitat for fire. Chapter 1 sets out the inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary methodological approach to the subject and the manner in which traditional material is looked at anew through the lens of modern fire science and sociological research. The thesis argues that much written by the ancient sources has been taken at face value by modern scholarship and needs to be re-evaluated. That re-evaluation begins in Chapter 2 with a close reading of the language and vocabulary used by the sources for each of the 88 recorded fires from the period 460 BC to AD 410. The focus and context of the record is examined while modern commentary is collated on each fire. Chapter 3 presents an analysis of the findings of the close reading and discusses whether the language used can throw any light on why certain fires are recorded in the first place. This chapter also looks at the chronology of the sources as well as presenting case studies to test their reliability. Chapter 4 explores the flammability of Rome and suggests that the individual elements which made Rome a flammable city did not in themselves constitute fire hazards; it was the combination of a number of factors such as topography, population, housing conditions, building materials, human behaviour, the inter-mingling of commercial and residential areas together with ubiquitous naked flame which conspired to make the danger of fire constant in Rome. By applying modern research on building materials, particularly wood, this chapter also investigates whether assumptions have been made by secondary sources about the nature of the flammability of Rome. Chapter 5 examines the Romans’ awareness of the danger, the constant efforts made to prevent, contain and control outbreaks of fire, and the manner in which this was interwoven with political, religious and ritual life of the city. Legislation, building materials, technology and design are all discussed and it is argued that fire prevention and management were part of the fabric of the city. While the ‘fire-brigade’ of Rome, the Vigiles, have been studied more than any other aspect of fires in Rome, there has been a lack of consensus about everything from their numbers, policing role, quarters, and methods of fighting fire. Chapter 6 looks in detail at the Vigiles, takes the same evidence that has been used by earlier commentators but, based on modern fire-fighting and technology, as well as consultation with fire experts, asks different questions of that evidence. Chapter 7 searches for what is not reported in the sources and argues that fire and fires were a continuum, a process, a lived experience, along with perennial urban problems such as floods and quakes. The silence which surrounds the immediate effects of fires on human experience in the sources presents considerable challenges which are addressed by applying the findings of comparative research into contemporary situations of disaster, and by careful scrutiny of descriptions in the ancient sources of human behaviour, especially in time of crisis. The Roman attitude to grief and loss is also discussed. As in any urban fire régime, fires played an important part in shaping the fabric and streetscape of the city. Chapter 8 examines how fires were part of a transformative process which destroyed and regenerated individual structures and whole areas of cities. This chapter concentrates on fires that gave scope to change the city or individual buildings in a way which proclaimed an ideology or political agenda as they gave leaders the scope to shape the city in their own image. It also looks at the manner in which fires could generate economic growth and employment. The final chapter discusses the findings of the dissertation and suggests further areas of study. The dissertation is presented in two volumes. Volume 1 contains the text of the thesis and Volume 2 is made up of two Appendices: Appendix 1 contains translations of relevant primary sources for each of the recorded fires; Appendix 2 contains all figures and illustrations. Table of Contents Volume 1 Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations iii List of Figures iv Chapter 1 Methodology 1 Chapter 2 Reading Fire 19 Chapter 3 Analysis of Reading Fire 110 Chapter 4 Characteristics of Fires in Rome: an urban fire regime 137 Chapter 5 Counter Measures 167 Chapter 6 Counter Measures: Vigiles 183 Chapter 7 Effects of Fires: the human experience 203 Chapter 8 How fires shaped the city 230 Chapter 9 Discussion 262 Primary Sources 269 Bibliography 274 Websites 290 Volume 2 Appendix 1 Translations of Sources 2 Appendix 2 List of Figures 45 Figures 1 - 47. 48 i Acknowledgements First and foremost, I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr Hazel Dodge, whose unfailing erudition and encouragement has sustained me throughout. Dr Dodge is an outstanding supervisor who has been accessible and available to support me at all times. It has been a pleasure and a privilege to work under her learned guidance. I wish to thank Department of Classics of TCD for the award of a Postgraduate Research Studentship. It indicated from the beginning a belief in the value of my work which helped to sustain me over the past four years. I wish to thank all members of the Department who have been unfailingly supportive and encouraging. I would especially like to mention Ms Winifred Ryan for her courtesy and help at all times. I also wish to thank the members of the annual review panel during the course of the project: Professor Brian McGing, Dr Martine Cuypers, and Dr Anne Dolan. They provided very useful feedback at each stage. The personnel of Dublin and Cork Fire Brigades have been most helpful in my research. I would like particularly to thank Third Officer Gerard Stanley for his insight and advice. A special word of thanks to Elaine Cullen, Robin Miller, and Colm Traynor. To my family and friends who have lifted my flagging energy when necessary and have believed in me from the outset – Thank You! Finally, to my daughter Jill, this is dedicated to you. ii Abbreviations AE L’Année Epigraphique AJA American Journal of Archaeology APA American Psychiatric Association Bull. Comm. Arch. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma CAMWS Classical Association of the Middle West and South CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum FUR Forma Urbis Romae Historia Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte IBC International Building Code JFA Journal of Field Archaeology JRS Journal of Roman Studies JSAH Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians KLIO Klio: Beiträge zur alten Geschichte Latomus Latomus: Revue d’études latines LSJ A Greek-English Lexicon compiled by H.G. Liddell and R.Scott (revised by H.S. Jones) 1996 MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome NSA Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità NTDAR New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome OCD Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th Edition 2012) OLD Oxford Latin Dictionary (2nd Edition, 2012) PBRS Papers of the British School at Rome PLoS Public Library of Science RIC Roman Imperial Coins iii List of Figures Figure 1: FUR fr.18e showing the Graecostadium. Cod. Vat. Lat. 3439. http://formaurbis.stanford.edu/; https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Vat.lat. (Accessed 28/08/18) Figure 2: FUR fr.39ac showing the Hecatostylon. http://formaurbis.stanford.edu/fragment.php?slab=110&record=1 (Accessed 28/08/18) Figure 3: Frequency of Latin nouns for ‘fire’ in the primary sources. Figure 4: Frequency of Latin verbs for ‘burning’ used in the primary sources. Figure 5: Frequency of Greek nouns for ‘fire’ in the sources. Figure 6: Frequency of Greek verbs for ‘burning’ in the sources. Figure 7: Chronological chart of authors who report five or more fires. Figure 8: Temporal distribution of recorded fires. Figure 9: Percentage estimate of the focus of records of fires in the primary sources. Figure 10: Areas most prone to fire and the number of fires recorded in each area. Figure 11: Temples and Shrines impacted by fires as recorded in the primary sources. Figure 12: Fire of 213 BC Figure 13: Fire of 31 BC. Figure 14: The regions affected in the fire of AD 64. Figure 15: Early site of Rome showing topographical constraints. (Claridge 2010, Fig. A) Figure 16: FUR fr.10g showing part of the subura. http://formaurbis.stanford.edu/ (Accessed 3/4/18) Figure 17: The remains of the 2nd century Insula Ara Coeli. (Connolly and Dodge 1998, 143) Figure 18: Gismondi’s model of the Insula Ara Coeli. http://www.museociviltaromana.it/it/collezioni/percorsi_per_sale/plastico_di_r oma_imperiale (Accessed 18/08/18) iv Figure 19: Jettying on Casa di Nettuno ed Anfitrite in Herculaneum.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Historical Background Italy, Due to the Threat There from Throw the Entire Balance Over in the Following the Defeat of Hasdrubal Barca Hannibal
    • The numerical superiority they enjoyed with their new mercenaries; • The superior quality of their legions, probably the finest in the Roman army; and, • Overconfidence bred from seven years of campaigning without a serious defeat. Had the Scipios actually faced only 35,000 Carthaginians with over 50,000 legionnaires and mercenaries as they believed, their chances for success would have been good. But Hasdrubal Barca had two additional detachments: 3,000 Numidian cavalry under Masinissa and 7,500 warriors under Indibilis. And Hasdrubal Barca also were unable to obtain more troops from had a trick up his sleeve that was to Historical Background Italy, due to the threat there from throw the entire balance over in the Following the defeat of Hasdrubal Barca Hannibal. Instead, the Scipios hired on a favor of Carthage. at Dertosa (see issue Nr. 4 of C3i for large body of 20,000 Celt-Iberian Dertosa Battle Module) by the Scipio mercenaries. The Celt-Iberians were a While Hasdrubal Barca observed the brothers in 215 BC, Carthage responded mix of those two peoples, found mainly Romans from his position at Amtorgis, by sending reinforcements. Two armies in the wilds of central Spain. They had a he ordered the forces of Hasdrubal were dispatched, one under Hasdrubal's reputation for ferocity and fighting skill. Gisgo, Masinissa and Indibilis to younger brother Mago, and another Both sides confidently planned to take concentrate at Mago Barca's camp under a political rival of the Barca clan, the offensive in 211 BC. near Castulo. Once these forces were Hasdrubal Gisgo. For the next three united, it appears he intended to move years (214-212 BC), the three Publius and Gnaeus Scipio knew that north against the Romans with his Carthaginian armies battled the two Hasdrubal Barca was encamped north combined forces.
    [Show full text]
  • ROMAN POLITICS DURING the JUGURTHINE WAR by PATRICIA EPPERSON WINGATE Bachelor of Arts in Education Northeastern Oklahoma State
    ROMAN POLITICS DURING THE JUGURTHINE WAR By PATRICIA EPPERSON ,WINGATE Bachelor of Arts in Education Northeastern Oklahoma State University Tahlequah, Oklahoma 1971 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS May, 1975 SEP Ji ·J75 ROMAN POLITICS DURING THE JUGURTHINE WAR Thesis Approved: . Dean of the Graduate College 91648 ~31 ii PREFACE The Jugurthine War occurred within the transitional period of Roman politics between the Gracchi and the rise of military dictators~ The era of the Numidian conflict is significant, for during that inter­ val the equites gained political strength, and the Roman army was transformed into a personal, professional army which no longer served the state, but dedicated itself to its commander. The primary o~jec­ tive of this study is to illustrate the role that political events in Rome during the Jugurthine War played in transforming the Republic into the Principate. I would like to thank my adviser, Dr. Neil Hackett, for his patient guidance and scholarly assistance, and to also acknowledge the aid of the other members of my counnittee, Dr. George Jewsbury and Dr. Michael Smith, in preparing my final draft. Important financial aid to my degree came from the Dr. Courtney W. Shropshire Memorial Scholarship. The Muskogee Civitan Club offered my name to the Civitan International Scholarship Selection Committee, and I am grateful for their ass.istance. A note of thanks is given to the staff of the Oklahoma State Uni­ versity Library, especially Ms. Vicki Withers, for their overall assis­ tance, particularly in securing material from other libraries.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Memory in the Eclogues of Virgil and Calpurnius Siculus
    “Now I have forgotten all my verses”: Social Memory in the Eclogues of Virgil and Calpurnius Siculus Paul Hulsenboom Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen Abstract This paper examines the use of social memory in the pastoral poetry of Virgil and Cal- purnius Siculus. A comparison of the references to Rome’s social memory in both these works points to a development of this phenomenon in Latin bucolic poetry. Whereas Vir- gil’s Eclogues express a genuine anxiety with the preservation of Rome’s ancient customs and traditions in times of political turbulence, Calpurnius Siculus’s poems address issues of a different kind with the use of references to social memory. Virgil’s shepherds see their pastoral community disseminating: they start forgetting their lays or misremem- bering verses, indicating the author’s concern with Rome’s social memory and, thereby, with the prosperity and stability of the Res Publica. Calpurnius Siculus, on the other hand, has his herdsmen strive for the emperor’s patronage and a literary career in the big city, bored as they are by the countryside. They desire a larger, more cohesive and active urban community in which they and their songs will receive the acclaim they deserve and consequently live on in Rome’s social memory. Calpurnius Siculus’s poems are, however, in contrast to Virgil’s, no longer concerned with social memory in itself. Keywords: social memory, Eclogues, Virgil, Calpurnius Siculus 14 Paul Hulsenboom Abstrakt Niniejszy artykuł omawia rolę pamięci zbiorowej w poezji idyllicznej Wergiliusza i Kalpurniusza Sykulusa. Rezultaty porównania między odwołaniem się obu autorów do rzymskiej pamięci zbiorowej wskazują na rozwój tego tematu w łacińskiej poezji bu- kolicznej.
    [Show full text]
  • A Glimpse Into the Roman Finances of the Second Punic War Through
    Letter Geochemical Perspectives Letters the history of the western world. Carthage was a colony founded next to modern Tunis in the 8th century BC by Phoenician merchants. During the 3rd century BC its empire expanded westward into southern Spain and Sardinia, two major silver producers of the West Mediterranean. Meanwhile, Rome’s grip had tight- © 2016 European Association of Geochemistry ened over the central and southern Italian peninsula. The Punic Wars marked the beginning of Rome’s imperial expansion and ended the time of Carthage. A glimpse into the Roman finances The First Punic War (264 BC–241 BC), conducted by a network of alliances in Sicily, ended up with Rome prevailing over Carthage. A consequence of this of the Second Punic War conflict was the Mercenary War (240 BC–237 BC) between Carthage and its through silver isotopes unpaid mercenaries, which Rome helped to quell, again at great cost to Carthage. Hostilities between the two cities resumed in 219 BC when Hannibal seized the F. Albarède1,2*, J. Blichert-Toft1,2, M. Rivoal1, P. Telouk1 Spanish city of Saguntum, a Roman ally. At the outbreak of the Second Punic War, Hannibal crossed the Alps into the Po plain and inflicted devastating mili- tary defeats on the Roman legions in a quick sequence of major battles, the Trebia (December 218 BC), Lake Trasimene (June 217 BC), and Cannae (August 216 BC). As a measure of the extent of the disaster, it was claimed that more than 100,000 Abstract doi: 10.7185/geochemlet.1613 Roman soldiers and Italian allies lost their lives in these three battles, including The defeat of Hannibal’s armies at the culmination of the Second Punic War (218 BC–201 three consuls.
    [Show full text]
  • < ;-Thames & Hudson
    Philip Matyszak and Joanne Berry OF THE ROMANS With 217 illustrations, 135 in color -<�;- Thames & Hudson HALF-TITLE Bronze bust of (1616). Decius Mus typified the Augustus, formerly Octavian, warrior aristocracy of the early 27-25 BC. Republic, when Roman leaders FRONTISPIECE Fourth-century were expected to command from mosaic of a house on a lake. the front. PREVIOUS PAGE Bust of Lucius OPPOSITE Romulus and Remus Cornelius Sulla, 138-78 BC. being suckled by the wolf, thought BELOW Decius Mus addressing the to be an Etruscan statue of the sth Legions, by Peter Paul Rubens century BC. © 2008 Thames & Hudson Ltd, London All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. First published in 2008 in hardcover in the United States of America by Thames & Hudson Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10110 thamesandhudsonusa.com Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2008901001 ISBN 978-o-soo-25144-7 Printed and bound in Singapore by Tien Wah Press (Pte) Ltd The Triumph of Quintus Fabius by Samuel Elliot (1849). Fabius celebrated two triumphs, the first in 233 sc after his defeat of the Ligurians, the second in 209 sc after he recaptured Tarentum (which Hannibal had taken three years previously). Livy claims that Fabius brought back to Rome 30,000 captives and thousands of pounds of gold and silver, but he left behind statues of Tarentum's warrior gods -unlike his rival Marcellus who had stripped the temples of Syracuse in 211 sc.
    [Show full text]
  • Place Your Order Today!
    Zama Hannibal vs Scipio Zama is a simulation of the climactic battle of the Second Punic War: the decisive struggle between the Roman Republic and Carthage for control of the Western Mediterranean. The war began in 218 BC, with the Carthaginians led by Hannibal, one of history’s greatest commanders. The two nations clashed for over a decade, with each experiencing triumphs and defeats. Following the Battle of the Great Plains in 203 BC, a ceasefire was negotiated. It was broken following a Carthaginian attack on a stranded Roman fleet in the Gulf of Tunis. Determined to finally win the war, Roman General Scipio Africanus led an invasion force into North Africa, the Carthaginian homeland. The opposing armies met near the town of Zama. Despite being outnumbered, the Romans were able to defeat the Carthaginians. With that victory the Romans had effectively won the war. Zama is part of DG’s Battles of the Ancient World series, that emphasizes simple but realistic design features to show critical aspects of classical era combat. Special rules for leadership, missile fire, and elephants are included. Available January 2017 Target Market • Ancient History buffs Up-Sells & Cross-Sells • Chalons (DG Folio Series Game) • Caesar's Wars (DG Mini Series Game) • Belisarius's War (DG Mini Series Game) • Battles of the Ancient World (DG Box Game) Selling Points • Folio-game/low price Stock no • 1639 MSRP • $19.95 UPC Code • 09510901639 Contents • One 17x22 inch terrain map • 100 die-cut counters • One Standard & Exclusive Rules booklet Place your order today! P.O. Box 21598 | Bakersfield, CA.
    [Show full text]
  • THEATRE of WAR 264–241 Bc 0 200 400 Kilometres 0 100 200 Miles
    a S e i a n h e n T y r r Liparian Lipara Isles Mylae Messana Panormus Tyndaris Cale acte Soloeis Drepanum Eryx Himers Motya Segesta Tauromenium Aegatian Naxos Isles Lilybaeum Entella Mt Etna Agyrium Mazara SICILY Selinus Enna Catane Heraclea Acragas Leontini M e d i t e r r Syracuse a n Gela Phoenician settlements e Ecnomus Acrae a n S Plemmyrium Greek settlements e a Native settlements Camerina 0 25 50 75 kilometres 0 25 50 miles Pachynus THEATRE OF WAR 264–241 BC 0 200 400 kilometres 0 100 200 miles Ticinus ILLY RICUM Ticinum DALMATIA Po Trebia Bononia Fanum Pisa Arno Ariminum Trasimeme Perusia Adriatic Sea CORSICA Cosa Tiber Alba Fucens Veii Rome Allifae Cannae Beneventum SARDINIA Pompeii Brundisium Neapolis Tarentum Tyrrh enian Sea Croton a M Se e n d i Messana ia t Rhegium on e r I r a Lilybaeum n SICILY e a n S Carthage e a Syracuse AFRICA Zama ITALY IN THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL THE EASTERN EMPIRE k S e a B l a c Artaxata Sinope GREA TER ARMENIA Heraclea PONTUS Byzantium BITHY NIA Nicomedia MA CEDONIA SOPHENE GALA TIA Halys C APP ADOCIA LYCAONIA CORDUENE Pergamon ASIA P ARTHIAN KINGDOM Tigris Athens Ephesus OSROHENE Antioch Euphrates ACH AEA CILICIA LY CIA SY RIA Seleucia RHODES CYPRUS CRETE Roman Empire M e d i t e Roman Provinces r r a n e a n S e a PALESTINE Cyrene Jerusalem Roman Protectorates Parthian Kingdom CY RENAICA Alexandria 0 200 400 kilometres EGYPT 0 100 200 miles Nile THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER HADRIAN n a e c O c i t n a a e l North S t Sea ic A lt York Ba BRIT AIN London Aral Sea Colonia Agrippina Rhine Mainz Danube GAUL
    [Show full text]
  • The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC – AD 476)
    Impact of Empire 6 IMEM-6-deBlois_CS2.indd i 5-4-2007 8:35:52 Impact of Empire Editorial Board of the series Impact of Empire (= Management Team of the Network Impact of Empire) Lukas de Blois, Angelos Chaniotis Ségolène Demougin, Olivier Hekster, Gerda de Kleijn Luuk de Ligt, Elio Lo Cascio, Michael Peachin John Rich, and Christian Witschel Executive Secretariat of the Series and the Network Lukas de Blois, Olivier Hekster Gerda de Kleijn and John Rich Radboud University of Nijmegen, Erasmusplein 1, P.O. Box 9103, 6500 HD Nijmegen, The Netherlands E-mail addresses: [email protected] and [email protected] Academic Board of the International Network Impact of Empire geza alföldy – stéphane benoist – anthony birley christer bruun – john drinkwater – werner eck – peter funke andrea giardina – johannes hahn – fik meijer – onno van nijf marie-thérèse raepsaet-charlier – john richardson bert van der spek – richard talbert – willem zwalve VOLUME 6 IMEM-6-deBlois_CS2.indd ii 5-4-2007 8:35:52 The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC – AD 476) Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, 200 B.C. – A.D. 476) Capri, March 29 – April 2, 2005 Edited by Lukas de Blois & Elio Lo Cascio With the Aid of Olivier Hekster & Gerda de Kleijn LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007 This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 License, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
    [Show full text]
  • Questions for History of Ancient Rome by Garret Fagan
    www.YoYoBrain.com - Accelerators for Memory and Learning Questions for History of Ancient Rome by Garret Fagan Category: Pre-Republic - (12 questions) What is the range of mountains that run Apennine range down the center of Italy 3 main plains in Italy Po River Valley in northplain of Latium around RomeCampania around Naples How many legendary kings of Rome were 7 there Who was first legendary king of Rome Romulus What was second king of Rome, Numa establishing religious traditions of Rome Pompilius, famous for What was Rome 3rd legendary king, Tullius attacking neighboring peoples Hostilus, famous for Where were the 2 Tarquin kings from Etruscan What was basic political unit pre-Republic tribes - started as 3 and expanded to 21 Romans born into What social unit were pre-Republic families clans grouped into What was the function of the Curiate to ratify the senate's choice of king and Assembly in pre-Republican Rome confer power of command (imperium) on him Who was the last king of Rome Tarquinius Superbus (the Arragont) Who was the woman raped by Sextus Lucretia Tarquinius leading to ouster of king Category: Republican - (30 questions) What was the title of the second in command Master of Horse to a temporary dictator in Republican Rome What was the Struggle of the Orders in internal social and political conflict between Roman history Plebians and Patrician classes that ran between 494 BC and 287 BC When did the Roman plebians first "secede" 494 B.C. from Rome during Struggle of the Orders When was law passed making laws passed 287
    [Show full text]
  • History Religion Tokarev.Pdf
    STUDENT'S LIBRARY Sergei Tokarev History of RELIGION PROGRESS PUBLISHERS MOSCOW Translated from the Russian by Paula Garb Editorial Board of the Series: F.M. Volkov (Managing Editor), Ye.F. Gubsky (Deputy Managing Editor), V.G. Afanasyev, Taufik Ibrahim, Zafar Imam, I.S. Kon, I.M. Krivoguz, A.V. Petrovsky, Yu.N. Popov, Munis Reza, N.V. Romanovsky, V.A. Tumanov, A.G. Zdravomyslov, V.D. Zotov. BHEJIHOTEKA CTYflEHTA C. T oK apeB HCTOPMH PEJIWrHM Ha ammiucKOM H3biKe © IIOJIHTH3AaT, 1986 © Progress Publishers 1989 Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 0400000000-438 g 9 014(01)-89 ISBN 5-01-001097-6 Contents TRIBAL CULTS Chapter One ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS ................................ 9 1. Paleolithic S ite s ........................................................................ 9 2. Neolithic S ites.............................................................................. 13 3. Religion in the Early Bronze and Iron Age .... 16 Chapter Two RELIGION OF THE AUSTRALIANS AND TASMANIANS............................ 18 1. The A u stralian s........................................................................ 18 2. The T asm anians........................................................................ 33 Chapter Three RELIGION IN OCEANIA ........................................................................ 35 1. The Papuans and M elanesians.................................................. 36 2. The P olynesians........................................................................ 42 Chapter Four
    [Show full text]
  • Calendar of Roman Events
    Introduction Steve Worboys and I began this calendar in 1980 or 1981 when we discovered that the exact dates of many events survive from Roman antiquity, the most famous being the ides of March murder of Caesar. Flipping through a few books on Roman history revealed a handful of dates, and we believed that to fill every day of the year would certainly be impossible. From 1981 until 1989 I kept the calendar, adding dates as I ran across them. In 1989 I typed the list into the computer and we began again to plunder books and journals for dates, this time recording sources. Since then I have worked and reworked the Calendar, revising old entries and adding many, many more. The Roman Calendar The calendar was reformed twice, once by Caesar in 46 BC and later by Augustus in 8 BC. Each of these reforms is described in A. K. Michels’ book The Calendar of the Roman Republic. In an ordinary pre-Julian year, the number of days in each month was as follows: 29 January 31 May 29 September 28 February 29 June 31 October 31 March 31 Quintilis (July) 29 November 29 April 29 Sextilis (August) 29 December. The Romans did not number the days of the months consecutively. They reckoned backwards from three fixed points: The kalends, the nones, and the ides. The kalends is the first day of the month. For months with 31 days the nones fall on the 7th and the ides the 15th. For other months the nones fall on the 5th and the ides on the 13th.
    [Show full text]
  • Pharsalus 48 BC So SI SHEPPARD Is a Former Journalist Currently Enrolled As a Ph.D
    Campaign OSPREY Pharsalus 48 BC so SI SHEPPARD is a former journalist currently enrolled as a Ph.D. student in International Relations at Johns Hopkins University. He graduated with an MA with Distinction from Victoria University and was winner of the Sir Desmond Todd Award for best thesis in a political subject. Si Sheppard has published a number of books and has contributed numerous articles on political and historical topics to leading journals, magazines and newspapers. This is his first title for Osprey. He lives in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. ADAM HOOK studied graphic design, and began his work as an illustrator in 1983. He specializes in detailed historical reconstructions, and has illustrated Osprey titles on the Aztecs, the Greeks, the American Civil War and the American Revolution. His work features in exhibitions and publications throughout the world. He lives in East Sussex, UK. Pharsalus 48 BC Caesar and Pompey - Clash of the Titans Campaign • 174 Pharsalus 48 BC Caesar and Pompey - Clash of the Titans Si Sheppard • Illustrated by Adam Hook ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dedicated to Stephen Levine: mentor, colleague and friend. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 7 CHRONOLOGY 17 OPPOSING COMMANDERS 21 The Caesareans • The Republicans THE LEGIONS OF THE LATE REPUBLIC 29 THE CAMPAIGN 33 The Rubicon to Brundisium • Brundisium to Dyrrachium • Dyrrachium to Pharsalus THE BATTLE 54 Opposing plans • Opposing armies • The clash of arms AFTERMATH 83 THE BATTLEFIELD TODAY 92 BIBLIOGRAPHY 93 INDEX 95 INTRODUCTION: TO THE RUBICON he legend SPQR - Senatus Populusque Romanus, the Senate and People of Rome - emblazoned on the standards of the city's all- conquering legions in the last few centuries before Christ was both a potent symbol of the source of the republic's power and a reflection of the smouldering tension inherent in its system of government.
    [Show full text]