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Women's Views on Conservation-Based Income Generation and Women's Empowerment in Kwandu Conservancy in Caprivi, Namibia

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Women's Views on Conservation-Based Income Generation and Women's Empowerment in Kwandu Conservancy in Caprivi, Namibia University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2012 Women's Views on Conservation-Based Income Generation and Women's Empowerment in Kwandu Conservancy in Caprivi, Namibia Kathryn Elizabeth Khumalo The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Khumalo, Kathryn Elizabeth, "Women's Views on Conservation-Based Income Generation and Women's Empowerment in Kwandu Conservancy in Caprivi, Namibia" (2012). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 1196. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/1196 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WOMEN’S VIEWS ON CONSERVATION-BASED INCOME GENERATION AND WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN KWANDU CONSERVANCY IN CAPRIVI, NAMIBIA By KATHRYN ELIZABETH KHUMALO B.A. Biology, Whitworth University, Spokane, WA, 1999 M. Inst. Agra. Environmental Management, University of Pretoria, South Africa 2007 Dissertation presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Forestry The University of Montana Missoula, MT December 2012 Approved by: Sandy Ross, Associate Dean of The Graduate School Dr. Wayne A. Freimund, Chair Department of Society and Conservation Dr. Laurie A. Yung Department of Society and Conservation Dr. Jill M. Belsky Department of Society and Conservation Dr. Kimber Haddix McKay Department of Anthropology Dr. Jeffrey T. Bookwalter Department of Economics Khumalo, Kathryn, PhD., December 2012 Forestry Women’s Views on Conservation-Based Income Generation and Women’s Empowerment in Kwandu Conservancy in Caprivi, Namibia Chairperson: Dr. Wayne A. Freimund While advocates of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) contend that this decentralized approach to natural resource management has higher potential for the distribution of conservation and social benefits throughout civil society than conventional protected area approaches, there is limited empirical research to confirm it, especially regarding goals and claims of gender empowerment. To assess the impact of CBNRM on women’s empowerment, this research selected Kwandu Conservancy in Namibia’s Caprivi Region for in- depth study, an area with a relatively long and nationally-praised experience with CBNRM. The research was organized around the following two questions: how do women residing in Kwandu Conservancy define empowerment; and how has women’s empowerment changed as a result of CBNRM in Kwandu Conservancy? Given the range of CBNRM activities in the Conservancy, the research focused on the effects of income-generation activities, in part, because they have been emphasized in CBNRM as a mechanism for women’s empowerment. The iterative, ethnographic methodology included participant observation, document review, 20 interviews with key informants, and 49 in-depth interviews with women residents in Kwandu Conservancy varied by household wealth, age, ethnicity, education, marital status, Conservancy involvement, religion, and 5 other characteristics over the course of 6 months. Results show that women residents talk of a female ideal in their culture as having the following characteristics, and translated from their language as a “real woman”: 1) able to meet material needs by earning cash income from locally-respected livelihood activities, 2) educated, 3) hard-working, 4) engaged in nurturing relationships with other people, and 5) performing culturally-defined roles as a wife and mother. Kwandu Conservancy provided enhanced income-generation opportunities through four activities: cash-paid employment of five to seven women annually; harvesting and sales of grass, reeds, and Devil’s Claw ( Harpagophytum procumbens ); sale of locally-produced crafts; and collection of household dividends from the Conservancy. This represents limited economic opportunity for women in Kwandu Conservancy but mixed capacity to achieve their own, locally-defined female ideal of being a “real woman”. While the Conservancy’s economic activities provided women opportunity to gain new income, skills, public-speaking training, and awareness of gender norms and alternatives, opportunities were limited by existing and persisting male-bias, relatively low monetary returns from dividends and craft sales, and the low overall number of economic opportunities provided relative to the Conservancy’s population size. The research concludes that efforts to improve women’s empowerment need to be built on women’s own definitions and goals in a particular context. They should also directly address barriers in gender-based roles and responsibilities, particularly regarding economic participation, household and community-level decision-making, and women’s control over their bodies. Gender-based norms continue to place women in roles of subservience and dependency, increasing women’s risks for experiencing gender-based violence. Challenging cultural norms will be problematic in Kwandu Conservancy and likely in other CBNRM efforts because creating opportunities for women requires cultural and economic ii change on the part of men, and is likely to create resistance from within the community as well as resentment against the conservation organization. It also begs the question as to who besides nature conservancies need to implement and reinforce empowerment programs. iii Dedicated to the memory of my grandmothers, Kathryn and Elizabeth, who instilled a passion for stories and a commitment to education. 1 Research funding Financial support for this research was provided by the USDA Forest Service, Office of International Programs, the University of Montana, and the World Wildlife Fund, Inc. Material and logistical support was offered by the University of Namibia, the Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Organizations (NACSO), and Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC). Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to express many thanks to residents and Conservancy staff in Kwandu for opening their community to me. In particular, I thank the five families who hosted me during my stay and the respondents who so graciously shared their viewpoints and experiences. I offer special thanks to Keby Likando and Rector Kapelwa who provided invaluable assistance with community introductions. I also thank Bestor and Charles for sharing their campfire and offering security and hospitality at Mashi Craft Market. Next, I credit Charity Muwana for building a bridge to Caprivi life. She not only offered excellent translation and cultural advice, but her compassion and spunk through both happy and heart-breaking moments of fieldwork made her a trusted and inspiring friend. Carol Murphy repeatedly opened her home and connected me to countless individuals who have worked in the Caprivi. Conversations over tea and walks with her feisty dachshund, Max, offered respite to a weary soul. I aspire to emulate her generosity, and I am so grateful for her unceasing assistance to me and so many others. Karine Nuulimba (IRDNC), Kaitlin Wiedeman, Katie Murphy (Elephant Energy), Maxi Louis (NACSO), Lise Hanssen (Caprivi Carnivore Project), and Denis Tweddle (Namibia Nature Foundation) all offered invaluable advice and friendship. Additionally, their assistance with housing, in-kind donations, and/or logistics greatly enhanced the quality of my research. Their dedication to their work and open-hearted cooperation with so many people underscores the growth of opportunities in Namibia. I would also like to extend appreciation to my colleagues at the University of Namibia, particularly Alfons Mosimane and Selma Lendelvo for their advice and logistical support. I thank Chris Weaver and Patricia Skyer at WWF Namibia for identifying the need for women’s empowerment research, actively promoting my research, and infusing a gender-based approach into conservation. I thank Janet Matota and John Kamwi for providing assistance introductions and advice, as well as office space in Katima Mulilo. I admire their long-term dedication to conservation and rural development in the Caprivi. My academic advisor, Wayne Freimund, created numerous opportunities to expand my knowledge of Namibia and to speak with stakeholders prior to, during, and after my research. His commitment to women’s empowerment has been evident in his support for my work and 2 his dedication to mentoring me and many other students. Without his generous assistance, my research would not have been possible. I am also grateful to my dissertation committee members: Laurie Yung, Jill Belsky, Kimber McKay, and Jeff Bookwalter. Their reading recommendations, constructive critiques, advice, and encouragement prepared and guided my research and writing. Other faculty have gently challenged and expanded my thinking along the journey, particularly Mike Patterson, Jim Burchfield, Perry Brown, Steve McCool, Steve Siebert, Dan Spencer, and Peter Koehn. I would like to extend appreciation to my fellow students, particularly Christine Paulu Handler, Stephen Handler, Alison Dimond, Marty Kardos, Mo Essen, Ted Morrison, Catherine Sanders, Wylie Carr, Dawn Davidson, Bryan Tavary,
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