on behalf of Statera Energy
Saltholme Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees post-excavation analysis
report 5290 December 2020
Contents 1. Summary 1 2. Project background 2 3. Landuse, topography and geology 3 4. Historical and archaeological background 3 5. The excavation 5 6. The artefacts 23 7. The human remains 43 8. The palaeoenvironmental evidence 52 9. Radiocarbon dating 65 10. Conclusions 65 11. Sources 68
Appendix 1: Data tables 78 Appendix 2: Roman pottery catalogue 116 Appendix 3: Worked lithics catalogue 125 Appendix 4: Articulated skeletons catalogue 128 Appendix 5: Disarticulated skeletons catalogue 131 Appendix 6: Radiocarbon certificates 132 Appendix 7: Stratigraphic matrices 152
Figures Figure 1: Site location Figure 2: Location of excavation Figure 3: Area A, Phase 1 and 2 Figure 4: Area A, Phase 3 Figure 5: Area A, Phase 4 Figure 6: Area A, Phase 5 and 6 Figure 7: Area A, Phase 7 Figure 8: Areas B, C and D, and monitoring Figure 9: Sections 20-34 Figure 10: Sections 35-53, plan 46 Figure 11: Sections 54-82 Figure 12: Sections 83-100 Figure 13: Sections 101-115 Figure 14: Sections 116-135 Figure 15: Sections 136-151, plan 148 Figure 16: Sections 152-161 Figure 17: Illustrated pottery Figure 18: Illustrated flints
Photographs Photo 1: Cist F120 after cleaning, looking north Photo 2: Cist F120, Skeleton 1/2, looking north Photo 3: Cist F120 post-excavation, looking north Photo 4: Ditch F122, looking south Photo 5: Ditch F228, looking south Photo 6: Skeleton 3, looking south Photo 7: Ditch F126, looking south Photo 8: Ditch F128, looking east Photo 9: Pit F418, looking south-east Photo 10: Pit F138, looking north Photo 11: Pit F295 (R) cutting ditch F299 (L), looking south Photo 12: Ditch F60, looking west Photo 13: Flue F142, looking south Photo 14: Flue F142, looking east Photo 15: Flue F151, looking north Photo 16: Flue F151, looking east Photo 17: Dark horizon 53 below medieval clay 52, looking south Photo 18: Flue F349, looking east Photo 19: Flue F349, looking west Photo 20: Posthole F372 in flue F349, looking east Photo 21: Ditch F410, looking north Photo 22: Ditch F408, looking east Photo 23: Skeleton 1/2: external surface of occipital bone (A) and close-up of right part (B) with subtle fine porosity (arrows) Photo 24: Skeleton 1/2: external surface of parietal bone (unsided) with porosity (arrows) Photo 25: Skeleton 1/2: striated lamellar bone on the anterior right ulna Photo 26: Skeleton 1/2: lamellar bone on unidentified long bone fragment (arrow) Photo 27: Skeleton 1/2: localised enamel defects in the labial surfaces of the crowns of the lower deciduous canines (A); areas of missing enamel with rounded margins on the buccal crown of the lower left deciduous first molar (B) Photo 28: Skeleton 1/2: distal root of the lower right deciduous first molar divided into two (a), compared to the normal single distal root of the lower left deciduous first molar (b) (inferior view)
© Archaeological Services Durham University 2020 Green Lane Durham DH1 3LA tel 0191 334 1121 [email protected] www.dur.ac.uk/archaeological.services Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020
1. Summary 1.1 This report presents the results of a full analysis of an archaeological excavation conducted for a development at Saltholme, Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees. The works comprised the excavation of four areas covering a total area of 3750m2, further sampling of a peat deposit identified during the evaluation, and archaeological monitoring during the topsoil strip for the new development. Following post-excavation assessment, radiocarbon dating and further artefactual analysis was conducted. The results of the assessment and analysis have been incorporated into this report.
1.2 The works were commissioned by Stratera Energy and conducted by Archaeological Services Durham University.
1.3 The excavations revealed part of rural settlement dating from the later 2nd century AD into the 4th century, with the majority of activity being in the later Roman period. A single adult burial indicates that the site continued to be recognised into the early medieval period. A few middle-Iron Age pits and an assemblage of flint artefacts from the later Bronze Age provide some evidence for the earlier occupation of the site.
1.4 The settlement comprised a series of rectilinear ditched enclosures, within which a series of pits, later Roman corn driers, and an infant burial were identified. The settlement was primarily agricultural in nature, principly focused on spelt and hulled 6-row barley, together with cattle and sheep. The lack of evidence for domestic dwellings may indicate that the area investigated was on the periphery of a larger settlement. The palaeoenvironmental assemblage, pottery assemblage, and the date range and site development are closely paralled at other Roman sites in the region, including villa sites such as Ingleby Barwick. The presence of Roman roof tile may indicate the presence of a regionally high status building in the vicinity.
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2. Project background Location (Figure 1) 2.1 The site is located on land south-east of Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees (NGR centre: NZ 4895 2385). The development area was approximately 5 ha; excavation areas totalled 3750m2. Agricultural land surrounds the site, with an electricity sub- station to the south-east and the A1185 to the east.
Development 2.2 A gas-fired electricity generating facility is to be constructed on the site. The site is split into two schemes to the north and south. The planning application reference numbers are 18/2079/FUL and 18/2082/FUL.
Objective 2.3 The objective of the scheme of works was to analyse the data produced from the excavations, so that a coherent narrative for the site could be produced, set within its regional context.
Research Objectives 2.4 The regional research framework (Petts & Gerrard 2006) contains an agenda for archaeological research in the region, which is incorporated into regional planning policy implementation with respect to archaeology. In this instance, the scheme of works was designed to address agenda items Ri: Iron Age to Roman transition; Riv: Roman native and civilian life; Rv: Roman material culture; and Rix: Roman landscape and environment.
Methods statement 2.5 The works have been undertaken in accordance with an Updated Project Design produced by Archaeological Services (2000a).
Dates 2.6 Fieldwork was undertaken between 6th March and 18th April 2019. Archaeological monitoring during construction was undertaken between 31st July and 19th August 2019. This report was prepared for December 2020.
Personnel 2.7 Fieldwork was conducted by Daniel Adamson, Jonathan Goldberg, Stuart Johnston, Jeff Lowrey, Ben Matus, Meghan McCarthy, Adam Mead, Al Rae, Geno Naughton, Alice Naylor, Jenny Richards, Laura Watson, Rachel Wells and Hannah Woodrow, with Jamie Armstrong, Matt Claydon and Andy Platell (supervisors). Sample processing was undertaken by Jonathan Goldberg-Booth, Jeff Lowrey, Ben Matus, Meghan McCarthy and Alice Naylor. This report was prepared by Andy Platell, with illustrations by Dr Helen Drinkall and Hannah Woodrow. The artefacts were drawn by Janine Watson. Specialist reporting was conducted by Dr Anwen Caffell (human remains), Alex Croom (Roman pottery and registered finds), Felicity Wild (Samian), Kay Hartley (mortaria), by Dr Craig Barclay (Roman coins), Dr Helen Drinkall (lithics), David Heslop (quern), Dr Louisa Gidney (animal bone), Jennifer Jones (other artefacts) and Dr Ed Treasure (palaeoenvironmental).
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Archive/OASIS 2.8 The site code is CBS19, for Cowpen Bewley, Saltholme 2019. Numbers continue sequentially from those used in the evaluation. The archive is currently held by Archaeological Services Durham University and will be transferred to Tees Archaeology in due course. The flots and charred plant remains will be retained at Archaeological Services Durham University. Archaeological Services Durham University is registered with the Online AccesS to the Index of archaeological investigationS project (OASIS). The OASIS ID number for this project is archaeol3- 41110.
3. Landuse, topography and geology 3.1 At the time of the excavation, the development area comprised part of a single field of pasture.
3.2 The site was almost level with a mean elevation of approximately 5m OD. It lies on the edges of the Greatham Marshes, an area of tidal mudflats along the estuary of the River Tees that is now heavily industrialised.
3.3 The bedrock geology of the area comprises Permian and Triassic strata of the Sherwood Sandstone Group, which are overlain by Devensian glaciolacustrine deposits (The British Geological Society).
4. Previous archaeological works Previous archaeological works 4.1 Numerous archaeological works are recorded in the vicinity of the site, three of which were within the site boundary and the results of these are set out below.
4.2 A geophysical survey was undertaken in the north-west part of the site in 2018 (Gater 2018). This detected two former field boundaries, also evident on old mapping, and ridge and furrow cultivation. Vegetation cover had prevented the survey from covering the whole of the site.
4.3 Fieldwalking was undertaken in 2009 (HER 667) along the route of a proposed gas pipeline route that now traverses the eastern part of the site. The works recorded several archaeological features.
4.4 Part of the development area was also included within an archaeological desk-based assessment completed in 2011 (HER 1345) for the upgrading of overhead power lines; this recommended further survey and mitigation measures.
Archaeological assessment 4.5 Two detailed archaeological desk-based assessments have been conducted for the development (Archaeological Services 2018b and 2018c); the results of these assessments are summarised below.
4.6 No direct evidence for prehistoric or Roman activity was identified on the site, but the presence of activity in the surrounding vicinity indicated some potential for an as yet unidentified resource to exist.
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4.7 There was also potential for peat deposits to be present along the electric connection route where it crosses the Belasis Beck.
4.8 Ridge and furrow cultivation remains from the medieval period may survive across the site.
4.9 There is some potential for a resource relating to salt making of medieval date to be present on the eastern side of the site, where the access track is within Cowpen Marsh.
Archaeological evaluation 4.10 An archaeological evaluation of the site was undertaken in January 2019 (Archaeological Services 2019a). Since most of the site was in areas where vegetation cover had prevented geophysical survey, trial trenches were randomly located. Results of the evaluation are summarised below.
4.11 Archaeological deposits comprising ditches and gullies cut into the natural subsoil were present in trenches 5 and 6. These indicated the presence of a series of enclosures containing Romano-British settlement activity over the eastern part of the site. A small assemblage of pot sherds, animal bone and other objects of this period were recovered from the features, along with palaeoenvironmental remains.
4.12 A peat deposit containing some palaeoenvironmental information was identified along the length of the electrical connection close to Holme Fleet.
4.13 Furrows, the remains of medieval or post-medieval ploughing, were recorded in trenches 1, 3, 4 and 9, cutting into the subsoil.
4.14 No archaeological deposits were recorded in trenches 2, 7 or 8.
Geophysical survey 4.15 Since vegetation cover had subsided since the original survey, a geophysical survey was undertaken over the part of the site identified by the evaluation as containing significant archaeological remains in February 2019 (Archaeological Services 2019b). Results of this are summarised below.
4.16 The remains of a probable Romano-British enclosure system, including ditches, tracks and pits, were identified. Possible external features, which could be associated with this, may extend westwards into the unsurveyed ploughed field.
4.17 Traces of former ridge and furrow cultivation were detected across the area.
4.18 A former field boundary was identified, as shown on historic Ordnance Survey editions.
4.19 Modern features, including land drains, services and recent ploughing regimes, were detected.
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5. The excavation Introduction 5.1 Four areas were stripped of topsoil by a 3600 tracked excavator equipped with a toothless ditching bucket under close archaeological control. Natural subsoil, a yellow-brown silty clay [2], was identified at a depth of 0.25m to 0.3m and directly below the topsoil [1] across most of the site. The locations of the four excavation areas are shown in Figure 2.
Area A 5.2 Area A was 50m square, and was located over the centre of the enclosure system as defined by the geomagnetic survey. Evaluation Trench 6 had been located here, entirely within Area A.
5.3 A series of ditches crossed this area, mainly on a north-south or an east-west orientation, defining enclosures. These had particularly dark fills towards the north- east corner of Area A, making them very conspicuous. In the remainder of the excavation area, their fills were less distinctive and, although obvious when freshly opened, they were less well defined following drying and weathering of the ground surface.
Phase 1 (Figure 3) 5.4 A small number of pits in Area A had fills containing plant fossil assemblages at variance from those of the remainder of the site. Subsequent radiocarbon dating provided Iron Age dates for two of these, and this phase therefore relates to this period.
5.5 Towards the south-west corner of the excavation area, pit [F290: 1.0m by 0.35m by 0.1m deep] was filled by a blue-grey silty clay containing flecks of charcoal [289] and was cut by a deeper but narrower pit [F292: 0.4m diameter by 0.3m deep], filled by a light blue-grey silty clay containing charcoal flecks [291]. A radiocarbon date of 400-200 cal BC was obtained from a piece of alder charcoal, confirming the palaeoenvironmental evidence for a prehistoric date.
5.6 Towards the south-east corner of the excavation area, a circular pit or posthole [F233: 0.36m diameter by 0.43m deep], filled by a dark brown to black sandy silty clay containing charcoal, burnt bone fragments and cinders [232], was present below the base of a Phase 4 ditch [F216: described below]. This produced an almost identical radiocarbon date of 400-200 cal BC. A shallow pit [F218: 0.95m wide by 0.15m deep], filled by a light grey-brown sandy silty clay [217], was present to the north and was also cut by the Phase 4 ditch, removing their direct relationship. Given their locations, these two cuts are possibly parts of the same feature, bisected by the later ditch.
Phase 2 (Figure 3) 5.7 Phase 2 comprises features which were demonstrably of Romano-British date but which stratigraphically pre-dated the main phases of occupation. The exact relationship between these various features is unknown and they are not necessarily closely contemporary with each other.
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Cist burial 5.8 A cist grave [F120: 1.0m by 0.5m by 0.2m deep: Photos 1 to 3] was located towards the north-west centre of the excavation area. It was lined with vertically-set sandstone slabs [F139], with two horizontal slabs forming its roof. The grave had been slightly truncated by a later ditch [F269] on its western side, removing the lining here, but not affecting the burial inside. This had caused the remainder of the lining to settle, allowing the roof to subside into its interior. The interior of the grave was filled by a grey clayey silt [119] containing human infant remains. On excavation, there appeared to be two skulls buried side by side in the west of the cist [143 (Sk 1) and 144 (Sk 2)]. Post-excavation laboratory analysis determined that all the skull fragments were from a single individual (subsequently referred to as Sk 1/2), the unfused bone of which had moved somewhat in the grave post-inhumation. Poor preservation conditions meant that little survived of the skeleton except for the skull. A radiocarbon date of 250-420 cal AD was obtained from the skeleton, indicating that the burial was broadly of the same period as the remainder of the site, and not part of a significantly earlier phase of occupation.
Early ditch and gully 5.9 A north-south gully [F130=F343: 0.8m wide by 0.32m deep] was present running along the western baulk, at a slight angle to the trench edge, in the southern half of the trench. It contained a fill of grey-brown silty clay [129=344], from which a sherd of 2nd century Roman pottery was recovered. At its southern end it was truncated by an east-west ditch [F346=F248] filled by a brown silty clay [395=247]. This ditch was exposed for a distance of 3m, continuing out of the excavation area to the west and being truncated by a larger and deeper, later ditch [F244] on the same alignment and continuing across the whole of the excavation area towards the east. This later ditch appeared to respect a significant pre-existing land boundary since several other features, all pre-dating it, started or ended directly under it. In addition, much of the earlier pottery on the site (including both of the 1st century sherds and several 2nd century sherds) was found in this later ditch, along with pottery dating from after AD 270. It is possible that the earlier ditch present in the south-west corner of Area A [F346=F248] had originally crossed the whole site following this boundary, but had been almost entirely truncated by the later recut. The early pottery recovered from the later recut was residual.
Other features 5.10 Two intercut features were present c.7m south-west of the cist burial. Gully [F321: 0.4m wide by 0.05m deep] was filled by a grey and yellow-brown silty clay [320]. It was truncated by a medieval furrow towards the west, and by a shallow pit [F319: 2.2m diameter by 0.2m deep], filled by a light grey-brown silty clay [318], towards the east. This latter pit was in turn truncated by a Phase 3 ditch [F264] and is of uncertain relationship to other features in this area.
Phase 3 (Figure 4) 5.11 Phase 3 was characterised by the establishment of a large rectangular enclosure covering most of the south-eastern side of Area A, together with a smaller enclosure to its west. Two parallel ditches, perhaps defining the sides of a droveway or trackway, entered Area A from the south (clearer in Area B) and terminated at the edge of the main enclosure. They are thought to be related to it, although they can only be demonstrated to pre-date Phase 4.
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Main enclosure ditch 5.12 A ditch forming a right-angled corner crossed much of the excavation area, running from the probable earlier phase of east-west ditch [F346=F248, above] to the cist burial, before turning and continuing to the eastern baulk. As with other ditches in this area, it was truncated by the later phase of the east-west ditch but did not continue beyond it, so must have originally come to a terminus within its confines. Combined together, these ditches would have defined an enclosure measuring 28m by more than 35m (the eastern boundary was not exposed). The cist burial [F120] was almost directly inside the corner of this enclosure, having just the western side of its lining truncated by the ditch and being undisturbed on its northern side. This may suggest that the grave was still known and marked on the ground at the time the ditch was cut, and could have been used as a marker point for laying the enclosure out.
5.13 At its southern end, the ditch [F191: 1.3m wide by 0.28m deep] was filled by a light grey-brown sandy silty clay [190], and was cut by the later phase of the east-west ditch [F193=F244]. Around 15m to the north the ditch [F264: 1.3m wide by 0.7m deep] was filled by a mixed deposit of orange-brown clay and grey-brown silt [263] that appears to have been a deliberate backfill. A mortarium sherd, dating from 170 AD onwards, was recovered from this fill. To the north, a partial section showed that the ditch truncated an earlier pit [F319, above]. Slightly further north, a second partial section showed that the ditch [F288, filled by a grey-brown silty clay 287] was truncated by a curvilinear ditch [F286], and then a third partial section showed that the ditch [F269, filled by a grey-brown silty clay 268], truncated the cist grave [F120].
5.14 Around 6m beyond the right-angle turn, the ditch [F178: 2.6m wide by 0.8m deep] was filled by an orange-brown clayey silt [177] and was truncated on its northern side by a shallow, parallel gully [F158, below]. Around 10m to the east, the ditch [F116: >1.08m wide by >0.2m deep], filled by an orange-brown sandy clay [115], was truncated by both a north-south ditch and a large pit containing very charcoal-rich fills [F108, F114]. Another 6m further east, the ditch was sectioned again [F84: 2.2m wide by 0.68m deep] and was filled by an orange-brown silty clay [83]. Along the eastern baulk of the site, the ditch [F330, filled by orange-grey silty clay 329], could be seen to underlie a black deposit [328=53, below].
Western enclosure ditch 5.15 Another ditch containing a similar right-angled corner was present to the west, the two ditches (along with the putative earlier phase to the southern east-west ditch) defining a second enclosure, measuring c.16m by 10m. The ditch [F246: >0.7m wide by 0.7m deep], filled by a dark brown silty clay [245], also terminated in line with the earlier phase ditch.
5.16 Around 5m to the north, a complete section across the ditch was excavated. Here, the ditch [F122: 1.85m wide by 0.69m deep: Photo 4] was filled by a dark grey- brown silty clay [121]. A sherd of local traditional ware pottery was recovered. Around 10m further north, the ditch made a right-angled turn towards the east and, 3.5m beyond this, the ditch [F279: >0.75m wide by 0.75m deep], filled by an orange- brown sandy clay [278], was cut by a later north-south ditch and a large pit [F277, F275, below]. It did not reappear beyond these features and must have terminated in this area, leaving a gap of c.3m between it and the main enclosure ditch. A gap of these dimensions would be plausible for an entrance into an enclosure.
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Area B droveway ditches 5.17 Two parallel north-south aligned ditches, separated by a gap of c.2m, entered the excavation area from the south. They were seen more extensively in Areas B and C (below) and are interpreted as flanking ditches for a droveway or trackway. Both were cut by the later phase [F244] of the east-west ditch, and did not continue beyond it, so must have originally terminated within its confines. The western ditch [F202: 2.8m wide by 1.2m deep] contained several fills. Lowest was a yellow-brown sandy silt [201], then a dark brown silty clay [200], then an orange-brown silty clay [199] and finally a darker brown silty clay [198]. Towards the north it splayed outwards westwards, so that it was 4.5m wide where it met the east-west one. It is possible that it had been turning west to form the western half of the early east- west ditch. On its western side, the ditch [F187: >0.45m deep] was filled by a yellow- grey clay [186: 0.2m deep] overlain by an orange-brown silty clay [185: 0.35m deep]. A possible relationship with the east-west ditch [F189] could be seen in the lower fill, with the east-west ditch cutting the north-south one. However no evidence could be seen for any relationship within the upper fill which was almost identical to the east- west ditch fill [188]. On its eastern side, the ditch [F195: >0.6m deep] was filled by a grey-brown silty clay [194] almost identical with the fill [F196] of the east-west ditch [F197] and no relationships could be elucidated.
5.18 The eastern ditch [F228: 2.6m wide by 1.05m deep: Photo 5] was filled by a brown silty clay [229: 0.17m deep], overlain by a grey-brown silty clay [230: 0.40m deep], with this in turn overlain by a very similar grey-brown silty clay [231: 0.51m deep]. As with the western ditch, this one also splayed out slightly (towards the east this time) and again it could have been turning to form the eastern half of the early east- west ditch. This ditch was truncated by the later phase of the east-west one [F315].
Phase 4 (Figure 5) 5.19 In Phase 4, the east-west ditch forming the southern side of the earlier enclosures was recut wider and deeper, removing most of the evidence for its earlier existence. Two north-south ditches were excavated, cutting through the earlier enclosure ditches and continuing northwards beyond the limits of the site. A second east-west ditch was excavated between them towards the northern end of the site and a curving ditch was cut through the centre of the enclosure.
Southern east-west ditch 5.20 The recut of the southern east-west ditch [F244: 1.3m wide by 0.7m deep], filled by dark brown silty clay [243], terminated c.3m from the western edge of the site, at the same point as the southern terminus to the western enclosure ditch. A modern land drain had removed any relationship between these two features. It is improbable that such close alignment had occurred by chance and it may be hypothesised that the southern ditch had been deliberately recut eastwards from the corner of the enclosure.
5.21 A complete section across the ditch was excavated to the east. Here the ditch [F76: 2.7m wide by 1.17m deep] was filled by a brown sandy silty clay [75]. Around 3m to the west, the ditch was truncated by a gully [F64: 0.63m wide by 0.27m deep], with a significantly darker grey-brown silty fill [63], that curved in from the south to join the main ditch and run along its southern edge. The main ditch [F210: 1.4m wide by 0.8m deep], filled by a dark brownish-grey silty clay [209], was confirmed to be cut by a later gully. A short section of a narrow gully [F208: 0.5m wide by 0.1m deep],
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filled by a mid-grey-brown silty clay loam [207], was present to the south of the main gully, and was truncated by it. It is not clear whether this was a surviving fragment of the original east-west ditch, part of a later cut to this ditch or an unconnected feature. A small fragment of a north-south orientated (unphased) gully [F74] was present to the south of the curving gully and was truncated by it. No artefacts were recovered, and the exact nature of this feature, and its relationship to the remainder of the site, is unknown.
5.22 Partial sections were excavated across the east-west ditch further to the west to determine relationships with the various north-south ditches. Around 3m to the west, the ditch [F315: >1.1m wide by >0.93m deep], filled by grey-brown sandy silty clay [316], cut the terminus of the eastern droveway ditch [F228]. Another 3m further west, the relationship between the east-west ditch [F197: >1.4m wide by >0.8m deep], filled by grey-brown silty clay [196] and the western droveway ditch [F195] had been lost to a modern land drain cut, but 3.5m further west, on the other side of the splayed junction, the east-west ditch [F189: >0.6m wide by >0.6m deep], filled by orange-brown sandy silty clay [188] could be seen to truncate the north- south one [F187]. Another 6m to the west, the east-west ditch [F193: >0.68m wide by >0.64m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown sandy silty clay [192], could be seen to cut the main enclosure ditch [F191]. Another 4m to the west, the east-west ditch [F213: >0.88m wide by >0.24m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown sandy silty clay [212], overlain by a dark brownish-grey sandy clay [211], overlain by an orange-grey sandy clay [234], crossed a north-south one [F214: >0.88m wide by >0.62m deep] with identical fills, indicating that they were contemporaneous.
Western north-south ditch 5.23 This north-south ditch [F214] crossed the full width of Area A and continued as a geomagnetic anomaly into the field to the north. To the north of its junction with the east-west ditch, it had been sampled in Evaluation Trench 6 [F20: 1.5m wide by 0.8m deep]. To the north of this, the ditch [F277=F297: >1.0m wide by 0.7m deep], filled by a greyish brown sandy silty clay [276=296] cut the western enclosure ditch [F279] and was also cut by a later pit [F275=295]. At its northern end, this later pit had removed any original relationship that had once existed between the north- south ditch and the curving enclosure ditch [F299], although a section confirmed that the pit post-dated the north-south ditch. Around 5m to the north, a complete section was excavated through the ditch [F126: 2.1m wide by 1.1m deep: Photo 7, filled by grey silty clay 125, overlain by a grey-brown clay-silt [124], overlain by another grey-brown clay-silt [123]. Another 6.5m to the north, the ditch [F314: >0.4m wide by >0.4m deep], filled by yellow-grey silty clay [313] was cut by a later east-west ditch [F312]. Another 4m to the north, at the northern baulk of the site, the ditch [F256: 2.1m wide by 1.05m deep] was filled by a grey-brown silty clay containing a lot of animal bone [255], overlain by a mottled orange-brown and grey- brown silty clay [254], overlain by a dark brownish grey silty clay [253].
Eastern north-south ditch 5.24 The eastern north-south ditch began at a rounded terminus [F216: 1.0m wide by 0.36m deep] around 5m to the north of the southern east-west ditch, possibly forming an entrance to the enclosure here. It also truncated a Phase 1 pit [F218] here, and was filled by a dark brown to black sandy silty clay containing charcoal, burnt bone fragments and cinders [215]. The ditch ran westwards for 1m before turning north. At this turn, the ditch [F250: 0.88m wide by 0.28m deep], filled by a
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light grey-brown sandy silty clay [249] was cut by the terminus of a later north-south gully [F252] that closed off the possible former entrance. Around 10m to the north, the ditch had been sampled within the evaluation trench [F14: 1.15m wide by 0.55m deep]. Slightly further to the north, the partial burial of a cow foetus [F394] was recovered from what was thought to be the top of the ditch fill. However, the bone of this was in an exceptional state of preservation, and given this, it is possible that this was a later intrusion. Around 5.5m to the north again, the ditch [F108: >0.7m wide by 0.59m deep] filled by grey-brown silty clay 107], was truncated by a later elongated pit [F114, below]. This pit had removed any original relationship between the north-south ditch and the Phase 2 main enclosure ditch [F178]. The elongated pit was cut along the line of the north-south ditch and had removed it over a distance of c.9m. The ditch was visible again to the north, where it was of similar proportions [F96: 0.9m wide by 0.55m deep], filled by an orange-grey sandy clay silt [95]. Another 1.5m further to the north, the ditch was truncated by a later Phase 4 enclosure ditch [F94] which had removed the original north-south ditch at least as far as the limits of the excavation.
5.25 The postulated entrance at the southern end of the ditch had been closed off by a later gully. This gully was narrower but deeper than the original ditch and had a rounded terminal [F252: 0.66m wide by 0.59m deep], filled by a light greyish-brown sandy silty clay [251], immediately inside the angle where the ditch turned towards the north, and ran south to the southern east-west ditch. Towards the south, the gully [F301: 0.6m wide by 0.65m deep], filled by a grey clay loam [300], was of similar proportions. A possible wider but shallower cut [F303: 1.1m wide by 0.3m deep], filled by an orange-grey sandy clay [302], visible on either side of the gully, may have been an earlier phase of it, although the gully was disturbed in this area by a modern land drain that ran along its length, obscuring the feature.
Northern east-west ditch 5.26 Another east-west ditch [F128: 1.8m wide by 0.86m deep: Photo 8], filled by a grey- brown silty clay [127], ran between the two north-south ones close to the northern boundary to the site and did not extend beyond them. At its western end, this ditch [F312: >1.0m wide by 0.95m deep], filled by a brownish-grey silty clay [311], cut the north-south one but terminated within it. At its eastern end, the ditch [F227: >0.6m wide by 0.7m deep], filled by a brown-grey clay [226], was cut by the Phase 5 enclosure ditch [F225]. The ditch is thus intermediate in age between the remainder of the Phase 4 features and Phase 5.
Central curving ditches 5.27 A curving ditch crossed the centre of the site, starting at the western north-south ditch, c.4m to the north of where it crossed the end of the western Phase 3 enclosure ditch. Its terminus [F299: >0.5m wide by >0.5m deep], filled by an orange- brown clay silt [298], was cut by an elongated Phase 5 pit [F295] that also cut the western north-south ditch, so no relationship survived between the two ditches. The curving ditch continued eastwards across the main Phase 3 enclosure ditch, where a partial section showed that the curving ditch [F286: >0.3m wide by >0.3m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty clay [285], cut the Phase 3 one [F288]. Beyond the intersection, the curving ditch gradually began to turn towards the south. In a complete section excavated here, the ditch [F242: 1.55m wide by 0.75m deep] was filled by a grey-brown silty clay [241]. The ditch terminated c.8m further south [F332: 2.1m wide by 0.5m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown sandy silty clay [331].
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Two slight protrusions from the terminal [F334: 0.38m long by 0.21m deep; F336: 1.3m long by 0.22m deep], both filled by grey-brown silty clays [333, 335], indicate some recutting to the terminus, although the exact nature of this activity is unclear. They are too shallow to be recuts to the main ditch or postholes within its terminus, but too large and regular to be dismissed as due to animal burrowing. Their fills were too similar to the main ditch fill to elucidate any stratigraphic relationships.
5.28 A second, narrower ditch, curving slightly in the opposite direction, was present to the west. This had no relationships to any other features on the site and contained no artefacts, so is undated. However, its southern terminus was in line with the southern terminus of the curving ditch, forming the western side to a possible oval enclosure (measuring c.10 by 5m) with a 4m-wide entrance towards the south. These two features have therefore been grouped together.
5.29 The northern terminus of the narrower ditch had been sectioned during the evaluation, where it formed a rounded end [F16: 0.7m wide by 0.2m deep]. The southern terminus [F240: 7.0m long by 0.7m wide by 0.17m deep] was of similar dimensions and was filled by a grey-brown sandy clay [239]. As with the curving ditch, there was evidence for recutting around this southern terminus, although the nature of this recutting was different. A narrow gully [F238: 0.2m wide by 0.2m deep], filled by a dark brownish grey sandy silty clay [237], cut the eastern side of the terminus and curved eastwards (i.e. towards the centre of the ‘entrance’) for 2m before being lost where cut by a modern land drain. A second gully [F258: 0.35m wide by 0.07m deep], filled by a dark greyish-brown sandy clay [257], was present to the south, but was not quite connected to the ditch terminus. It could be traced for a similar distance until it was also truncated by the land drain.
Phase 5 (Figure 6) 5.30 Phase 5 was characterised by parts of the two Phase 4 north-south ditches being recut to greater depths, forming elongated pits. A new enclosure was also formed in the north-east corner of the excavation area, truncating the northern end of the eastern Phase 4 north-south ditch. Fills of these features were generally significantly darker than those of earlier phases, and in places contained large quantities of charred cereal grains (explaining the darker nature of their fills). These contained much significant information on agricultural practices at the time (see Section 8 below). Partial remains of two corn drying kilns were identified. Again these contained much charred cereal grain, including evidence for the malting of grain for beer production. Otherwise unstratified pits and gullies contained similar fills and have been placed in this phase on the basis of similarity of fills.
Eastern elongated pit 5.31 The eastern north-south ditch was recut for a distance of c.7.5m northwards from the main phase 2 enclosure ditch, to form a deep, elongated pit [F114=F138=F418: 1.5m wide by 0.95m deep: Photos 9 and 10]. It may be that the location of this recut had been deliberately chosen to allow for easier excavation within the softer ditch fills, rather than in the more solid natural subsoil. The pit contained a number of very distinctive fills. At its base was a yellow-brown silty clay [137=417] very similar to the natural subsoil, although containing occasional fragments of animal bone. Above this was a thin deposit of black silty clay containing charred spelt wheat chaff and barley rachis [113=136=416], and above this was a grey-brown silt [135=415]. Above this was another deposit of yellow-brown silty clay similar to the natural
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subsoil [112=134=414]. This was only present on the eastern side of the ditch, thickening from nothing at the base to a depth of more than 0.4m along the eastern side, suggesting that the material had been deposited from that side of the ditch. In the northernmost section this was overlain by a mixed deposit of dark grey silt and yellow-brown clay [133]. Above this in all sections was another black silt [111=132=413]. In the southern section, this was overlain by another orange-brown silty clay [110] and then a final black silt [109], while in the northern section it was overlain by a dark grey-brown silty clay loam [131].
Western elongated pit 5.32 The western north-south ditch was also recut to form a deep, elongated pit, this time for a distance of c.5.5m from the point where it cut the Phase 3 western enclosure [F279] to the point where it cut the Phase 4 curving ditch [F297]. As with the eastern pit, it may be that the location of this recut had been deliberately chosen to allow for easier excavation within the softer ditch fills. At its southern end, this pit [F275: 2.1m wide by 1.5m deep] was filled by a light grey silty clay [274], overlain by an orange-brown clay silt [273]. At its northern end, the pit [F295: >1m wide by >1m deep: Photo 11] was filled by similar deposits of a grey silty clay [294] overlain by an orange-brown clay silt [273]. It was confirmed that the pit cut the north-south ditch, the western Phase 3 enclosure ditch and the curving Phase 4 enclosure ditch. Animal bone was recovered from both fills of the pit but no other artefacts were recovered. The pit did not contain any of the high concentrations of charred material, such as were seen in most other Phase 5 features.
Zig-zag gully 5.33 A zig-zag gully [F220: 0.82m wide by 0.22m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty clay [219], crossed the curving central ditch [F299=F286=F242=F332] twice. A section excavated across one of these crossings showed that the curving ditch [F182: 1.30m wide by 0.60m deep] was cut by the zig-zag gully [F180: 1.43m wide by 0.52m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown sandy silty clay [179]. This intersection was immediately north of the section excavated in Trial Trench 6 during the evaluation (where the ditch was recorded as [F12]; the gully had not been noticed here as it was truncated at a shallow angle by a land drain that had obscured it). The gully thinned out northwards; a section excavated 6m to the north showed the gully [F81: 0.78m wide, filled by a grey-brown silty clay 80], to be just 0.15m deep, and it faded out completely beyond this. To the south, the gully continued for another 7m before turning south-west and continuing as another narrow gully [F262: 0.24m wide by 0.05m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty clay [261] for 4m until it could no longer be traced. As with the western elongated pit, fills of this feature did not contain significant quantities of charcoal; the gully has been assigned to Phase 5 because it is stratigraphically later than the Phase 4 curving ditch.
Kiln flue F142 5.34 Remains of the flue of a corn drying kiln [F142: 1.0m long by 0.2m wide by 0.13m deep: Photos 13 and 14] were present in the north-west quarter of Area A. The sides of this flue comprised a line of blackened and reddened clay. This appeared to be due to inadvertent firing of the natural subsoil during use, rather than a deliberate lining to the kiln, as it was very patchy and irregular in extent. The flue contained three fills; a lower deposit of black silt containing charred cereal grains [156: 0.03m deep], overlain by a fine, light grey silt [155: 0.03m deep] thought to be an ash deposit. Above this was a grey and orange silt containing charred material and also
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lumps of fired clay [154: 0.03m deep], similar to the material that formed the sides to the flue.
5.35 Several shallow pits were present immediately to the south-east of the flue. Most of these contained a lot of charcoal and are thought to be related, containing material raked out of the flue. However, one pit [F184: 1.9m by 1.4m by 0.28m deep], filled by an orange-grey silty clay [183], was different, being stratigraphically earlier and containing little charcoal. It is thought to be an earlier feature, unrelated to the kiln.
5.36 The earliest of the other pits [F204: 1.3m long by 0.6m wide by 0.1m deep] was filled by a mixed yellow-brown and grey silty clay [221] that contained one particularly large sandstone slab (0.4m by 0.3m by 0.1mn thick), as well as smaller, more broken fragments of similar sandstone. It is not clear whether the slab was originally a structural part of the kiln or just a random piece of waste. Towards the east, this pit was cut by a second one [F223: 1.2m by 0.7m by 0.2m deep] filled by a mid-brown silty clay [222]. Both pits (and the earlier unrelated one) were truncated by a larger one [F101: 2.45m long by 0.95m wide by 0.1m deep] filled by a brownish-black silty clay containing a lot of charred cereal grain [100=203]. A radiocarbon date of 250- 420 cal AD was obtained from a wheat grain in this fill.
Kiln flue F151 5.37 A second kiln flue [F151: 1.1m long by 0.18m wide by 0.07m deep: Photos 15 and 16], very similar in appearance to the first flue, although slightly less well preserved, was present in the north-east quarter of the excavation area, c.21m east of kiln flue [F142]. It had an irregular and patchy lining of fired clay, and was filled by a black silt containing lumps of fired clay and many charred heather twigs [150]. Unlike the first flue, no pits filled with waste products could be identified around this second one.
Dark gullies 5.38 Two parallel gullies, both c.5.5m long, starting and ending in line with each other with rounded terminals at either end, and both containing very dark fills, were present c.6m south-east of the first kiln flue. The southern gully cut the Phase 3 main enclosure ditch [F178], so post-dates that feature. The other showed no relationships to any other features. Because of their similarity of form, they are believed to be related to each other, and because of their very dark fills, were believed to be contemporary with the kilns and other Phase 5 features. The northern gully [F87=F149=F236: 0.9m wide by 0.15m deep] was filled by a dark grey- brown silty clay [86=148=235], overlain in the central section by a slightly lighter and more sandy fill [147]. Its main fill contained frequent charred cereal grains, confirming its similarity with the kiln fills. Around 2.5m to the south, the southern gully [F158=F267: 0.7m wide by 0.15m deep] was filled by a brownish-grey silty clay [157=266].
North-eastern enclosure ditch 5.39 Two sides of a ditch containing a right-angled turn were present in the north-east corner of Area A, possibly forming part of another, partly-seen enclosure. The ditch entered the site from the eastern baulk, about 7.5m south of its north-east corner, and headed west for 18m, parallel to the northern Phase 4 east-west ditch [F128], before turning north and continuing to the northern baulk. Pottery recovered from all fills of the ditch post-dated AD 370, making it one of the latest features on the site.
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5.40 A partial section was excavated against the eastern baulk. Here the ditch [F306: >0.6m wide by >0.35m deep] was filled by a grey-brown clay silt [308=309], overlain by an orange-brown silty clay [307], overlain by a dark grey-brown clay slit [305]. All these fills underlay a deposit of very dark silt [53, below] that covered the whole of this part of the site. Around 2.5m to the west, a full section was excavated through the ditch [F60: 3.3m wide by 1.1m deep: Photo 12]. Here, it also contained three fills, a lower one of a grey clay silt [59], overlain by a central one of orange-brown clay silt [58], and this overlain by a dark grey-brown clay silt [57]. Again it was confirmed that this upper fill was overlain by a widespread horizon of very dark silt [56=53], which covered the whole of this part of the site. A trumpet brooch (SF2) of 1st to 2nd century date was recovered from the top fill of the ditch in this section, although as it was associated with late Roman pottery, it was either residual or else had not been lost until a considerable time after manufacture.
5.41 Around 10m further west, the ditch was slightly truncated by a later pit [F89, below], and 3m beyond this, it curved to the north, to follow the line of the eastern Phase 4 north-south ditch [F96]. A section excavated here showed that the latter ditch [F94=99: 1.8m wide by 0.8m deep, filled by a grey clay silt 93=98 overlain by an orange-grey clay silt 92=97] truncated and entirely removed this earlier ditch.
5.42 Another partial section was excavated 1m to the north, to investigate relationships with the Phase 4 northern east-west ditch. Here, the Phase 5 ditch [F225: >0.8m wide by 1.05m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty clay [224], truncated the east-west one [F227]. A full section was excavated through the ditch against the northern baulk of the site. Here the ditch [F79: 1.5m wide by 0.85m deep] was filled by an orange-grey sandy silt [78] overlain by a grey silty clay [77]. A modern land drain truncated the eastern side of the ditch in this section.
Other features 5.43 A number of pits containing dark fills were present in Area A; on the basis of the similarity of their fills, they may be of similar date to the two kiln flues and have been placed in this phase. Immediately east of flue [F151], gully [F55: 1.16m long by 0.07m wide by 0.11m deep] was filled by a dark brown silty clay [54]. A sherd of calcite-gritted ware, dating from AD 270 onwards, was recovered from the fill. Around 4m to the east, pit [F91: 2.0m diameter by 0.12m deep] was very shallow but was filled by a black silty clay [90]. Around 2m to the west, pit [F105: 0.3m diameter by 0.05m deep] was also shallow and similarly filled by a black silty clay [104]. Around 8m to the north, pit [F70: 0.7m diameter by 0.15m deep] was lined by vertically-set sandstone slabs, broken off to a size that would allow them to fit the pit (i.e. 0.1m) along its western and eastern sides. There was no lining to either the north or the south. Inside this lining, the pit was filled by an orange-grey clay silt [68] very similar to the natural subsoil, overlain by a thin deposit of black silt containing charred material [67: 0.03m deep]. The construction of the lining appears to be deliberate but the exact function of this pit remains uncertain.
5.44 Around 7m to the south of the flue, pit [F141: 0.38m wide by 0.28m deep] appeared to slightly truncate the Phase 2 enclosure ditch [F84], although the pit in turn was truncated by a modern land drain that had largely removed the earlier relationship. It was filled by a dark grey-brown sandy clay [140] that contained two complete and one partial pot bases from calcite-gritted ware cooking vessels dating from after AD 270. They were stacked inside each other so that at first they were thought to all be
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from a single vessel, possibly containing a cremation. However, although the internal fill was retained for laboratory analysis, no cremated bone was present and little palaeoenvironmental information was obtained.
5.45 A gully [F146: 0.75m wide by 0.13m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty clay [145], curved across the south-eastern side of the site, crossing over the Phase 3 enclosure ditch [F84], and therefore post-dating it. A palaeoenvironmental sample from the fill produced burnt seaweed, an occurrence more typical of early medieval than Roman sites. Because of this, a radiocarbon date was obtained, but this date (250-420 cal AD confirmed the late Roman date. A shallow circular pit [F176: 0.35m diameter by 0.05m deep], filled by a brown silty clay [175] in the base of the gully appears to be a heavily truncated earlier feature. Other irregular cuts in this area [F160; F162; F164; F166; F168; F170; F172 and F174], filled by similar brown silty clays [159; 161; 163; 165; 167; 169; 171 and 173] are thought to be due to animal burrowing. A second gully [F342=F282: 0.5m wide by 0.2m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown silty clay [341=281], was present 2m to the east, and on the same alignment where it similarly crossed Phase 3 ditch [F84], although it could not be traced much beyond this point. The eastern side of this gully was truncated by a modern land drain [F340], so its width is uncertain.
5.46 Another gully [F64: 0.63m wide by 0.27m deep, filled by dark grey-brown silty clay 63], was present in the south-west corner of the excavation area, extending north- west from the corner as far as an intersection with the east-west ditch [F76], where it curved westwards to run along the southern side of this ditch, truncating its fills. A section excavated through the intersection showed that the gully [F206: 1.0m wide by 0.45m deep, filled by a dark brown-grey silty clay 205] cut the east-west ditch [F210]. It also cut a shallow feature to the south [F208, above] that may have been all that survived of a second cut to the main ditch.
Phase 6 (Figure 6) 5.47 A thin but persistent deposit of dark grey-brown silty clay [53=56=271=280=310= 328; <0.2m deep: Photo 17] covered an area of c.25m by 6m on the north-east side of the excavation area, and continued into the eastern baulk. At the end of the excavation, an exploratory trench was excavated demonstrating that this deposit continued eastwards for another 8m, giving the deposit a total area of 25m by 14m. It had been identified at the eastern end of Trench 6 during the evaluation [3] in a very shallow, almost imperceptible hollow [F4]. Further sections were excavated through the edges of this feature to the north, south and east of the original investigation, confirming the very shallow nature of this hollow [F265=F272]. A very large quantity of late Roman pottery, together with a lot of animal bone, was recovered from the deposit, which overlay all other Roman features, including the north-east enclosure ditch. Since this ditch contained late Roman pottery (after AD 370) throughout its fill, the overlying horizon must be later. Two soil samples were collected from the deposit (samples <51> and <62>) but neither provided much useful palaeoenvironmental information (below, Section 8). The deposit had characteristics of the ‘dark earth’ horizons encountered overlying the uppermost Roman features in excavations on Roman towns. Like them, it lacked any internal structure, provided little by way of palaeoenvironmental evidence but contained large quantities of late Roman artefacts.
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5.48 Four late Roman coins were recovered from a small part of the deposit, three of them being almost touching each other (SF4) and the fourth (SF6) being just 1m away. Two of these could be securely dated to AD387 or later, a third was unclear but possibly of slightly earlier 4th century. A more detailed investigation of the area surrounding these coins identified a disturbance in the natural subsoil beneath them [F284: 0.7m wide by 0.1m deep, filled by a yellow-brown silty clay 283]. This was thought to be an earlier tree throw unrelated to the deposit containing the coins.
5.49 A smaller area of similar dark grey-brown silty clay [65], in a similar shallow hollow [F66: 1.7m by 1.4m by 0.08m deep] immediately to the south-west of the main spread was almost certainly a continuation of the same soil horizon. It was truncated on its north-east side by a small pit [F72: 0.7m by 0.5m by 0.14m deep] filled by a similar grey-brown silty clay [71].
5.50 Another area of similar silty clay containing a lot of pottery and bone [82], and overlying Phase 3 ditch [F84], appears to have been another continuation of this deposit, although the hollow that it [F439] was in was not identified during excavation and the deposit was assumed to be the top fill of the underlying ditch. When dated, the pottery was all of a similarly late date (after AD 360) to that from the main spread [53, etc.] and at variance with dates produced elsewhere along the ditch. The hollow may account for the slight bulge in the ditch profile at this point.
5.51 To the north, pit [F89: 2.0m by 0.9m by 0.5m deep] was filled by a grey-brown silty clay [88] and truncated the Phase 4 enclosure ditch [F60] and may be another continuation of this horizon in a similar hollow. Several other features in this part of the site, provisionally placed in Phase 5 (e.g. pits [F55, F70, F91 and F141] could potentially be continuations of this horizon.
5.52 A human skeleton (Sk3: Photo 6) in a shallow grave [F337: 1.3m by 0.56m by 0.05m deep]; was cut into the upper fill of the eastern droveway ditch. The bone was in a very poor state of preservation, and set in sun-baked clay [338], so had to be removed in a block. Even in the laboratory it was not possible to separate the bone from the clay without it disintegrating. The bone produced a radiocarbon date of 430-600 cal AD, proving that it was of post-Roman date. Because of its poor state of preservation, analysis of the bone provided little information except to confirm that it was an adult and had been buried with the head to the west.
Unphased 5.53 A small number of pits and other features in Area A displayed no relationships to any other features, contained no artefacts and had no distinctive fills. Therefore they could not be phased and are described here. In the north-east corner of the excavation area, gully [F118: 0.46m wide by 0.16m deep, filled by grey-brown silty clay 117], was orientated east-west and was only partly exposed. Around 3m south of its western end, pit [F51: 1.1m diameter by 0.36m deep] was filled by a brown silty clay [50]. Towards the centre of the excavation area, pit [F420: 1.3m by 1.05m by 0.23m deep] was filled by a dark orange-brown clay [419]. Around 7.5m to the east, pit [F317: 0.8m wide by 0.08m deep] was filled by a grey-brown sandy silty clay [270]. Pit [F375: 2.3m by 1.0m by 0.23m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown silty clay [374], was located towards the southern end of the excavation area, slightly to the north of the east-west ditch. In the south-east corner of the excavation area, pit [F74: 1.07m by 0.64m by 0.27m deep] was filled by a grey-brown silty clay [73] and
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was truncated by Phase 4 gully [F64]. Towards the north-west end of the excavation area, pit [F103: 0.6m by 0.46m by 0.08m deep] was filled by a brownish grey silty clay [102].
Phase 7 (medieval and later) (Figure 7) 5.54 The dark silt horizon was overlain by a deposit of orange-brown silty clay [52=304: <0.2m deep], interpreted as a medieval ploughsoil following resumption of cultivation on the site. It was removed by machine at the start of the excavation and a sherd of medieval pottery was recovered from this horizon during this machining.
5.55 Furrows from a ridge and furrow field system were intermittently visible crossing the excavation area on a north-north-west / south-south-east alignment and spaced 4.5m apart. They were particularly evident towards the south-west of the excavation area; their fills were lighter in colour that the fills of the various Roman features and they could clearly be seen to be truncating them. A short length of gully [F62: 0.55m wide by 0.1m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty clay [61], recorded in the north-east corner of the excavation area, was on the same alignment and at the correct spacing to be an isolated survival of this ridge and furrow away from this main area. At the northern end of the excavation area, another gully [F153: 0.6m wide by 0.06m deep], filled by a grey-brown silty sand [152], crossed the site on a perpendicular (WSW-ENE) alignment and could clearly be seen to cut across the top of the fills of the pits associated with the western kiln flue [F142]. It could be a deeper furrow associated with the headland of a new block of furrows on a different alignment.
5.56 Ceramic land drains were present in the base of furrows and crossed the whole excavation area, even where furrows were not visible. A geotechnical test pit had been excavated through the centre of the charcoal-filled elongated pit [F114=F138=F418]. Topsoil [1: 0.3m deep] covered the whole excavation area.
Area B (Figure 8) 5.57 Area B was 25m square, and was located over the centre of a southern group of enclosures, connected to the main group by a possible droveway. This droveway comprised a pair of parallel ditches crossing the west side of the excavation area, separated by a gap of 1.5-2m, and on the correct alignment to be continuations of the two ditches identified at the southern end of Area A. Over most of Area B they followed a north-north-west / south-south-east alignment (i.e. almost exactly parallel to the later ridge and furrow, and with those furrows running along their eastern edges, obscuring any relationships with other features). However, towards the southern end of Area B, they curved to a more north-south alignment and diverged slightly from the ridge and furrow. To maintain consistency with Area A, they have been placed in Phase 3.
Phase 2 Feature F326 5.58 A large feature [F326: >9m long by >1.1m wide by 0.72m deep] was partly exposed against the eastern baulk of Area B. It appears to be a curving segment of ditch, although since only one side of it was exposed, this cannot be confirmed. It is not visible on the geomagnetic survey because this part of the site is masked by the magnetic disturbance from the gas pipeline to the east. The feature was filled by an orange-brown silty clay that contained a lot of animal bone and some sherds of 2nd century Roman pottery [325], overlain by a grey-brown silty clay [324], overlain by a
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lens of yellow-brown silty clay on its western side [322], then a brown silty clay [323] crossing the entire section, and then a yellow-brown silty clay [322]. The feature was truncated by the Phase 4 east-west ditch [F412, below].
Phase 3 Droveway ditches 5.59 The eastern ditch of the droveway [F386: 2.75m wide by 0.45m deep] was filled by a dark grey-brown clay [385]. A large fragment of Roman tegula was recovered from the fill. Towards the northern end of Area B, a partial section was excavated through the ditch [F382: >1.4m wide by 0.8m deep, filled by a grey-brown silty clay 380], to investigate its relationship with an east-west ditch ([F379, below]. The droveway ditch was seen to be truncated by the east-west one. A second partial section was excavated through the ditch [F360: >1m wide by 0.64m deep, filled by orange-brown silty clay 359], c.8m to the south, to investigate its relationship with a second east- west ditch. This relationship was almost impossible to determine due to the similarity of fills; by analogy with the other east-west ditch, it is thought that the droveway ditch was the earlier of the two. A spindle whorl, made from a reused sherd of samian ware (SF10) was recovered from the ditch fill in this section. The sherd was of a form dated to c.AD 160-200, although as it had been reused, this does not date the ditch. Calcite-gritted sherds dated to AD 270 onwards were also recovered; this is comparable with pottery collected from other sections through both of the droveway ditches, in Areas A and B.
5.60 The western ditch of the droveway [F389: 1.95m wide by 0.7m deep] was filled by a grey-brown silty clay [388] overlain by an orange-grey silty clay [387]. Seven highly corroded fragments of copper alloy (SF11) were recovered from close to the base of the excavated section. They may be parts of vehicle fitting (strap holder) from a passenger vehicle (below, 6.99). Around 1.5m to the south, a partial section was excavated through the ditch [F358: 2.0m wide by 1.05m deep, filled by an orange- grey silty clay 363, overlain by mid-grey silty clay 357] to investigate its relationships with the northern east-west ditch [F356]. This relationship was difficult to determine; by analogy with the section excavated through the eastern droveway ditch, it is thought that the east-west ditch was the later feature. Around 7m to the south, another partial section was excavated to investigate the relationship of the droveway ditch [F367: 2.15m wide by 0.62m deep, filled by grey-brown sandy clay 366], with the southern east-west ditch [F365]. Again the relationship was almost impossible to determine due to similarity of fills; by analogy with the other east-west ditch, it is thought that the droveway ditch was the earlier of the two.
Eastern north-south ditch 5.61 A ditch on a north-north-west / south-south-east alignment [F371: 1.4m wide by 0.5m deep, filled by a grey-brown silty clay 370], crossed the eastern side of the excavation area. Towards the south, this ditch [F369: 1.4m wide by >0.3m deep, filled by orange-brown clay 368] was truncated by an east-west ditch [F348, below]. It contained pottery of a similar date to that of the droveway ditches, and both were cut by the Phase 4 east-west ditch. The ditch must have terminated to the north of the excavation area, since it did not continue into Area A, although it was on the correct alignment to do so.
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Phase 4 5.62 Two east-west ditches crossed the excavation. Both started at the western droveway ditch, crossed the droveway and continued eastwards across the site. Relationships between these ditches and the droveway ones were difficult to determine due to the similarity of the fills and obscuring by the later ridge and furrow. However, the northern ditch was shown to post-date the droveway; the southern one is assumed to be of similar date by analogy.
5.63 The northern east-west ditch [F356: >1m by 0.6m deep] started at the edge of the western droveway ditch where it was filled by an orange-grey silty clay [355]. Around 2m to the east [F379: >1.4m wide by 0.8m deep, filled by grey-brown silty clay 377], it truncated the eastern droveway ditch [F382]. Eastwards from here it was marginally truncated on its northern side by a Phase 5 kiln flue [F349]. After running for a distance of c.16m, the ditch came to a rounded terminus [F393: 0.75m wide by 0.48m deep, filled by dark brown silty clay 392], just 0.3m short of the eastern north-south ditch [F371].
5.64 The southern east-west ditch also started at the edge of the western droveway ditch [F365: 2.2m wide by 0.65m deep, filled by a grey-brown sandy clay [364]. To the east [F362: 2.7m wide by 0.72m deep], where it crossed the eastern droveway ditch, it was filled by an orange-brown silty clay [361]. To the east, any relationship with the eastern north-south one [F369] had been removed by a later pit [F348, below]. Beyond this, the ditch [F412: 1.0m wide by 0.7m deep, filled by dark orange-brown clayey silt 411], could be seen to truncate feature [F326] at the eastern edge of the excavation area.
Phase 5 5.65 A corn dryer kiln flue [F349: 3.5m long by 0.5m wide by 0.35m deep, with a short L- shaped extension (0.6m long by 0.35m wide, 0.15m deep) towards the north at its eastern end: Photos 18 and 19], was present to the north of the northern east-west ditch, slightly truncating its fill. This was the most completely preserved of all the kiln flues found. As with the flues in Area A, it had a patchy and irregular lining of burnt clay [350], which appeared to have been created as a consequence of usage affecting the surrounding natural clay rather than as a deliberate constructional feature of the kiln. Again as in the flues in Area A (particularly flue [F142]), this one contained three sharply defined horizons of fill, a lower one of black silt containing charcoal, charred grain and occasional lumps of fired clay [351: 0.05m deep], overlain by a brown silty clay containing almost no charcoal or fired clay [390: 0.03m deep], overlain by a brownish grey silty clay containing charred grain and frequent lumps of fired clay [391: 0.03m deep]. As with the kiln flues in Area A, these deposits produced a particularly rich assemblage of charred cereal grains. A radiocarbon date of 250-420 cal AD was obtained from a charred cereal grain in the lowest of these fills. A pit [F372: 0.48m long by 0.25m wide by 0.40m deep: Photo 20] was present beneath the flue towards its eastern end. This was filled by a black silt [373] identical to the lower fill of the remainder of the flue, and both the upper and lower fills dipped down into the pit. The pit is therefore a structural part of the kiln that was infilled at the same time as the remainder of the feature. It is interpreted as the fire pit for the kiln. A second, wider but shallower pit [F426: 1.1m diameter by 0.1m deep], filled by another black silt [376] similar to the main flue fill, was present immediately to the east. This is interpreted as the stoking pit for the kiln. The whole
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structure was in a slight depression in the ground and was overlain by a grey-brown silty clay containing occasional flecks of charcoal and burnt clay [352: 0.25m deep].
5.66 A pit [F406: 1.2m in diameter by 0.2m deep], filled by a very dark greyish brown silty clay [405], truncated the edge of the eastern droveway ditch c.6m south of the kiln. It contained charcoal and flecks of burnt clay, similar to that seen in the flue linings, and is therefore thought to date from the same phase of the site.
5.67 A gully [F384: 0.76m wide by 0.5m deep], filled by a dark grey-brown clay [383], recut the eastern side of the eastern droveway ditch to a narrower but deeper profile at the southern end of the excavation area, starting from a rounded terminal 4m from the southern baulk and continuing southwards beyond the limits of excavation. Its fill was significantly darker than the fill of the parent ditch, and it is thought to be an unrelated later feature.
Phase 6 5.68 A large, elongated pit [F348: 4.0m long by 1.57m wide by 0.37m deep], filled by a greyish brown clay [347], had removed the relationship between the eastern north- south ditch [F369] and the southern east-west one [F412]. Eleven sherds of very late Roman (after AD 370) pottery were recovered from this pit (and two more from the intersection with the north-south ditch; these appear to have been incorrectly assigned to the ditch). This was the only pottery of this date collected from Area B; all other pottery in this area was significantly earlier. A radiocarbon date of 250-430 cal AD was obtained from a fragment of birch charcoal in this pit.
Phase 7 (medieval and later) 5.69 As in Area A, furrows on a north-north-west / south-south-east alignment, from a ridge and furrow field system, crossed the excavation area. They were almost in line with many of the Roman features on this area (such as the droveway ditches), obscuring the edges of these features and making them harder to define. Ceramic land drains were in the base of these furrows, but few of these were seen, even in excavated sections, indicating that they are more deeply buried here.
5.70 A large, oval pit [F354: 2.7m by 2.2m by >0.1m deep], filled by a rather loose, dark brown silty clay [353], was present in the south-east of the excavation area, truncating the eastern north-south ditch. A length of steel hawser, attached to a tarred wooden plank, was present at depth in the pit, indicating that it was of recent origin. The pit was therefore recorded but not further excavated. The steel hawser had probably produced the strong dipolar magnetic anomaly recorded by the geomagnetic survey in this area.
Area C (Figure 8) 5.71 Area C was 15m square, and was located over the southern end of the droveway. Furrows from the ridge and furrow field system were particularly prominent in this area, resulting in features being particularly difficult to define here.
Phase 3 5.72 The eastern droveway ditch continued southwards into this area. It was directly under the largest furrow and was identified by machine sondage at the end of the excavation, where it had been heavily truncated by the furrow. The ditch [F424: 0.5m wide] was filled by a brown silty clay [423] and continued southwards for 3.8m
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before being truncated by a later east-west ditch [F401, below]. It was not seen again beyond this ditch. There was no evidence for the later gully [F384] visible at the southern end of Area B and this must have terminated somewhere in the unexcavated area between the two trenches. There was also no evidence for the western droveway ditch; if it had originally continued into the trench, it would have been entirely truncated by another later, large north-south ditch [F410, below].
Phase 4 5.73 An east-west ditch [F401: 3.0m wide by 1.0m deep], filled by an orange-brown clayey silt [400] crossed the eastern half of the excavation area, truncating the southern end of the droveway ditch. After crossing the trench for 4m, it was truncated by a later, large north-south ditch [F410, below]. Beyond this it terminated [F403, filled by a dark grey-brown clay 402], 9.8m into the trench.
Phase 5 5.74 A large ditch [F410: 3.9m wide by 0.95m deep: Photo 21] ran north-south through the centre of the excavation area, before curving to the east and continuing in this direction beyond the edges of the excavation area. Its western side was aligned with the western side of the western droveway ditch in Area B, so it would have entirely truncated this ditch if it had originally extended into this excavation area. However, the ditch was so wide that it would also have removed most of the droveway itself. It was not visible in Area B so must have ended somewhere between the two excavation areas. The ditch contained a lower fill of mid grey-brown silty clay [422: 0.45m deep], overlain with a sharply contrasting thin deposit of dark grey silty clay [421: 0.15m deep] and then an upper fill of dark brown silty clay [409: 0.35m deep].
5.75 In the excavated section against the northern baulk, these changes in fill appeared to be variations in a single sequence of deposition, with no evidence for any recut, however further to the south, there was evidence for recutting. Against the eastern baulk, the ditch [F408: 2.4m wide by 1.1m deep: Photo 22] was filled by a single deposit of dark brown silty clay [407] similar in appearance to the upper fill of the section against the northern baulk. This fill was also recorded 3m to the west, where a section was excavated [F399: >1m wide by 1.0m deep, filled by a dark orange-grey silty clay, 397]. Where the ditch widened (from 2.5m in the east-west section to 3.9m in the north-south section), the darker fill could be traced round the turn. However, in a partial section excavated on the outside edge of this corner, the ditch [F396: >1.5m wide by >0.7m deep] contained a single fill of mid grey-brown silty clay [395] that was similar to the lower fill of the section against the northern baulk, and noticeably lighter than the fill of the two eastern sections. It is thought that the east- west segment of the ditch is a later ditch that continues as a shallower recut ([F425]) to the north-south ditch, filled by the darker upper fills [421 and 409].
Phase 7 (medieval and later) 5.76 As in Areas A and B, furrows from a ridge and furrow field system, on a north-north- west / south-south-east alignment, crossed the excavation area. They were particularly deep and obvious in this area, obscuring earlier features. Modern ceramic land drains had been placed in the base of these furrows.
Area D (Figure 8) 5.77 Area D was 20m square, and was located over a circular geomagnetic anomaly to the west of the main enclosures. A patch of pinkish and blueish yellow-brown clay [404],
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darker than the surrounding subsoil, corresponded with the geomagnetic anomaly. However, upon investigation it was concluded that this deposit was a variation within the natural subsoil. Furrows from the Phase 7 ridge and furrow field system were recorded crossing the excavation area on the same north-north-west / south- south-east alignment as seen in other excavation areas, but no other archaeological were noted and no artefacts recovered.
Peat Column 5.78 A peat deposit had been identified during the evaluation in the area of an electricity connection to the south of the main site. This was further sampled to provide an undisturbed column sample. The peat began forming in the middle-late Neolithic period (2890-2630 cal BC) with plant remains indicating a coastal floodplain environment, with shallow, standing water. This peat was sealed in the Early Bronze Age (2890-2630 cal BC) by increased sediment deposition, potentially due to changes in relative sea-level.
The archaeological monitoring 5.79 Since human burials had been identified during the area excavation, archaeological monitoring during ground clearance operations at the start of the development had been added to the specification, to identify any other possible human burials that may be affected by the development. The entire footprint of the new development (including the access road leading into the field) was stripped of topsoil by 3600 tracked excavators equipped with toothless ditching buckets and under archaeological monitoring. Additional monitoring was undertaken by Green Man Archaeology in April 2020 on the sites of a gas delivery compound and a gas pressure compound (Green Man Archaeology 2020). Most of the area stripped by all this monitoring was to the south and west of the area of archaeological significance. Three features were investigated as potential grave or cremation cuts. All were to the east of the previously excavated site.
5.80 Pit [F428: 0.65m by 0.48m by 0.22m deep] was located c.5m east of Area B, and was filled by a grey-brown silty clay [427] that included a very large sandstone slab that almost filled it and had been investigated as a potential grave cover slab. No evidence for a burial was identified and medieval pottery was recovered from the fill, indicating that the pit was a later feature, unrelated to the Roman site.
5.81 Pit [F430: 0.9m by 0.8m by 0.1m deep] was located between Areas A and B. It was filled by a dark grey-brown silty clay [429] with a vertically set sandstone slab (0.5m by 0.15m by 0.03m thick) forming its south-west side, and was investigated as a possible cist. However, no other stones were present as a lining, and the remainder of the pit was rather irregular. Its north-west side was steep but other sides sloped very gently. Some pot fragments were recovered from the fill, all dating from after AD 360, indicating that this deposit was of similar age to the Phase 5 or 6 deposits of the main excavation. No bone (burnt nor unburnt) was recovered, rendering it unlikely that this feature had been a cist. A palaeoenvironmental sample produced a moderate flot of charred heather twigs and occasional charred cereal grains.
5.82 Pit [F436: 0.8m diameter by 0.23m deep] was located c.3.3m east of Area C. It was almost circular, but had a slight, shallow lip on its eastern side. At its base was a black deposit of mixed ash, charcoal and clay [435: 0.05m deep]. Above this was a light grey clay [434: 0.06m deep] that very neatly coated the inside of the pit above
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the earlier ash deposit and appeared to be a deliberate relining of it. Above this was a second layer of black ash, charcoal and clay [433: 0.03m deep], overlain by a deposit of lumps of burnt red clay [432: 0.04m deep]. This was overlain by a final deposit of grey-brown silty clay [431: 0.08m deep]. These fills were similar to those of the kilns seen in Areas A and B of the main excavation [F142, F151 and F349], and the feature is interpreted as the base of the fire pit for another such kiln that had been almost entirely truncated.
6. The artefacts Roman Pottery analysis (Figure 17) Introduction 6.1 The assemblage consists of 388 sherds, weighing 6747g. The pottery was quantified in its fabric categories by weight, sherd count and estimated vessel equivalents (EVEs, i.e. percentages or surviving rim diameters) in accordance with the recommendations of the Study Group for Roman Pottery. Fabrics were identified visually to magnifications of up to X20 using a hand lens or binocular microscope. For the fabrics of the common, widely-traded wares, references are made to the National Roman Fabric Reference Collection (NRFRC = Tomber and Dore 1998). Table 1.2 presents the pottery assemblage by fabric, with weights, numbers and estimated vessel equivalents (EVE) shown as percentages. Descriptions for the fabrics with National Reference Collection (NRFRC) codes in Table 1.2 can be found in Tomber and Dore 1998. Other fabrics are described below and illustrated examples are included in the fabric description and are shown in Figure 17. A catalogue of the pottery is provided in Appendix 2.
Results Amphorae 6.2 There were three body sherds of amphora (wt 87g), from at least two different Dressel 20 vessels (NRFRC code BAT AM). These carried olive oil and were in use from the first century until the mid to late third century.
Samian 6.3 The site produced eight sherds of samian ware, all Central Gaulish and likely to be of Antonine date. The closest dating is provided by a sherd from context [53] showing the distinctive ridge between wall and base of form 31R, a form produced in Central Gaul between c.AD 160-200. The sherd had been made into a possible spindle whorl (Fig. 17, D21), described below.
Mortaria 6.4 The main period of mortarium use on the site was in the late second or early third century (six vessels: one locally produced, one from North Yorkshire, and four from Mancetter-Hartshill). Although the quantity of coarse wares increased in the late Roman period, the number of mortaria present declined, with a minimum of three vessels present (one Mancetter-Hartshill of 250+, one Crambeck whiteware and one Crambeck parchment ware).
6.5 Illustration D6 from context [400] is a sherd from a mortarium with high bead, almost vertical wall and distal bead; part of the spout survives. It represents around 10% of a vessel with a dia. of 240mm. The fabric is orange-brown with thin grey core. The inclusions, which consist of a mixture of black slag, quartz, red-brown
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sandstone and other rocks, are fairly frequent and very ill-sorted and are surprising in such a small, neatly made vessel; only the odd trituration grit survives. The surface is abraded and only specks survive from the white slip it originally had. This distinctive, unstamped type is found on sites in north-east England like York, Malton, Langton and Rudston. On present evidence, production is most likely to have been south of Malton in the first half of the third century, though a beginning in the late second century is not impossible. For further information see Monaghan 1997, fig.374, no. 3404.
6.6 D9 from [416] is a single sherd of a multi-reeded hammerhead mortarium, representing 18% of a vessel with a diameter of 300mm. This was the only sherd in the varied fills of pit [F114=F138=F418]. This is a hard, well-made piece, but it looks as if suffered a lot of re-deposition after it ceased to be in use, having lost its slip and with a battered surface. Late third or possibly early fourth. MAH WH
6.7 D9 from [416]; a single sherd of a hammerhead mortarium, approximately a quarter of the rim surviving. This was the only sherd in the varied fills of pit [F114=F138=F418]. K. Hartley writes: This is a hard, well-made piece, but it looks as if it had a lot of re-deposition after it ceased to be in use, having lost its slip and with a battered surface. Late third or possibly early fourth. MAH WH.
6.8 D18, unstratified, from the vicinity of context [53] is a wallside mortarium, Corder and Birley 1937 type 7, worn surface with no surviving paint. Date: 370+, CRAM PA.
Coarsewares Fabrics 6.9 SE Dorset black burnished ware 1 (DOR BB 1) is represented by 40 sherds, 36 found in context [82] D5 from a cooking pot with burnt rim and exterior. Numerous body sherds, although there is no surviving trace of lattice. Sooting/carbonised residue survive on the interior and under the rim.
Black burnished ware (BB2) (Bidwell and Croom 2018, 210-5). 6.10 BB2 was represented by a single bowl/dish body sherd in context [268]. BB2 is not common on rural sites in the area; the nearby villa at Ingleby Barwick, although occupied from the mid second century, only produced four sherds in total (Evans and Mills 2013, A3.62).
South-east reduced wares (SERW) (Bidwell and Croom 2018, 210-5). 6.11 These wares were represented by three sherds from three separate vessels. Context [88] had a sherd from a possible flask. Context [405] D19 had a sherd in a sandy fabric from a cooking pot with residue underneath and on the interior of rim, Bidwell and Croom 2018, type 6.11, likely to be third century. Context [351] D20 had a sherd from a lid-seated cooking pot in a gritty fabric, Gillam 1970, type 151, Bidwell and Croom 2018, type 7: it first appears on the northern frontier in the third century. An example has previously been found at Ingleby Barwick (Evans and Mills 2013, fig. 4.1, a).
Hard grey ware 6.12 There were eight sherds in a hard, mid-grey fabric, including rims sherds from a cooking pot imitating black burnished ware in context [198] D2 and from a conical flanged bowl in context [205]. Very hard mid-grey fabric with very fine quartz sand inclusions. Late second or third century.
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Crambeck reduced ware (CRAM RE) and Crambeck parchment ware (CRAM PA) 6.13 Crambeck reduced includes vessels made in a very white fabric with dark grey surfaces (although the soil conditions mean that this is often only present in a speckled form) and vessels made in a mid-grey fabric with pink core. Most of the vessels were conical flanged bowls, with one hemispherical flanged bowl with pink core in context [53] D15, a Corder and Birley 1937 type 1b, with double wavy line, date: 370+. A CRAM RE with white core conical flanged bowl, Corder and Birley 1937 type 1, date: 360+, was found in [59] D11. There were also CRAM RE body sherds from countersunk lug-handled jars in [53 & 65], a vessel often used for collecting water. Pale Crambeck parchment wares (CRAM PA) were represented by 9 sherds, 8 in context [82] and a rim from a wallside type grooved bowl, Corder and Birley 1937 type 9, date: 370+, in context [347] D12.
Local traditional ware, fabric groups 1 and 4 6.14 Handmade wares that were made from the late Bronze Age until at least the end of the Roman period. Household production meant vessels in these fabrics were made in numerous locations, but they share similarities in the very large inclusions added to the clay, such as dolerite (group 1), in a body sherd found in context [82] and quartz (group 4) fragments, such as a body sherd found in context [368].
Handmade wares 6.15 There are three handmade fabrics of the types made on a very local basis on rural sites in the region from the second century onwards, and possibly traded outside the monetary economy (Evans and Mills 2013, 91; A3.78). They probably fell out of use with the increasing supply of calcite-gritted ware in the late third century.
Handmade fabric 1 6.16 Handmade, sandy fabric, with no large inclusions of any type, with a black exterior surface and an orange interior. It is represented by five sherds and some scraps, most coming from a single vessel in context [325] D7. This is a cooking pot with extensive wipe marks from a cloth or similar on the exterior, as well as patches of sooting/residue on exterior. Black exterior and orange interior, with a buff line between the two on the exterior of the rim. A similar wide-mouthed vessel with wipe marks, although with a different rim form, found at Ingleby Barwick was made in a locally-produced gritted ware, and this is likely to be in the same tradition (Evans and Mills 2013, fig. 4.3, d; 89).
Handmade fabric 2 (cf Ingleby Barwick fabric G11: Evans and Mills 2013). 6.17 A handmade, gritty fabric distinguished by plentiful sub-rounded colourless or pinkish quartz inclusions up to 2mm across but generally smaller. Black or dark grey fabric, sometimes with patchy oxidised surfaces. Sherds found here in several contexts, including [121, 224, 231, and unstratified].
Handmade fabric 3 6.18 A handmade, sandy fabric gritted with ill-sorted angular white quartz and angular pebble inclusions, and occasional mica plates. A black fabric, sometimes with brown or oxidised patches on the surfaces. Represented by 12 sherds in context [57], with another 6 sherds in four other contexts. Angular quartz was used in handmade fabric G13 at Ingleby Barwick (Evans and Mills 2013, 71), although that had a ‘clean’ matrix. Context [329] D1 had two rim sherds from a cooking pot with traces of residue on the interior of the rim. Vessels with similar tall rims were made in the
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Iron Age (cf Street House, Loftus: Vyner 2019, fig. 5.19, no. 4, in a fabric with angular quartz inclusions), in locally-produced gritted wares made from at least the second century (cf Ingleby Barwick: Evans and Mills 2013, fig. 4.2, s, in a gritty fabric with sub-rounded quartz inclusions) and in very late and sub-Roman wares (cf York: Monaghan 1997, fig. 342, no. 3237).
Late gritty grey ware 6.19 Hard, heavily gritted wares were produced at a number of different sites from the late third century, becoming most common in the first half of the fourth century (Bidwell and Croom 2010, 31). The two sherds present in this assemblage in contexts [57 & 59] are light grey in colour, sometimes with darker surfaces. The sherd from [59] D10 is from a cooking pot with a slightly cupped rim. There is residue on the exterior, under and on the interior of the rim, and some traces on the interior of the vessel.
Calcite-gritted ware (HUN CG) 6.20 A handmade ware (although the rims of some forms were finished on a wheel), tempered with plentiful calcite inclusions and made in East Yorkshire. It becomes widespread in the north only from the late third century and continued in use into the early fifth century. Numerous sherds were recovered in 24 contexts and unstratified. A cooking pot with Huntcliff-type rim and three grooves on the body came from context [98] D4. Further cooking vessels came from context [271] D17, a pot with cupped interior and Huntcliff-type groove, with thick sooting/residue under and on the exterior of the rim, and from context [429] D8, a cooking pot with Huntcliff-type rim and roughly drawn grooves on the body. This also had heavy sooting/residue under rim and on the body exterior. A wide-mouthed bowl with Huntcliff-type rim was found unstratified in area H D16. The interior groove is low, and there is diagonal groove decoration on the exterior. There is an example with similar decoration at Ingleby Barwick (Evans and Mill 2013, fig. 4.3, f). Some of these wide-mouthed vessels in calcite-gritted ware could be from large jars, but most probably come from wide-mouthed bowls (cf Croom and Bidwell 2010, fig. 4.6, no. 37). They usually have more elaborate decoration than the jars.
Late handmade (York fabric B18: Monaghan 1997, 911) 6.21 Very similar to calcite-gritted ware but without the calcite inclusions (although there can be an occasional calcite inclusion up to 3mm across, which rarely appear on the surface). It often has a harder feel than calcite-gritted ware, and is more likely to have burnished decoration. It was probably in use from about the middle of the fourth century into the early fifth century. Eleven sherds were found in 7 contexts, including [58] D13, which had a rim and body sherd from a cooking pot, with a roughly smoothed exterior. This is a common form in late handmade ware (cf Street House, Loftus: Croom and Bidwell 2019, fig. 5.22, nos 3-4).
Unsourced wares 6.22 The small quantity of unsourced flagons and oxidised wares (Unk OW) are likely to be second century in date. These included a body sherd from a bowl with stamped decoration above two grooves, from context [385] D3. The sherd had the remains of two stamps, one rectangular and one circular; the decoration probably consisted of a circular or row of circular stamps alternating with upright rectangular stamps. Soft, very pale orange fabric with a mid, fading to light, grey core. Fine micaceous fabric, with occasional very fine red inclusions. The unsourced reduced wares (Unk RE)
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include a number of different fabrics, but none represented by more than two sherds. Some may be second-century in date, but the one cooking pot rim (hooked, everted) from an unstratified context, is likely to be third century.
Discussion Chronology 6.23 Phase 2: There were only nine sherds, including two sherds of second-century mortaria. The latest dated pottery is one small body sherd of a Crambeck reduced ware bowl/dish (dated c.270+) from ditch [F396].
6.24 Phase 3: There was Crambeck grey ware and calcite-gritted ware in four different contexts, including context [82], the upper fill of ditch [F84], which contained a calcite-gritted ware cooking pot with a Huntcliff-type rim (dated 360+) and a Crambeck parchment ware bowl (370+). This phase produced the largest number of sherds (108 in total).
6.25 Phase 4: There were 28 sherds, including another cooking pot with Huntcliff-type rim (360+) and another Crambeck parchment ware bowl (370+), from ditch [F348].
6.26 Phase 5: This produced almost as many sherds as phase 2 (102 sherds), but with Crambeck grey wares and calcite-gritted ware in 9 contexts, including 5 calcite- gritted ware vessels with Huntcliff-type rims (360+), and the first sherds of late handmade ware (5 sherds).
6.27 Phase 6: The silt layer formed after the site abandonment produced six calcite- gritted ware vessels with Huntcliff-type rims, a Crambeck reduced ware bowl with internal wavy line (360+), some body sherds of late handmade ware and a body sherd of a Crambeck parchment ware mortarium from context [53=271=280].
6.28 While most of the pottery dates to the late Roman period, there are a number of sherds of earlier date; if the handmade wares are included then it could make up about 30% of the assemblage, although it is almost entirely residual. The local traditional ware and handmade wares make up approximately 50% of the coarse wares present. This extensive use of locally-produced, handmade gritted wares seems to be a feature of the Tees Valley in the early Roman period, where, despite clear access to a wide range of other forms and fabrics, such wares tended to be used only in low quantities (Evans and Mills 2013, 85, 91). Material dating to the late second into the third century at Cowpen Bewley included samian ware, mortaria from three different sources, BB1, a single BB2 bowl/dish sherd, three south-east reduced vessels, two flagons, an oxidised beaker (probably locally produced) and a bowl with stamped decoration; most of the unsourced fabrics will also date to this period.
6.29 In contrast, the pottery of the late third and fourth centuries came from a more limited range of sources, with the industries round Crambeck and the calcite-gritted ware potteries supplying the full range of vessels required. Approximately 50% of the assemblage consists of calcite-gritted ware (Table 1.2), which seems to have taken over from the locally-produced handmade gritted wares in the late Roman period. It is known that the proportion of calcite-gritted ware compared to Crambeck reduced ware increased over time from the late third to the early fifth century (Bidwell and Croom 2010, table 4.3) and although the quantity of pottery in
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each phase at Cowpen Bewley is too small for an accurate ratio to be calculated, it can be seen that as a whole the assemblage has approximately five times as much calcite-gritted as Crambeck reduced ware by weight: the same proportions were seen at nearby Newton Bewley (Evans and Mills 2013, 85).
6.30 Of the 14 complete rims in calcite-gritted ware, 11 had a Huntcliff-type rim (with an internal lid-seating groove), which is a form produced after c.360. There were also two Crambeck reduced ware bowls with internal wavy line, D15 from [53] and an unstratified example. Two Crambeck parchment bowls, one from context [347] D12, a Corder and Birley 1937 type 13 bowl, and one mortarium D18, unstratified in the vicinity of [53], all date to after c.370. The high ratio of calcite-gritted ware, plus the presence of late handmade vessels and Crambeck parchment ware, suggests most occupation occurred in the second half of the fourth century and into the early fifth century.
6.31 The pattern of supply is similar to that at the nearby villa at Ingleby Barwick, where there was a slight peak in the Antonine period, reduced quantities of pottery in the first half of the third century, and then increasing quantities until another peak in the second half of the fourth century (Evans and Mills 2013, 79, tables 4.4 and 4.5). The large quantity of pottery dating to the late fourth and early fifth century seen at the villa was also seen at the nearby rural settlement at Newton Bewley (Petts 2013, 197), and now also at Cowpen Bewley.
Vessel use 6.32 There was so little amphora and samian and no colour-coated wares, that coarse wares make up approximately 95% of the assemblage by sherd count (Table 1.3).
6.33 The low proportion of bowls and dishes is typical for a rural site, but is also a reflection of the late date of much of the assemblage, since in the late Roman period cooking pots become the dominant form. This is a reflection of the transition in the later Roman period from the production of a wide range of vessel shapes designed for different uses to a narrow range of more multi-purpose types (Bidwell and Croom 2010, 30).
6.34 A large number of the cooking pots had heavy sooting or burnt residue on the exterior, especially under or on the rim, and a smaller number also had some on the interior. While this may be the residue from food cooking, it could also be from other messy processes using boiling water, such as preparing tallow and other animal fats, purifying beeswax or making/heating rawhide glue.
6.35 Pit [F141] contained the substantial remains of the bases of three stacked calcite- gritted ware vessels with the lower part of the walls surviving to a maximum of 50- 60mm on two and 90mm on the third; these were perhaps truncated by a modern field drain that cut through the context. One base (diam: 90mm) survived complete, one had 100% of the lower wall but only half of the base (diam: 110mm) and one just 50% of the base (diam: 90mm). There was one small base sherd from a fourth calcite-gritted vessel and some loose body sherds, but no other types of pottery present, so originally this may have been a deliberate deposition of three or four vessel bases, possibly substantially complete when deposited.
6.36 There is no surviving evidence for vessel repair or re-use in the assemblage.
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Conclusions 6.37 In the late second and third centuries locally-produced handmade wares were still extensively used even though the occupants of the site also had access to a wide range of other wares, including samian and mortaria from specialist suppliers. The main use of the site was in the fourth and early fifth centuries, when the sources of supply became more regional. Despite this, while multi-purpose jars had become the most common vessel form used, the assemblage shows there was still a need for mortaria and painted table-wares on the site during this late period. Although no identifiable Anglo-Saxon pottery was recovered from the site, occupation is likely to have lasted at least into the early fifth century.
Pottery ?spindle whorl analysis Results 6.38 Pierced disc (L:32mm W:28mm Diam (hole):5.5mm Wt:8.5g). Fill of ditch [F360], context [359], Phase 3, SF10, Figure 17 D21. A pierced disc cut from a samian bowl body sherd (Central Gaulish form 31R; see samian report above) that includes the carination and internal ridge, with roughly smoothed edges. It is distinctly oval in shape, with a slightly off-centre hole. Pierced discs were used as spindle-whorls, but they may have had other uses; the uneven shape of this example would make it much more difficult to produce an even thread. Although this could be a residual piece (an unworked sherd of samian was found in the same context), Cool has noted the surprising number of pierced discs made from samian sherds found in fourth-century contexts (Cool 1999, 52-3).
Animal bone analysis Introduction and methods 6.39 The majority of the faunal remains were recovered from ditch fills, with some finds from the fills of pits and shallow depressions. These appear to be agricultural landscape features outside the residential area. The bones found may therefore represent manuring spreads, dog scavenging and fallen stock but probably a lesser component of fresh domestic refuse. The Romano-British occupation spans Phases 2-5 with Phase 6 post-Roman. The majority of the faunal remains were recovered from Area A. No animal bones were attributed to Phase 2 in any Area.
6.40 Preservation of the bones is variable. Pockets of excellent preservational conditions are indicated by, for example, foetal calf bones from context [394], although in this case, this could be a later intrusive deposit. Many bones appear to have been deposited intact and have survived in quite good condition but have become brittle in the ground, resulting in fragmentation on excavation. A lack of all fragments from some individual bones has reduced the metrical and ageing data. Probable exposure to sub-aerial weathering in some ditch deposits has had a negative impact, with decay of both bones and dentine in teeth. Such taphonomic factors have enhanced the survival and recovery of cattle bones compared to those of smaller species.
6.41 Fragments of cattle, sheep/goat and pig bones were noted as identifiable if they encompassed a 'zone', or discrete diagnostic feature. This approach reduces multiple recording of fragments potentially from the same bone. Maxillary and mandibular cheek tooth rows which could be reconstructed, but where the surrounding bone had fragmented, were recorded as either maxilla or mandible rather than as loose teeth. All identifiable fragments of the remaining species were counted. Notes were made where fresh breaks indicated that the ‘zone’ had been present in the ground
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but was not recovered in excavation. Unidentifiable fragments were not recorded, but were noted as present if all the fragments from a context were indeterminate. The elements recorded as cattle-size are fragments of ribs and vertebrae. The generic term sheep/goat is used but no evidence was seen for the presence of goat, though sheep was positively identified from one horn core.
6.42 Butchery chop marks and dog gnawing marks were observed and recorded where these were clearly recognisable. Bones clearly from immature animals were seen but the epiphysial ends had been destroyed by dog gnawing, which has distorted the surviving evidence for this method of ageing.
Results 6.43 Fragment counts for the species present are listed by phase and area in Table 1.4. Recovery of fragments was concentrated in the Phase 6 features in Area A. Remains of cattle, sheep/goat and pig were found in Areas A, B and C but horse and dog are only represented in Area A. Marine shells were rare but found in Areas A, C and F.
6.44 Table 1.5 shows the proportions of the domestic species by phase. While cattle fragments clearly predominate in all phases, the smaller groups from Phases 3 and 4 have higher proportions of cattle fragments relative to those of sheep/goat than seen in Phases 5 and 6, whereas there is little difference between the phases in the representation of pig and horse remains.
6.45 The fills of ditch [F60] produced bone fragments in good condition. Although the sample sizes are tiny, the data in Table 1.6 show considerable variation in the proportion of cattle to sheep fragments in the different fills, with sheep remains being the most numerous in context [57]. Sheep are certainly under-represented in context [59] as at least three sheep limb bones are represented by fragments lacking conjoins with the diagnostic zones to count as identifiable. This example suggests that the assemblage as a whole is not representative of the original abundance and distribution of sheep/goat remains.
Cattle 6.46 The body part representation in Table 1.7 shows bias towards the survival of robust tooth rows, representing the remains of skulls and mandibles, compared to the more porous and prone to decay ribs and vertebrae. The ribcage is usually the most obvious indication of an animal burial, so the general absence of the post-cranial axial skeleton also suggests that no cattle burials were encountered in the ditch fills examined. Some of the tooth rows probably represent facial areas of skulls with either matching maxillary tooth rows or occluding maxillary and mandibular tooth rows. Loose teeth not associated with a tooth row are not numerous, indicating minimal disturbance of mandibles and maxillae prior to excavation. The comparatively high number of loose teeth in Phase 5 in fact includes six teeth probably from one skull, but the tooth rows were too incomplete to reconstruct with certainty. Fragments of fore and hindlimbs were recovered in comparable numbers and feet are represented, suggesting that refuse from whole carcases was originally deposited.
6.47 The epiphysial fusion data in Table 1.9 shows the survival of robust fused bones, though with some indication of immature animals with unfused bones in Phase 5. Though a hostile burial environment and canid gnawing have obliterated much
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evidence for juvenile animals, Phase 4 context [394] produced an exceptional find of a partial infant calf skeleton, although this could potentially be a later intrusion cut into the top of the ditch. This is represented by a pair of scapulae with vertebra and rib fragments, a metatarsal shaft with the two sides unfused, a second phalanx possibly from the same foot and an unerupted deciduous premolar 4. The unfused metatarsal shaft suggests that this was a foetal calf, estimated at six to seven months gestation, comparable to the example from Monkseaton Chapel Lane (Gidney 2013). However, the Monkseaton find was in situ within the area of the dam’s abdomen. No adult cattle bones were recovered with this find. Whether a cow slipped its calf in the field or whether this find represents a foetus from the sacrifice of a pregnant cow, as known in the Classical world, is unclear.
6.48 A calf older than neonatal is represented by a proximal metacarpal from context [409], Phase 5.
6.49 In contrast to the epiphyses, the overall tooth wear data in Table 1.10 indicate the presence of juvenile animals in all phases but particularly in Phase 5. The mandibular Tooth Wear Stages (TWS) detailed in Table 1.11 refine these data and show the presence of some aged animals with advanced tooth wear. However, the deciduous premolars 4 with advanced wear at TWS j and k appear to complement the molars 3 with little wear at TWS a and b. Slaughter between 2 and 3 years old is indicated, after eruption of molar 3 but before the shedding of deciduous premolar 4. Mandible Wear Scores (MWS) could be calculated for eleven tooth rows. The distribution in Table 1.12 includes a pair of jaws at MWS 7 from Phase 3, examples at MWS 17, 29, 40 and 43 from Phase 4 and the remainder from Phase 5. The overall pattern again shows calves, or weaned stirks, at MWS 6-7, immature animals up to MWS 31, adult at MWS 37 and aged animals at MWS 40-45.
6.50 No complete measurable cattle bones were recovered. It was possible to reconstruct and measure a metatarsal from Phase 5, context [395], which gives an estimated withers height of 1.21m. Other bones were measured but the sample sizes for individual skeletal elements are too small for analysis.
6.51 A cattle horncore was found in Phase 4 context [226], while Phase 5 context [224] contained part of a female cranium with both horncores. Both finds are female “Celtic Shorthorns” and neither find was associated with teeth. Further females are represented by two pubis fragments, from different animals, in Phase 5 context [77] and part of an acetabulum from Phase 3 context [239]. This was an elderly animal with infilling of the iliac-pubic border creating a foramen in the margin. A pelvis fragment from Phase 5 context [93] is from a male animal.
6.52 The only congenital anomaly seen was the absence of the hypoconulid on mandibular molar 3, with examples from Phase 6 context [53], Phase 5 context [57] and Phase 3 context [359]. This is a common non-metrical trait in the local indigenous cattle from the Iron Age onwards.
6.53 A fused distal femur in several pieces with a neat circular hole in the lateral condyle was found in Phase 3 context [363]. The hole does not penetrate to the medial condyle. It is not clear if this is evidence of deliberate ancient working or recent damage.
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Sheep/goat 6.54 Positive identification of sheep is provided by a female horn core from Phase 5 context [58]. The morphology of the metapodials is also consistent with sheep.
6.55 The body part representation in Table 1.8 shows survival and recovery bias favouring teeth. Again some of the loose teeth appear to represent incomplete tooth rows that could not be reconstructed with confidence.
6.56 There are too few post-cranial elements for the epiphysial fusion data to be meaningful. Phase 5 context [224] produced a group of femur, tibia and metatarsal fragments with two phalanges. These have the surviving epiphysial ends fused and one once complete leg may be represented. This find is associated with a female cattle cranium and dog remains, which might indicate an episode of structured deposition.
6.57 The majority of the tooth wear data derive from groups of mandibles in Phase 6 context [53], with three, and Phase 5 context [57], with fragmented remains of at least five. Animals of roughly the same age cohort appear to have been selected in each deposit with a range of MWS 39, 40 and 41 in context [53] and MWS 32 and 36 in context [57]. Table 1.10 shows a general absence of deciduous teeth from lambs though permanent teeth at early stages of wear were found, suggesting culling of hoggetts over a year old. Taken with the MWS, there is a suggestion that the animals in Phase 5 were younger than those in Phase 6. The TWS in Table 1.11 show a range of younger adults, mature adults but few aged animals.
Pig 6.58 Too few pig remains were recovered for any detailed analysis, though Table 1.7 indicates that teeth were most readily recovered. Immature animals are indicated by two bones with unfused epiphysial ends. All the teeth are from the permanent dentition. Adult animals are indicated by a maxilla from Phase 6 context [53] and a mandible from Phase 5 context [88] both with molar 3 in wear.
Horse 6.59 Horse remains were also sparsely distributed. All the finds from Phase 3 were in context [198]. There is a noticeable absence of horse tooth rows or loose teeth in Phase 5 since these were recovered for cattle, sheep and pig. Fragments of femur and tibia in Phase 5 contexts [92 and 93] may indicate remains of an articulated hind leg.
Dog 6.60 Dog gnawing marks were seen in Phases 3, 5 and 6 in contexts with enhanced preservation. Actual finds of dog elements were less common.
6.61 Phase 3 context [82] produced a mandible from an aged animal with worn teeth. This has fragmented on lifting so molar 1 is not measurable.
6.62 An incomplete skeleton was recovered from Phase 4 context [255]. The head is represented only by four incisor teeth and part of the temporal. There are parts of both the front and hind legs and three vertebrae. All the epiphyses are fused. None of the limb bones have been lifted intact, so an estimate of stature is not possible though it appears to have been a medium/small animal.
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6.63 Phase 5 context [224] contained a pair of mandibles, which have fragmented on lifting. This was a younger animal than that in context [82], with unworn teeth. The molars 1, at lengths of 23.4mm and 23.9mm, are longer than the range of examples seen at the broadly contemporary rural settlement at Pocklington (Randerson 2014). Some associated rib fragments and fragments possibly of ilium suggest original deposition of a body. As noted above, the association of this find with a cattle cranium and sheep hind leg might indicate an episode of structured deposition.
Mollusc shells 6.64 The marine shells recovered demonstrate the variation in preservation between contexts. The possible mussel shell from Phase 4 context [75] is a thin skin of nacre adhering to the soil matrix with which it was lifted. The oyster shell from Phase context [407] and the unstratified cockle shell fragment from the monitoring are in good condition. The general rarity of marine shells is therefore not solely a reflection of poor preservational conditions.
Small mammal 6.65 No small mammal remains were hand recovered, but their presence on site is indicated by a sheep/goat metatarsal shaft from Phase 5 context [136] which has clear rodent nibble marks.
Samples 6.66 A high proportion of palaeoenvironmental samples produced no identifiable fragments or hand recovered bones. Tiny unidentifiable fragments of calcined bone were recovered from the majority of sample residues.
6.67 The sample residues indicate that sheep/goat remains were more widely distributed than those of cattle. No deposits of burnt sheep/goat bones were hand-recovered, though these are a commonly encountered example of structured deposition on Romano-British rural sites. However the samples from associated Phase 5 ditch fill contexts [215 and 232] contained fragments of burnt sheep bone, indicating that the phenomenon was also present on this site. Recovery bias is indicated by the find of a pig maxilla from context [145], though only a cattle mandible was hand recovered. Similarly, context [59] produced 8 identifiable sheep/goat fragments compared to only two hand recovered fragments, outnumbered by 8 of cattle and one of horse, species absent from the sample residue. The Phase 4 infant/foetal calf is not an isolated occurrence, as Phase 5 context [58] produced a carpal from an equally young animal. This find also demonstrates the pocket of enhanced preservation in the fills of ditch [F60].
6.68 A further dog is represented in Phase 4 ditch fill context [125] by fragments of skull, though no fragments were hand recovered. Unidentifiable fragments with acid etching from the canine digestive system were seen in contexts [58 and 93]. These represent the remains of canine faeces.
6.69 Small commensal species are only represented in the samples. The rodent gnawed bone noted above is complemented by single finds of vole and small mammal elements. Frog/toad is also represented.
6.70 Tiny fragments of possible eggshell were found in pit fill context [270].
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Discussion 6.71 Though this is a comparatively small assemblage, some insight can be gained into the husbandry of the stock contained and controlled by the ditches and droveways examined. Cattle were clearly important but sheep were probably more numerous. The tooth wear data suggest that the size of the cattle breeding herd was maintained by culling of young stock in their first, second and third years. The evidence from horn cores and pelvis suggests that the oldest animals were cull cows.
6.72 Two deposits suggest culling of age cohorts of adult sheep, with no evidence for lambs under a year old comparable to the calves. The very limited evidence for pig tentatively suggests possible bacon from older cull breeding stock. Horse may have been reared for meat rather than solely as a working animal.
6.73 Dogs have certainly modified the assemblage. More than one type of dog is indicated with a partial skeleton from a medium/small animal but mandibles from an animal with larger carnassial teeth than those recovered from contemporary deposits in East Yorkshire. Livestock herding and guarding dogs may be envisaged.
6.74 No evidence for hunted wild game species or domestic birds was found. Rare finds of marine mollusc shells are the only evidence for utilisation of wild food resources. The samples indicate the presence of small mammals and amphibians inhabiting these landscape features.
Lithics analysis (Figure 18) Introduction 6.75 The assemblage is very small, with only 13 worked artefacts and can only provide limited information about prehistoric occupation. Despite this, some conclusions can be drawn, which will be discussed below. The artefacts have been described and catalogued in Appendix 3 and Table 1.13. A further eight natural pieces were also recovered during the course of the works.
Methodology 6.76 The lithics were analysed using a combination of technological and typological criteria. Conditional variables such as preservation, rolling, patination and surface sheen aim to identify evidence of post-depositional disturbance and use methodologies taken from Ashton (1998). Technological assessment is based on aspects such as cortex, butt type, flake types, flake termination and percussion and are derived from terminology and definitions detailed in Ashton (1998), Ashton and McNabb (1996), Andrefsky (1998) and Whittaker (1994). Typological classification is based on attributes of knapped material discussed in Butler (2005), with additional specialist typologies consulted and referred to where needed.
Results 6.77 The assemblage comprised 10 artefacts previously discussed during the assessment phase and a further three chips, which were recovered from samples processed for this analysis. These were assessed and added to the previously identified material and will be described below.
6.78 The most common artefact types are flakes (n=4) and tools (n=4), followed by chips (n=3), a core (n=1) and a fragment (n=1) (Table 1.13). The presence of chips indicates that some form of limited manufacture or maintenance was taking place, possibly
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resulting from the re-working or repair of tools. The overall low numbers of debitage (chips, flakes, fragments) suggests a lack of on-site manufacture, despite the presence of a very small pebble core. The relatively high proportion of tools present, compared to the size of the assemblage (n = 4, 30.8%, Table 1.13), indicates a possible focus on resource procurement and processing. The tool component is made up of a scraper, piercer and two minimally worked retouched flakes. Traditionally, scrapers would have been associated with hide working and piercers would have most likely been used on bone or hides.
6.79 Context [57] contained a group of three worked pieces on reddish-brown flint, two of which, the flake and retouched flake/ blade, could be from the same nodule. The small pebble core is the same colour, but the material is more speckled. These three are likely to come from the same source. The removals on the pebble core are all very small and it is not the source of the other two.
6.80 Two artefacts were found to display the fine cracking lines and internal fracturing indicative of being exposed to heat (Mercieca and Hiscock 2008; Schmidt 2014). These were a chip from [270] and a flake fragment from [385]. The heating was most likely accidental, rather than a deliberate attempt to strengthen the artefact.
Condition 6.81 The assemblage seems to be a mixture of mostly fresh and a few moderately rolled pieces. A number of artefacts are very glossy in appearance and many show breaks and damage, indicating the assemblage has been subject to post-depositional movement, which fits with their incorporation into later features.
Raw materials 6.82 Flint is the only raw material utilised in this assemblage and there are five colour variations present (Table 1.14). The most common is reddish-brown (n=5), followed by grey (n=4) and brown (n=2). Light brown/ beige and black flint are represented by only single artefacts. Interestingly, the more ad-hoc worked tools, for example the retouched flakes, which do not conform strongly to particular set tool forms, are manufactured on the more common raw materials. Whereas the more formal component (scraper and piercer) are on the less common brown and black flint and may hint at some form of curation of tools manufactured on better quality raw material.
6.83 Where cortex was present, it mostly looked quite thin and in some cases pitted, indicating use of secondary sources of flint such as river cobbles or glacial till deposits (Table 1.15). The pebble core was very small and the curvature of its cortical surface showed it had not been reduced much from its original form. The reddish-brown flint probably came from till deposits found in the North East and Yorkshire (Henson 1983), whereas Yorkshire coastal deposits are the most likely origin for the brown and grey flint (Manby 1974, Young 1984a, 1984b; Robinson and Foulds 2017).
Technology and spatial distribution 6.84 The assemblage contained a lot of breaks and only one piece from context [134] actually had a complete distal end where the butt could be seen clearly. Whilst clear evidence for the type of percussion used was difficult to find, the presence of strong ripples on a number of pieces suggested the majority of the assemblage was likely to
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be hard hammer percussion and based around a flake production strategy. The large flake from [134] was struck using a hard hammer, on a natural surface, which could suggest a slightly more ad-hoc approach, where platforms were not prepared or considered carefully before being struck. This is a feature most commonly associated with later prehistoric assemblages. The cortex results showed a dominance of non- cortical artefacts (n=7), followed by those with <25% cortical surface (n=3). The larger flake from [134] was the only artefact which was mostly cortical (>75%) and came from the first stages of core reduction (Table 1.14).
6.85 The majority of the assemblage was concentrated to the north, in Area A, with the exception of a burnt flake from Area B and the scraper from Area C. The pieces were generally spread out and there appeared to be no strong spatial patterning discernible.
Chronology 6.86 Of the two formal tools, the piercer (Fig. 18 D25) had been formed by the creation of a point on the lateral edge of the flake. The retouched section was very minimally worked and almost serrated in appearance, which might suggest an earlier date. However, the tool felt slightly more expediently made that would be expected and the other side of the point was formed from a break/ removal which almost appeared to be burin-like in form. Butler has suggested this and the lateral location of the point is a feature found on some later Bronze Age piercers (Butler 2005). In probability, it is more likely this piece is of a later date.
6.87 The scraper (Fig. 18 D26) was well made, with retouch extending the full way round the convex working edge. Its form is reminiscent of end scrapers from the Neolithic or possibly early Bronze Age so this piece may be of a slightly earlier date than the rest of the assemblage.
6.88 The absence of most platforms and high incidence of breaks makes it very difficult to assign date estimates to the rest of the assemblage. Technologically they appeared to be based around a flake production strategy and with the exception of [385] are more roughly made than you would expect for earlier periods. Generally from the later Neolithic onwards there was a gradual decline in manufacture and selection of raw materials (Butler 2005), with people choosing to select lower quality, easily available material, which could be worked quickly and expediently, and then discarded. The pebble core [57] is an example of this more expedient technology, with small blade-like flakes removed, constrained by the small size of the raw material, but sufficient for the purpose for which they were required. The heated flake fragment from [385] is more finely made and may be of an earlier date. It is likely that the bulk of the material dates to the later prehistoric period, possibly late Bronze Age, although this is difficult to confirm.
Discussion and conclusion 6.89 The low numbers in the assemblage suggest limited occupation and the activity appears to be very ephemeral, with no evidence of any extensive occupation in the excavated area. The tools for the most part appear ad-hoc and quickly made, suggesting they were produced for a specific task, then discarded. Considering the glossy nature of some of the pieces, it is possible that some movement has occurred, perhaps through occasional flooding due to the proximity of Cowpen Marsh.
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6.90 Although it is difficult to be certain, the bulk of the assemblage is likely of later prehistoric date, possibly late Bronze Age, with the exception of the scraper and burnt flake, which might be earlier. The assemblage represents the discard of tools associated with hunting or processing of plant or animal products, during short-term occupations in the surrounding area. Tools were probably imported into the area, used, reworked, repaired and discarded. The small assemblage size and predominance of debitage unfortunately does not lend itself to comparisons with other sites in the region or further afield.
Coins analysis Results 6.91 Four copper alloy coins were found within a single context, [53], that has been interpreted as post-dating the abandonment of the site. Three coins (SF4a-c) were found in very close proximity and are likely to be associated. Although poorly preserved, these three pieces all appear to be small late Roman AE4, two of which can be dated to AD 387 or later.
6.92 AE4, Issue shared by Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius & Honorius AD 387 or later Obv.) Illegible Rev.) [SALVS REIPVBLICAE], Victory walking l., trophy on shoulder, dragging captive from r. 1.2g; 13mm Context [53], SF4a
6.93 AE4, Issue shared by Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius & Honorius AD 387 or later Obv.) Illegible Rev.) [SALVS REIPVBLICAE], Victory walking l., trophy on shoulder, dragging captive from r. 0.9g; 12mm Context [53], SF4b
6.94 AE4, illegible 1.1g; 14mm Context [53], SF4c
6.95 A fourth coin, SF6, was found less than 1m away from the group of three. This coin is fragmentary (original diameter of c. 20mm) and only partially legible, but appears to be earlier in date.
6.96 AE3 (fragment) C4th AD Obv.) Barely legible, but possibly CON[ ] Rev.) Illegible 0.6g; 15mm Context [53], SF6
Copper alloy objects analysis Results 6.97 Two copper alloy artefacts were studied.
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6.98 Trumpet brooch (L:50mm W:13mm B:22mm). Upper fill of ditch [F60], context [57], Phase 5, SF2. An incomplete brooch in battered condition: Mackreth 2011 type TR 2.2; cf pl. 84, no. 5322. There are the remains of a cast housing for an iron axis bar. The waist- moulding is flat on the back and possibly had three acanthus leaves, and the lower bow has side grooves and a moulding above a plain drum foot-knob. The remains of the catch-plate has two drilled holes, 2mm diam, from where it has been repaired, possibly an indication of long use. This is a common form of brooch in use from the late first to the late second century, probably generally worn by women.
6.99 Vehicle fitting? (L:48mm W:30mm B:25mm Th:2mm). Fill of ditch [F389], context [388], Phase 3, SF11 Fragment of a hollow fitting, originally of roughly rectangular cross-section, tapering towards one end and with a slight, rounded moulding round the wider end. On the inside, one wall has a moulded rib running down the centre, which was probably matched by one on the other side, as seen on a non-joining fragment.
6.100 This is likely to be the remains of a vehicle fitting (also called a strap-holder) with a single lateral hook. The most common type found in Britain has an eagle head and a bird-headed hook, and are considered to be mainly first-century in date and associated with the military (Crummy 2011, 53-4; fig. 2, a). Although less common, the fittings continued to be used in the second and third centuries with other animal forms such as a horse (Toynbee and Wilkins 1982; a much wider selection of designs is known on the Continent: Gui 2015, 257). Most are polygonal or circular, although a few rectangular examples have been found (cf Toynbee and Wilkins 1982, pl. XXIII, B). Large, two-armed versions were used for two- or four-wheel carriage suspension; the small, one-armed types may have had a similar use, or may have been rein guides, or to hold the reins when the vehicle was stationary (Gui 2015, 257). Such decorative fittings would be used on passenger rather than agricultural vehicles.
Iron objects analysis Results 6.101 Four iron objects were studied.
6.102 Handle? (L:12mm W:15mm Th:15mm). Unstratified, SF9. A length of twisted square-sectioned iron bar. Such decorative twisting was often used on domestic implements with a long handle or hanger, such as ladle, flesh- hook, hanging lamp or pot-hanger.
6.103 Sheet (L:58mm W:45mm Th:3mm). U/S, SF12 Slightly curved thick sheet of iron, roughly the shape of a right-angled triangle with one corner cut off. Use and date unknown.
6.104 Rod (L:35mm W:13mm Th:8mm). context [351], SF15 Short length of iron rod of roughly rectangular cross-section, expanding and flattening slightly to one end. Use and date unknown.
6.105 Bar (L:25mm W:13mm Th:7mm). U/S, SF13 Small rectangle of iron bar, slightly curved. Use and date unknown.
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Conservation X-radiography 6.106 All the iron and the corroded fragments of copper alloy were X-radiographed at the assessment stage, to allow for identifications to be made, where possible, and to assist with selection of objects for further work at the analysis stage.
6.107 Both the iron and the copper alloy were found to be mainly moderately to highly corroded when examined.
6.108 Following selection of artefacts for further analysis, a few pieces of iron were conserved by selective removal of overlying and obscuring corrosion products, mostly done using air abrasion. This system directs a stream of compressed air mixed with fine (28) aluminium oxide powder through a small nozzle towards the object, which is viewed under X10 magnification. The operator is able to remove very small, discrete areas of overlying corrosion and/or soil, and both the air pressure and volume of abrasive powder delivered through the hand piece can be altered, allowing the rate of corrosion removal to be finely controlled. This was followed by consolidation, where necessary, using 7.5% Paraloid B72 (an ethyl methacrylate co-polymer) in acetone/toluene.
6.109 The few copper alloy artefacts chosen for further study had overlying corrosion and/or soil removed using hand tools, such as a scalpel or a fine needle held in a pin vice, whilst working under X16/X10 magnification, followed by stabilisation and consolidation, where necessary.
6.110 Following conservation, any necessary repacking was into suitably-sized, pierced polythene bags, with polythene foam sheet supports, or into styrene boxes with polythene foam or acid-free tissue support.
6.111 The metalwork should continue to be stored in sealed polythene boxes with active silica gel, to achieve an ideal relative humidity below 20%, in order to slow down or arrest further corrosion.
Quern analysis Results 6.112 Ditch fill context [316] produced a rotary quern base stone with part of a cylindrical aperture and a worn and abraded face. It is 144 x 101mm and 82mm max thickness. It is probably part of a base stone with the wide spindle socket in fracture. The socket had a fairly large diameter, probably in excess of 30mm. The extant grinding face is 139 x 71mm in size. The edges and outer faces have been well-worn after breakage. Wt: 828g.
6.113 Lithology: Very dense, medium-orange/brown, fine-grained local sandstone, with ferruginous staining, Very sparsely micaceous, but no other inclusions or fossil-pits. Poor milling properties, as the lithology polished with use.
Burnt stone analysis Results 6.114 Few fragments of burnt or heat-shattered stone were recovered. Flue fill context [150] produced 6 pieces of heat-reddened, flattish, angular, micaceous sandstone, weighing 280g. These were very probably part of the corn dryer structure.
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6.115 Posthole fill context [232] had c17 small, heat-shattered fragments of grey/black coarse gritstone, weighing 384g. The pieces are small, but part of a curved surface observed on one fragment suggests they may once have been part of a quern stone, the geology also being suitable for such.
Glass analysis Results 6.116 Very little glass was recovered. An unweathered mid-green bottle body sherd of post-medieval to modern date was found unstratified.
6.117 The sample residue from flue fill context [156] contained two very tiny (<3mm) splinters of apparently unweather clear glass with no original edges or surfaces. The sample residue from tree throw context [270] had three similarly small clear fragments and one greenish in colour. These are all likely to be of recent date.
Ceramic Building materials analysis Results 6.118 Four pieces of ceramic building material plus flakes were recovered, three of them post medieval and unstratified. These comprise two pieces of pantile, 13-14mm thick, each with one sanded face, and a piece of slightly curved, unsanded roof tile 13mm thick. All are in hard-fired orange/red fabrics.
6.119 Context [385], a fill of droveway ditch [F386], had a piece of Roman tegula, including the flange, with a further probably associated but non-joining fragment plus two flakes of same, together weighing 331g. All are in a sandy orange/red fabric and are much abraded on all surfaces. The largest tegula fragment is 162mm long max x 22mm thick. The flange is 50mm deep x 24mm thick. The tile has no stamps or decoration. Roman 1-4thC.
6.120 The sample residues from contexts [138, 270 & 437] produced very small quantities (4g total) of tiny flakes and fragments of hard-fired brick or tile.
Fired Clay analysis Results 6.121 A total of 5111g of fired clay or fired clay/pottery fragments were retained, mainly from the palaeoenvironmental samples, from 45 contexts across the site. Many of the pieces are very small/tiny and highly abraded. Weights and designations can be found in Table 1.16. Because of their small size, it was not always possible to distinguish between fired clay/daub and small, abraded pottery crumbs and the table reflects this uncertainty.
6.122 Some contexts did however produce larger quantities of fired clay, mainly hand- recovered. Context [111], a fill of the Eastern elongated pit recut [F114], had 100+, mainly small-tiny, abraded fired clay fragments, weighing 93g, the largest piece c32 x 28 x 27mm. These are variably coloured from very dark to buff/orange and tempered with sparse fine grit and soft iron-rich nodules. There are no original edges, but one small fragment has a shallow, abraded ‘U’ shaped dip – very tentatively interpreted as a substrate impression.
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6.123 Context [150], a fill of kiln flue [F151] had c60 pieces plus crumbs of fired clay, weighing 329g, the largest being c51 x 42 x 24mm thick. The clay is grey/buff to buff to buff/orange in colour and has no discernible temper. A few pieces have flattish surfaces. The absence of temper in the clay supports the excavators’ notion that the flue was formed from the natural clay and became naturally fired during the operation of the kiln/dryer.
6.124 Context [156], a fill of flue [F142], had 236 fragments plus crumbs, weighing 783g. These are mostly very highly abraded and shapeless pieces in grey to orange/buff clay, with no visible temper. The largest is 70 x 34 x 36mm thick. A few pieces have one flattish surface. One small piece, 33 x 37 x 11mm thick, has one face with a sharp, shallow ridge running across it, cf the fragment from [352] described below.
6.125 Contexts [350 & 351], the flue lining of corn dryer [F349], had 57 larger fragments plus crumbs weighing 1437g. The fired clay is buff/orange to orange/red and the largest piece is c114 x 70 39mm thick. Several pieces have a flat to very slightly curved surface, possibly reflecting the shape of the inside surface of the flue. Some 18 of the fragments are considerably darker in colour and appear to be semi- vitrified, hinting at higher temperatures achieved deliberately or accidentally within the kiln. A maximum thickness of c43mm among the fragments perhaps represents the limit of the natural firing of the clay during the kiln’s lifetime. Again, an absence of temper in the fired clay suggests the flue was fashioned from a naturally occurring clay deposit.
6.126 Further fragments from the construction/lining of corn dryer [F349] came from context [352], which overlay the flue and produced 58 fragments plus crumbs, weighing 1903g. The largest is an amorphous lump some 94 x 81 x 51mm in size. Several pieces again have a flat to very slightly curved surface. The colour range and absence of temper in the clay is similar to the pieces from [350]. One fragment, 71 x 65 x 27mm thick and orange/red in colour, has one flattish surface with a slight ridge running across it and faint striations visible over its surface – possibly impressions of a substrate or retaining timber. No charcoal was associated with this piece, however. A maximum thickness of 39mm was observed among these fragments.
6.127 The palaeoenvironmental sample from context [435], the lower ash deposit in pit cut [F436], had c60 small, highly abraded, buff/grey/pink fired clay fragments, the largest c24 x 23 x 21mm. Some contain small lenses of ashy material. These may be naturally fired clay from the base or sides of the pit, the result of the deposition of hot material.
Discussion 6.128 Little information can be gleaned from this mostly abraded assemblage. However, examination of the fragments supports the notion that locations of naturally occurring clay deposits were used to site and build the corn dryers.
Jet/shale analysis Results 6.129 Two pieces of jet, one a worked artefact, and one piece of probable shale were recovered.
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6.130 Context [53], a Roman layer which also produced late Roman sherds, had a small unworked and broken block of jet 23 x 26 x 7.5mm thick, SF16, weighing 5g. The broken edges show the interior to be black, dense and with no laminations visible under X20 magnification. The two faces of the block are flattish and unworked with natural linear marks. The edges have conchoidal fractures.
6.131 Context [329], a fill of ditch [F330], had an irregularly shaped and abraded piece of probable shale, SF17, 59 x 72 x 15mm thick, weighing 70g. The faces are unworked and show multi-directional, natural striations. All edges are rough, broken and abraded, showing the very dark, laminated internal structure. Again, the context produced Roman pot.
6.132 The sample residue from context [421], a fill of ditch [F410], contained around 40% of a very small jet bead, SF18. The bead is circular with slightly flattened ends, c5mm diam x 3.6mm long. The break shows a 1.2mm diam perforation. The material is hard, dense and black. X20 microscopic examination revealed traces of a linear, possibly woody structure in the breaks, strongly suggesting that this is jet. All edges of the bead are abraded.
Discussion 6.133 The light weight, colour, density and the presence of characteristic conchoidal fractures in the small block SF16 all suggest that this is a piece of jet, probably brought to site for working. Colour, density and traces of a woody internal structure also suggest a similar identification for the bead SF18. The fragment of shale, SF17, may also have been intended for working into artefacts.
Lead objects analysis Results 6.134 Two lead/lead alloy objects were found. Ditch fill context [253] had a moderately corroded piece, SF5, with an even patination over its surfaces and breaks. It is 17 x 25 x 6mm thick, the underside almost flat. The top surface is slightly but unevenly domed and the edge is partly curved. The top surface has several dents, dips and bumps, but X10 examination did not determine that any of these were deliberately created or were part of a design. This is possibly a partial object of unknown form, or it could be a lost fragment of lead destined for repair or other work.
6.135 Pit fill context [405] had two irregularly-shaped and ragged fragments of very thin (0.7mm) lead sheet. The fragments do not join, but are probably associated. The sheet is bent and folded with no original edges. The larger piece measures 29 x 15mm max. Possibly part of an object of unknown form and use.
Industrial residues/fuel waste analysis Results 6.136 The site produced a total of 332g weight of industrial and fuel waste residues from 43 contexts and u/s across the site. Of these, only three contexts and u/s produced hand-recovered residues, the remainder coming from palaeoenvironmental samples. The data, with contexts and weights, is set out in Table 1.17.
Iron working 6.137 Only context [402], a fill of ditch [F403], produced identifiable ironworking residue. This is a piece of probable smithing slag, 178g in weight. It is 93 x 32 x 34mm thick
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max and has one intact curved edge. The interior is very dark and slightly vesicular. It may be part of a smithing hearth base. During smithing, hammering of the hot iron bloom causes slag to be expelled, forming drips and small pools around the smithing hearth, which may consolidate into irregularly shaped lumps or form into smithing hearth bases. Accumulations of slag and hearth bases would be periodically cleared out of the smithing hearth. The fragment examined here is abraded on all edges, suggesting it was broken up in antiquity.
6.138 Occasional spheroidal hammerscales were observed in the smaller fractions of sample residues from 21 contexts across the site (Table 1.7), no context producing measurable quantities.
Fuel waste 6.139 Most of the assemblage comprises very small quantities of fuel waste, mainly tiny to very tiny fragments of cinder/clinker, a large number of these weighing less than 2g. Unburnt coal (6g) was hand-recovered from context [402] - the context which produced the only ironworking residue - and also came from the sample residue in gully fill context [54]. Fuel ash slag - the burnt inorganic residue from organic fuels such as wood - was found in just two contexts [88 & 156].
Discussion 6.140 The very small quantities of hammerscale and the single piece of ironworking residue suggest that ironworking was not of economic significance at the site. The majority of fuel waste is likely to derive from either domestic fires or from other, unspecified industrial or craft activities.
7. The human remains Introduction 7.1 A stone cist [F120] (assigned to Phase 2) was discovered in Area A, located in the north-west corner of a large enclosure (28m x >35m in size) that was presumed to date to the Roman period (Phase 3). The western enclosure ditch had slightly truncated the western side of the cist grave removing the stone grave lining on the western side, and the northern enclosure ditch was located only 0.5 m to the north of the grave. This suggests the location of the grave was known, likely marked in some way, at the point the enclosure was created and that its location was used as a marker in establishing the boundaries of the enclosure (Archaeological Services Durham University 2019). During excavation it was thought that the cist [F120] contained the remains of two infants (Sk1 and Sk2) due to the position of the skull bones, but osteological analysis determined that only one individual was present and that displacement of the various parts of the cranium had created the impression there were two individuals when viewing the remains in situ. This individual has been referred to as Sk 1/2 throughout the report. A radiocarbon date of 251-410 cal AD was obtained from the human remains within the cist, suggesting the burial dated to the later third or fourth century AD.
7.2 A human burial (Sk3) was also recovered from a shallow cut [F337] in the upper fill of ditch [F228], the eastern of two parallel ditches interpreted as flanking a droveway. The ditches were thought to date to the Romano-British period (Phase 3), but the human remains returned a radiocarbon date of 433-593 cal AD, indicating
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the burial was inserted into the upper fill of the ditch in the fifth to sixth centuries AD.
7.3 Fragments of disarticulated human bone of presumed Roman date were recovered from context [400], the fill of an east-west ditch [F401] in Area C, from Phase 4 of the site. Animal bone was also recovered from this context, including definite and potential fragments of cattle bone, and a potential fragment of pig tibia (Louisa Gidney, pers. comm.).
Methods 7.4 The skeletal remains were analysed in full. Their state of preservation was recorded through examining their completeness (expressed as a percentage) and condition. Surface preservation was assessed using the seven-category grading system defined by McKinley (2004), ranging from 0 (excellent) to 5+ (extremely poor). Excellent preservation implied no erosion of the bone surfaces with clear surface morphology, whereas extremely poor preservation indicated heavy and penetrating erosion of the bone surface resulting in complete loss of surface morphology and modification of the bone shape. The amount of fragmentation evident was assessed subjectively, and categories of fragmentation ranged from minimal (indicating little or no fragmentation of the bones) to extreme (indicating extensive breaking of most bones into multiple small pieces).
7.5 An attempt was made to estimate age-at-death, sex, and stature where preservation allowed. Age was determined using standard methods specified in Cox (2000). An adult that could not be placed into a specific age group was simply categorised as an adult (18+ years). For non-adults, age was estimated based on the stage of dental development and eruption (Al Qhatani et al. 2010), skeletal development and measurements of long bones (Scheuer and Black 2000). Non-adults were divided into the following age categories: foetus ( 7.6 Assessment of sex can only be carried out reliably in adult individuals. Sex was determined through examination of the shape of the pelvis and skull (cranium and mandible), supplemented with measurements of certain bones, as described in Mays and Cox (2000). Measurements were taken where possible and finally, the skeletons were examined for any evidence of disease or trauma; any lesions noted were described and a differential diagnosis was attempted (Roberts and Manchester 2005; Ortner 2003). 7.7 Disarticulated bone was recorded according to McKinley (2004) and McKinley and Smith (2017), identifying the bone element, side, percentage of bone element present, surface preservation, age-at-death and sex (where possible), as well as recording any other features of interest (e.g. non-metric traits, pathological conditions). Results 7.8 A summary of the data for the articulated skeletons is presented in Error! Reference source not found..18, and a detailed catalogue is provided in Appendix 4. Archaeological Services Durham University 44 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 7.9 In total, 27 fragments of disarticulated human or potential human bone were recorded from context [400] (Appendix 5). It is possible that more small fragments of human bone remain comingled with animal bone from this context, as it was not always possible to distinguish them. The human bone included seven fragments from one right fibula, fragments from at least one tibia, and fragments likely to be from the femur or tibia, so were probably all from the legs. Preservation 7.10 Both skeletons were incomplete and in poor to very poor condition: Skeleton 1/2 was 20-30% complete and Skeleton 3 was only around 10% complete and both had fairly extensive surface erosion, some modification of the bone profile, and had experienced severe to extreme fragmentation. Skeleton 1/2 was in slightly better condition, being slightly more complete, and with poor surface condition and severe fragmentation. Skeleton 3 was less complete and less well preserved, with poor to very poor surface condition and extreme fragmentation of the bones. The bone of Skeleton 3 in particular was fragile and ‘biscuity’, tending to crumble easily. Several of the smaller fragments were still embedded in soil as it was impossible to clean them without further disintegration of the bone occurring. 7.11 Skeleton 1/2 was mostly represented by the skull, but part of the spine (particularly neck vertebrae) and fragments of ribs, the left shoulder, right arm, and both legs were also present. The parts of the cranium originally recorded as ‘Sk 1/Skull A’ included the left side and back (left parietal bone and most of the occipital bone), while the parts of the cranium originally recorded as ‘Sk 2/Skull B’ included the front and right side (frontal, right parietal, right temporal and part of the sphenoid). Teeth were present with both ‘Skull A’ and ‘Skull B’, as well as with bones recorded as ‘Sk1/2’ which also included the left temporal and part of the occipital bone. Skeleton 3 was mostly represented by the right hip joint (part of the os coxa and proximal femur), left ankle and foot, but part of the mandible, a fragment of vertebra from the lower back and part of the right calcaneus (heel) were also recovered. Unidentified fragments were present with both individuals. 7.12 The disarticulated bone was rather fragmented, and the surface preservation was mostly moderate to poor. The surface condition of the disarticulated bone was slightly better than that of the articulated burials, possibly due to local variations in soil conditions. Minimum Number of Individuals 7.13 The minimum number of individuals represented by the remains from Cowpen Bewley was two, based on the presence of both adult and non-adult bones but no duplication of bone within either age group. Assessment of Age-At-Death 7.14 Skeleton 1/2 was a young child aged around 1½-2½ years of age. This was based on the stage of dental development and eruption, and the stage of skeletal development. Skeleton 3 was an adult individual based on the fact the proximal femur and acetabulum had completed development. Unfortunately, none of the parts of the skeleton required for a more precise age estimate had survived. Archaeological Services Durham University 45 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 7.15 The disarticulated bone was all from one or more adult or older adolescent individual(s) based on the size of the bones recovered. None of the long bone ends were present, so developmental stage could not be observed. Sex Estimation 7.16 Skeleton 1/2 was too young for sex to be determined based on morphological methods, and none of the parts of the skeleton necessary for sex estimation were preserved in Skeleton 3. Sex could not be determined for any of the disarticulated bone fragments. Metric Analysis and Non-Metric Traits 7.17 No metrical analysis was possible for either skeleton due to the poor preservation. In terms of non-metric traits, Skeleton 1/2 had an open posterior condylar canal in the left occipital bone, which is a small hole in the base of the cranium near the articulation with the first cervical vertebra. Skeleton 3 had an acetabular crease in their right acetabulum. This is a small fissure in the joint surface of the socket part of the hip joint. Non-metric traits are small variations in shape which occur in a minority of skeletons, and while they likely have a genetic basis (Saunders 1989) some may be caused by mechanical or environmental factors (Trinkhaus 1978; Kennedy 1989) potentially following a certain degree of exposure (Tyrell 2000). Pathological Conditions 7.18 Skeleton 1/2 (aged 1½-2½ years) had potentially suffered from a metabolic condition or an unidentified infection. There were subtle deposits of well remodelled lamellar bone on the internal surface of the occipital bone focused on the cruciform eminence and left transverse sulcus, as well as porosity on the external occipital bone (Error! Reference source not found.) and one of the parietal bones (Error! Reference source not found.). Both parietal bones were also slightly thickened. The right ulna had probable striated lamellar bone on the anterior midshaft Error! Reference source not found.5), and two unidentified long bone fragments had dense fine porosity potentially also representing areas of well remodelled lamellar bone (Error! Reference source not found.). Unfortunately, the incomplete nature of the skeleton, combined with the poor surface preservation and fragmentation of the bones, has prevented observation of the character and distribution of the lesions throughout the skeleton, which has impacted on the ability to diagnose the cause of the lesions. 7.19 Bone formation on the internal surface of the cranium is more commonly seen in infants and young children rather than in adults, so the age of Skeleton 1/2 is typical. It has been associated with inflammation or haemorrhage of the meningeal blood vessels, but the potential causes of these lesions are not clear at present. In children, possible causes identified include chronic meningitis, trauma, anaemia, neoplastic disease, metabolic diseases (scurvy and rickets), venous drainage disorders and tuberculosis (Lewis 2007; 2004). Porosity on the external surface of the cranium and thickening of the cranial vault can be associated with metabolic conditions such as rickets, scurvy and chronic anaemia (Ortner 2003, 363-375, 383-404), while new bone deposits on the surfaces of the long bones can indicate inflammation of a sheath of tissue (the periosteum) which surrounds all bones (Ortner 2003, 206-207). Inflammation may be due to infection, but metabolic conditions and low-grade trauma can also lead to new bone formation (Roberts and Manchester 2005; Ortner Archaeological Services Durham University 46 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 2003, 206-207). Lamellar bone as seen in Skeleton 1/2 indicates that the inflammation was healing or healed at the time the person died. Dental Conditions Enamel Hypoplasia 7.20 The tooth crowns form during childhood, with development beginning at the tip of the occlusal (biting) surface and progressing towards the roots. If a child experiences an episode of severe stress, such as malnutrition or disease, then this can halt tooth crown formation until the stressful episode is resolved and normal growth can resume. However, a record of the interruption in growth can be left behind in the form of lines, grooves or pits in the tooth enamel, known as dental enamel hypoplasia (DEH) (Hillson 1996, 165-167). Involvement of the deciduous (milk) teeth can suggest the child experienced stress while still in the womb, or in early infancy (Lewis 2007). Trauma can also cause DEH formation, usually in single teeth (Hillson 1996, 165). 7.21 Skeleton 1/2 had dental enamel hypoplasia, with a small pit in the labial (lip) surface of both lower deciduous canines (Error! Reference source not found.A) and pitting and areas of missing enamel on the crown of the lower left deciduous first molar (Error! Reference source not found.B); the crowns of the other deciduous first molars were normal. One of the permanent teeth (upper right incisor) also had some pitting in the enamel. 7.22 Isolated pits in the deciduous canines similar to those seen in Skeleton 1/2 are more frequently seen in the lower canines and tend to affect one rather than both canines (Lukacs 1991). It has been suggested that these defects are caused by calcium deficiency in both mother and baby combined with mild trauma to the lower jaw of the infant during the period the tooth crown is developing (ibid.). Skinner and Hung (1989) observed the lesions tended to develop around 6 months of age in a modern population from Vancouver, Canada, and were most common in infants whose mothers consumed less milk and who breastfed for less than 4 months. They suggested that the reduced calcium led to undermineralisation of the bone of the lower jaw, which would leave the developing teeth within more vulnerable to injury. Since the developing canines are covered by a thin layer of bone and are in a prominent location, they would be particularly vulnerable. The authors suggested that mild trauma to the canines occurred during the normal developmental stage when babies begin to put objects in their mouths but lack the fine motor control to regulate their movements. Lukacs (1991) noted that in other populations the lesions may coincide with mild trauma to the mandible caused during birth, linked with low levels of calcium in the mother and baby potentially associated with vitamin D deficiency, and cautioned that the precise underlying causes for low calcium and mild trauma may vary between populations. Localised enamel defects in multiple deciduous teeth, particularly canines, have also been observed in children experiencing chronic renal failure at a young age (Koch et al. 1999). Deciduous first molars are less frequently affected by enamel defects (Slayton et al. 2001). 7.23 According to Roberts and Cox (2003, 140), 13.5% of individuals from the Roman period in Britain had DEH in their teeth, but these are probably mostly adults with DEH in their permanent dentition. The frequency of DEH in teeth was reported to be 9.5% (ibid.). A study of a modern Vancouver population reported 2.4% of children had isolated defects in their deciduous canines (Skinner & Hung 1989), while 6% of Archaeological Services Durham University 47 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 children from Iowa, US, had enamel hypoplasia in at least one deciduous tooth (Slayton et al. 2001). In contrast, 34.5% of children from a rural village in Harappa, Pakistan, had isolated defects in their deciduous canines (Lukacs 1991). Developmental Anomaly 7.24 The lower deciduous first molars normally have two roots, one mesial and one distal, while the upper deciduous first molars normally have three roots. However, the lower right deciduous first molar of Skeleton 1/2 had three roots, with the distal root apparently divided into two (Error! Reference source not found.), with the lingual part of the root projecting lingually; the crown was also bulkier on the lingual side. This gave the tooth the superficial appearance of an upper deciduous first molar, but part of the mandibular socket was preserved proving the tooth was a lower molar. The lower left deciduous first molar was normal (Error! Reference source not found.). 7.25 Three-rooted lower permanent molars are observed most often in Asian and Native American populations but do occur with lower frequency in European and African populations (Tu et al. 2010). Similar anomalies in the deciduous teeth are far less common, and an extra root in the mandibular deciduous first molars is rare (Gupta et al. 2012; Tu et al. 2010). However, Ramamurthy and Srinivasan (2012) note that since deciduous teeth are only in the mouth for a short period of time, there is limited opportunity to observe such anomalies which may result in under-reporting of these conditions. A study of three-rooted deciduous mandibular first molars in a Taiwanese population found that when they did occur, most (83%) were unilateral (Tu et al. 2010), as seen in Skeleton 1/2. Most clinical studies focus on the implications of the extra root for treatment of dental conditions or extraction of the tooth (ibid.), which would not be relevant for Sk 1/2. Less is known about whether the third root may impact on the normal exfoliation of the tooth or development of the underlying premolar (Gupta et al. 2012). Funerary Practices 7.26 Skeleton 1/2 (1½-2½ years of age and dated to 251-410 cal AD) had been buried in a stone-lined cist with two stone slabs forming the roof, and the grave had apparently been used as a marker when establishing the position of a later enclosure. The body had been laid with the head at the western end of the cist, but the precise disposition of the body was not clear due to the poor preservation and the fact some of the bone had become displaced. 7.27 Skeleton 3 (unsexed adult and dated to 433-593 cal AD) was buried in a shallow grave cut in the upper fill of a droveway ditch. The body was aligned with the head to the west and was lying on the right side with legs probably tightly flexed. It was not possible to determine the position of the arms or hands due to the poor preservation. 7.28 Finally, fragments of disarticulated human leg bones were recovered from the fill of an east-west ditch that also contained disarticulated animal bone. The human bone was heavily fragmented and was not identified as human during excavation. Discussion 7.29 The preservation of the human remains at Cowpen Bewley was poor, with the bones having suffered heavy fragmentation and surface erosion resulting in the loss of a Archaeological Services Durham University 48 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 considerable proportion of both articulated skeletons. The child’s skeleton was in slightly better condition, possibly as it had been protected by a stone cist, although some damage may have been caused when the roof of the cist collapsed following truncation of the western part of the grave by a later enclosure ditch. The observed disturbance of the bones of this individual may relate to the collapse of the cist roof, or could have occurred prior to its collapse if the cist had preserved a soil-free void enabling the bones to be more easily displaced by water or animals. Unfortunately, the poor preservation and incompleteness of both individuals and the disarticulated bone had limited the possible information that could be obtained during osteological analysis, but despite this some useful data could still be obtained. 7.30 It was possible to establish that the cist contained the remains of a single young child aged around 1½-2½ years, rather than two infants as suspected during excavation. The child had an unusual developmental variation of one of their deciduous teeth, with their lower right first molar having three roots rather than two (Tu et al. 2010). It is unlikely this would have caused any symptoms. This child had also experienced disruption to the enamel formation of three of its deciduous teeth and one permanent tooth. The enamel defects in the deciduous teeth included lesions in the canines that would have developed in infancy, possibly around 6 months of age, and potentially related to low calcium levels in both mother and child combined with mild trauma to the lower jaw (Skinner & Hung 1989; Lukacs 1991). The latter could have been caused through the baby attempting to put items in its mouth and chewing on them while the crowns of the deciduous teeth were still unerupted and developing within the jaw (Skinner & Hung 1989). 7.31 Low calcium levels may have occurred in the mother if she did not consume a diet containing adequate levels of calcium, potentially lacking in calcium-rich foods such as milk, cheese, nuts, seeds and leafy greens (Cormick & Belizán 2019) and/or high in cereals, which contain phytates that inhibit the absorption of calcium (Harinarayan et al. 2007; Brickley & Ives 2008, 84). Lack of adequate levels of vitamin D can also impede the body’s ability to absorb calcium (Holick 2003; Brickley & Ives 2008, 75- 95). Vitamin D deficiency is a risk when diets are low in eggs and oily fish, but most vitamin D is produced by the body when the skin is exposed to the ultraviolet rays in sunlight (Brickley & Ives 2008, 75). Inadequate sunlight exposure is more likely during winter months in northern Europe, when the hours of daylight are reduced and the angle of the sun prevents much of the ultraviolet rays from penetrating the atmosphere (Brickley & Ives 2008, 79). Cloudy weather further reduces sunlight exposure, and cultural practices such as the type of clothing worn and how much time is spent outdoors can also have an impact (ibid., 79-81). Individuals with darker skin will also require longer episodes of sunlight exposure in order to produce adequate amounts of vitamin D (ibid., 81-82). Insufficient sunlight exposure, which would have been a risk in northern England especially in winter, could therefore have exacerbated any calcium deficiencies in the diet. If the mother was deficient in calcium, then this would impact on the amount of calcium available in her breastmilk, and so in turn contribute to calcium deficiency in her baby. Likewise, reduction in breastfeeding could also impact on the calcium status of the baby (Skinner & Hung 1989). 7.32 It is not clear whether the similar areas of defective enamel observed in one other deciduous tooth (lower left first molar) could have been caused through the same mechanism as the pits on the lower canines, or whether they might be associated Archaeological Services Durham University 49 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 with a condition such as chronic renal failure (Koch et al. 1999). The fact that the child also had enamel defects in one permanent tooth implies whatever caused the disruption to enamel formation was more prolonged. Skeletal lesions observed, such as porosity of the cranial bones and lamellar bone formation on the long bones, could well have been associated with a metabolic condition, including rickets, scurvy or anaemia (Brickley & Ives 2008). Rickets is the result of vitamin D deficiency in children, which might correlate with the potential underlying cause of the enamel defects in the deciduous canines. Unfortunately, the poor preservation prevented a firmer diagnosis of the potential metabolic condition involved. Whatever the cause, it is evident this child experienced poor health prior to death, but the fact the lesions observed were healing or had healed would suggest that the condition was no longer active at the time the child died. 7.33 After death, the child was buried with their head to the west in a stone-lined and roofed cist which apparently was used as a marker when establishing the boundaries of a large enclosure. Inhumation was the predominant burial rite in the later Roman period (Philpott 1991, 226), and the use of stone cists became particularly common in the fourth century (ibid., 61), so the date of the burial (251-410 cal AD) is consistent with these temporal trends. The type of stone cist (with lining and covering slabs) would be consistent with Philpott’s Type 2 classification of stone cists (ibid.). At Wattle Syke, West Yorkshire, more than half the later Roman period graves were partially lined with stones, but none had covering slabs and all their occupants were adults (Martin et al. 2013). Stone cist burials dating to the fourth century were observed at Wetherby (Kent & Kitson Clark 1933). A decapitated adult male was buried in a partially stone lined grave and an adult dated to AD 230-390 had been buried in a stone cist inserted into a corn drier at Ingleby Barwick, Stockton-on-Tees (Willis & Carne 2013). Two partially stone-lined graves were also present at Faverdale, Darlington, one of which contained an adult female and a child aged 2-4 years; however, both graves likely predated the fourth century since one was associated with the earliest phases of occupation and the other probably dated to the second century AD (Proctor 2012). O’Brien (1999, 13) has suggested that stone cists may have been Christian (to mimic Christ’s tomb) or were employed to constrain the dead person. 7.34 Often burials in rural areas during the Roman period are aligned on a north-south or inverse alignment, with O’Brien (1999, 5) observing this preference in over half of Roman burials once large organised cemeteries near urban or military centres are discounted. For example, all six later Roman period burials at Yapham Lane, Pocklington, were oriented northwest-southeast or the inverse (Loeffelmann et al. 2019). However, west-east or east-west burials do occur in rural Romano-British sites, with a mix of east-west and north-south burials observed at Ingleby Barwick, Stockton-on-Tees (Willis & Carne 2013) and at Faverdale, Darlington (Proctor 2012). Whilst most of the late Roman individuals at Wattle Syke, West Yorkshire, were buried on a north-south or south-north alignment, a double burial of an adult female and young child (3-5 years old) had been buried on a west-east orientation (Martin et al. 2013). The burial orientation of the child at Cowpen Bewley was therefore not inconsistent with practices observed in other burials of the period. 7.35 Burials associated with settlement activity, boundaries and enclosures are not uncommon in rural sites in the Romano-British period, although typically the boundary features predate the burials (Cleary 2000, 137-138). Six burials associated Archaeological Services Durham University 50 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 with enclosures or within ditches dating to the later Roman period (late third or fourth century AD) were recovered from Yapham Lane, Pocklington (Loeffelmann et al. 2019). Later Roman burials within enclosures were also present at Ingleby Barwick, Stockton-on-Tees, and included three adults and one child; a fourth adult dated to AD 230-390 had been inserted into a corn drier (Willis & Carne 2013). Burials at Faverdale, Darlington (Proctor 2012) and Wattle Syke, West Yorkshire (Martin et al. 2013) were also associated with settlement activity. Cleary (2000, 137- 138) has proposed that the location of burials within ditches or at the boundaries of enclosures is associated with the liminal status of the dead, with burials as ritual deposits potentially acting to reinforce the boundary, or conversely the boundary acting to constrain the influence of the dead. The location of the burial of Skeleton 1/2 must have been perceived to be significant when the large enclosure was set out, given the grave apparently marked its north-west corner. 7.36 Osteological analysis was also able to confirm that Skeleton 3 was an adult individual, but unfortunately it was not possible to obtain further information on this individual’s age or sex due to the poor preservation. This adult had been inserted into a shallow grave in the upper fill of a droveway ditch during the fifth or sixth century AD. Post-Roman burials have been observed in other rural settlement sites that originated in the later Iron Age or Roman period. For example, a single mature adult male dated to the sixth to seventh century AD had been buried in the backfill of a rectangular Roman building at Wattle Syke (Martin et al. 2013). The individuals at Cowpen Bewley and at Wattle Syke were both lying on their sides (right side for the former and left side for the latter) with legs flexed, although the Wattle Syke adult was oriented northeast to southwest and had been buried with an iron knife beside his head (Martin et al. 2013) while the Cowpen Bewley adult was oriented west-east and no grave goods were observed. It is possible that the grave of the individual buried at Cowpen Bewley was a continuation of earlier Roman period burial practices, particularly in terms of the location of the burial within the ditch. The west-east orientation of the burial was the same as that for the child buried in the late third to fourth century. However, the flexed position would be less consistent with later Roman burials, where most individuals were buried extended and supine (Hope 1999, 55; O’Brien 1999, 5). 7.37 Unfortunately, limited information could be obtained from the disarticulated human remains co-mingled with animal bone recovered from a boundary ditch, other than to determine the bones appeared to be of the legs and probably belonged to at least one adult. 7.38 Overall, although the evidence for burial at Cowpen Bewley was limited, it does provide further information on burial practice in the Romano-British and immediate post-Roman period in an area where such evidence is fairly sparse (O’Brien 1999, 62). Further work 7.39 Peptide analysis of the dental enamel might be able to determine the sex of the young juvenile (Skeleton 1/2) buried in the cist. This is a relatively new technique, with the advantage that it is minimally destructive, relatively inexpensive and more reliable than aDNA analysis (Stewart et al. 2017). Isotope analysis of the teeth might provide information on diet and origin of the child, with carbon and nitrogen incremental analysis of the dentine potentially being able to reconstruct a timeline Archaeological Services Durham University 51 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 of diet from infancy to the point of death (Beaumont et al. 2014; APABE 2013) and oxygen and strontium (and potentially lead) providing information on whether the child was local or non-local (APABE 2013). However, the feasibility of isotope analysis would depend on whether the teeth were sufficiently well preserved. 8. The palaeoenvironmental evidence Introduction 8.1 An evaluation and subsequent excavation in 2019 identified a Romano-British rural settlement or farmstead, with large enclosure ditches, three corn dryers and a range of other features. Activity at the site is particularly concentrated in the mid to late Roman period (late 3rd/4th to 5th century). Very limited evidence for Mid-Iron Age, earlier Roman and post-Roman occupation was identified. A later Neolithic to Early Bronze Age peat deposit was also sampled. Previous palaeoenvironmental assessments examined 48 bulk samples from the evaluation and excavation phases (Archaeological Services 2019a, 2020a). This report presents updated results from these palaeoenvironmental assessments together with full analysis of selected samples. 8.2 The works were undertaken in accordance with the palaeoenvironmental research aims and objectives outlined in the regional archaeological research framework and resource agendas (Petts & Gerrard 2006; Hall & Huntley 2007; Huntley 2010). Methods 8.3 The bulk samples were manually floated and sieved through a 500μm mesh. The residues were examined for additional charred plant remains and charcoal, alongside finds, industrial residues, bone and shell. In some cases, the fine residue fractions contained extremely abundant charred plant remains, mainly spelt/indeterminate wheat glume bases, due to the silty clay composition of the samples which prevented some material from floating. Residues were sorted alongside flots where necessary and these were examined at up to x60 magnification using a Leica MZ7.5 stereomicroscope. Charred plant remains and charcoal 8.4 Identification of charred plant remains and charcoal was undertaken using reference material held in the Palaeoenvironmental Laboratory at Archaeological Services Durham University. For plant remains, articles, seed atlases and identification manuals were also consulted (Jacomet 2006; Cappers et al. 2006). Charcoal identifications were assisted by the descriptions of Gale & Cutler (2000), Hather (2000) and Schweingruber (1990). Plant nomenclature follows Stace (2010). Habitat classifications follow Preston et al. (2002). 8.5 Nine samples contained extremely rich assemblages of charred plant remains, primarily spelt/indeterminate wheat glume bases numbering into the tens of thousands, making it necessary to sort sub-samples. In all cases, 100% of the ≥2mm fractions were sorted, with sub-sampling of the 1-2mm and 0.5-1mm fractions in both the flots and residues. All of the flots/residues were, however, scanned in their entirety to recover small weed seeds and other material. Plant remains identified in sub-samples were multiplied up to estimate the total numbers of remains. Quantification involved counting diagnostic elements as one where possible, or by noting the number of fragments present. Many of the cereal grains and wild grass caryopses were highly fragmented, leading to some under-representation of these Archaeological Services Durham University 52 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 remains. Charcoal and charred plant remains which could not be accurately quantified (e.g. grass awn fragments) were recorded semi-quantitively on an abundance scale: (+) Trace (1-2 items); + Rare (3-10 items); ++ Occasional (11-50 items); +++ Common (51-200 items); ++++ Abundant (>200 items). 8.6 Charcoal present in the >4mm fractions within all the samples was rapidly assessed to identify taxa present. Detailed analysis of the charcoal assemblage was undertaken for [F233], a Mid-Iron Age pit/posthole. This involved analysis of 100% of the >4mm charcoal fragments and scanning of fragments within the 2-4mm fraction to identify if wood from small shrubs or twiggy material was present (Asouti & Austin 2005). Other characteristics were also noted following Marguerie & Hunot (2007), including the presence of insect degradation, radial cracking, ring curvature, growth rings, reaction wood, vitrification and the presence/absence of pith/bark. Identification to species, genera or sub-family involved examination of the transverse, radial and tangential sections at up to x500 magnification using a Leica DMLM microscope. Note on identification of charred plant remains 8.7 Identification of wheat grains is problematic due to morphological overlap between different species, notably between emmer and spelt and between spelt and free- threshing wheat (Hillman et al. 1996). Wheat grains are identified to ‘type’ (e.g. spelt-type) to account for this uncertainty. Most wheat grains clearly derived from a glume wheat species due to the presence of glume impressions on the grain surface. Grain morphology was generally consistent with spelt wheat: oval or almost parallel sided shape in dorsal view, bluntly rounded apex, flat ventral surface and a dorsal ridge which is rounded, symmetrical and relatively flat (Jacomet 2006). Low numbers of short-fat spelt-type grains were also present (cf. Campbell 2008). Diagnostic chaff (glume bases, spikelet forks) confirm the predominance of spelt. Indeterminate wheat glume bases were often abundant and could not be securely identified as spelt or emmer, however, since the better-preserved specimens were overwhelmingly identified as spelt, these indeterminate glume bases are probably also from spelt. Large numbers of brittle rachis internode fragments are probably also from spelt. Wheat (sub-)basal rachis segments occur occasionally and whilst these probably derive from spelt they cannot be securely identified to species. 8.8 A small number of free-threshing wheat grains were present with a characteristic short, stubby, rounded form and smooth grain surface. Identification of a free- threshing wheat species is confirmed by trace quantities of bread wheat rachises. Results 8.9 Results from the updated palaeoenvironmental assessment of the charcoal and charred plant remains are presented in Table 1.19, with results from full analysis of the charred plant remains for selected samples in Table 1.20. Full analysis of the charcoal assemblage from posthole [F233] is presented in Tables 1.21 and 1.22. Radiocarbon dating results are summarised in Table 1.23. Peat deposit 8.10 A dark brown peat deposit [6] 0.6m thick was identified in Test pit 1, above a dark brown clay deposit (>1.5m thick). The peat was sealed by a yellow clay/silt deposit (0.7m thick), which in turn was overlain by topsoil. The peat deposit is approximately 1m below the present ground surface. A palaeoenvironmental assessment was Archaeological Services Durham University 53 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 previously undertaken on this peat deposit (Archaeological Services 2019a). Further sampling was undertaken using a monolith tin (sample 41) to recover material suitable for radiocarbon dating (Table 1.23). A sample of waterlogged alder roundwood from the base of the peat returned a radiocarbon date of 2890-2630 cal BC, whilst a sample of waterlogged bark from the top of peat deposit returned a radiocarbon date of 2020-1770 cal BC. Phase 1: Mid-Iron Age 8.11 Two features (pit [F292], posthole [F233]) produced small assemblages of charcoal and charred plant remains dating to the Mid-Iron Age. Full analysis of the charcoal was undertaken for pit/posthole [F233] (Tables 1.21 and 1.22). 8.12 Pit [F292], radiocarbon dated to 400-200 cal BC, contains occasional charcoal, consisting of oak stemwood/heartwood slivers, cf. blackthorn/plum and alder (insect degradation noted). Charred plant remains are sparse and include cereal grains (indeterminate, barley), indeterminate wheat glume bases and wild/weed taxa. Charred soil fungus sclerotia (Cenococcum geophilum) are frequent. 8.13 Posthole/pit [F233], radiocarbon dated to 400-200 cal BC, also contains occasional charcoal from oak and hazel, with one birch fragment. The oak fragments primarily consist of stemwood and heartwood fragments (with tyloses present), some of which display evidence for radial cracking and vitrification (degrees 1 or 2: low brilliance/strong brilliance). Two oak fragments are from fast-grown roundwood with 3/4 evenly spaced growth rings. Reaction wood is noted in one oak fragment. The hazel charcoal was generally from roundwood, with reaction wood also noted. A small assemblage of charred plant remains recovered includes cereal grains (hulled barley, wheat), indeterminate wheat glume bases, hazel nutshell and occasional wild/weed taxa (black-bindweed, cleavers, redshank, cf. common chickweed, stitchworts/mouse-ears, goosefoots/goosefoot family, small grasses, twisted grass awns). Fragmented coal/coal shale and clinker/cinder are also present in small quantities. Phases 2 and 3: Romano-British period 8.14 A small number of features were sampled within these phases in Area A, including cist burial [F120], gully [F130], the west enclosure ditch [F122] and droveway ditch [F202]. These features produced low densities of charcoal and charred plant remains indicative of ‘background settlement noise’, including cereal grains, spelt glume bases, heather stems and other wild/weed taxa (e.g. heath-grass, sedges). Phase 4: Romano-British period 8.15 Several samples from the large enclosure ditches in Area A can be placed within this phase, including [F76, F126, F128, F216]. Again, the samples produced small flots with relatively low-densities of charcoal and charred plant remains, alongside traces of coal/coal shale and fragmented clinker/cinder. Cereal remains, mainly spelt glume bases, occur alongside a range of wild/weed taxa including species which probably grew as arable weeds (e.g. bromes, cleavers, docks). Other wild/weed taxa present include heather stems, rhizomes/tubers, sedges, blinks, heath-grass and hazel nutshell. The fill [127] of ditch [F128] produced a slightly higher density of crop- processing debris. Samples taken during the evaluation phase from these enclosure ditches [F14, F16, F20] produced comparable assemblages of charred plant remains. Archaeological Services Durham University 54 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Phase 5: Romano-British period 8.16 The majority of the samples taken correspond to this phase, including the north- eastern enclosure ditch, a deep elongated pit, three corn dryer flues with associated ‘stoking’ pits and various other features. Several samples contain extremely high densities of charred plant remains (mainly spelt/indeterminate glume bases). The features sampled are primarily located in Area A. 8.17 The north-eastern enclosure ditch [F60=F79=F94] within Area A produced higher densities of charred plant remains than the earlier Phase 3/4 enclosure ditches, particularly [F94] where >46 items/litre are present. Charcoal is rare, with only a few oak stemwood fragments noted. In comparison, charred plant remains occur in moderate quantities, especially spelt glume bases, with a few spelt-type/wheat grains, some hulled 6-row barley grains/rachises and a single Celtic bean. A diverse range of wild/weed taxa includes species typical of arable habitats such as bromes, oats, scentless mayweed, fat-hen and wild-radish. Other wild/weed taxa recorded include common chickweed, sedges, blinks, heath-grass, a tuber of false-oat grass, small rhizomes/tubers and frequent small diameter heather stems. A single seaweed fragment is recorded in [F60], with a further probable fragment in [F94]. Pottery from this north-eastern enclosure ditch could be dated to after 370 AD. 8.18 Immediately to the south of this enclosure ditch [F60=F79=F94], a shallow gully [F146] also produced several seaweed fragments alongside a small quantity of cereal remains (barley, spelt wheat), heather stems, rhizomes/tubers and other wild/weed taxa (heath-grass, docks, buttercup, grasses, vetches). A barley grain from this feature returned a radiocarbon date of 250-420 cal AD. 8.19 A deep, elongated pit [F114=F138=F418] cut into an earlier Phase 4 enclosure ditch was also identified within the north-east quarter of Area A, just to the south of the north-eastern enclosure ditch [F60=F79=F94]. A deposit identified in three sections [111=132=413] contains extremely high densities of crop-processing debris, particularly spelt/indeterminate wheat glume bases. A tiny flot from [136] near the base of the feature is also dominated by spelt/indeterminate wheat glume bases. Spelt-type/wheat grains are also present, with a few germinated grains and frequent cereal coleoptiles. Silicified and charred wheat awns are noted. Weeds likely to have grown in arable fields are abundant, particularly bromes, wild oat, scentless mayweed, docks and cleavers, with narrow-fruited cornsalad in [114], field madder in [132] and a large number of field gromwell seeds in [413]. Other wild/weed taxa include frequent small grass caryopses, whilst rare/trace quantities of other wild/weed taxa recorded are typical of grassy heathland habitats (e.g. heath-grass, sedges, sheep’s sorrel, blinks, fairy flax, heather stems, rhizomes/tubers). Charcoal is scarce, with the exception of deposit [132] where oak stemwood slivers are common alongside a few large (c.25mm) vitrified and radially cracked oak stemwood fragments. 8.20 To the east of pit [F114=F138=F418], a flue [F151] was identified which is probably from a corn dryer, although it produced few cereal remains. The fill [150] contains fuel ash slag and abundant heather stems (with heather flower buds also present) Many of these heather stems are large in diameter (>2mm) with pith and bark present. Other charred remains are sparse, with some spelt/indeterminate wheat glume bases and wild/weed taxa including oat, large grass caryopses, scentless Archaeological Services Durham University 55 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 mayweed and blinks. Broadly near corn dryer [F151], pits [F89, F91] contain very few charred plant remains and appear unrelated. 8.21 In the north-west quarter of Area A, a second corn dryer flue [F142] was identified alongside ‘stoking’ pits [F101, F204] and gully [F87=F149]. A spelt-type wheat grain from pit [F204] returned a radiocarbon date of 250-410 cal AD. The fill [156] of flue [F142] contains fuel ash slag and occasional charcoal (oak, cf. birch, hazel), with only small quantities of spelt-type grains, spelt glume bases/spikelet forks, barley rachises and probable arable weeds (scentless mayweed, field gromwell, fumitories, vetches/tares, large grasses). In contrast, pits [F101, F204] and gully [F87=F149] are rich in crop-processing debris, notably spelt/indeterminate wheat glume bases, alongside probable arable weeds such as stinking chamomile, wild oat, bromes, fumitories, knotgrass, scentless mayweed, docks and cleavers. Some achenes of stinking chamomile are still retained within their flowerheads. Spelt-type/wheat grains occur in smaller proportions. Hulled 6-row barley forms a minor component, and trace quantities of Celtic bean are present. 8.22 A small number of other features sampled in Area A produced only scraps of oak stemwood charcoal and small quantities of charred plant remains (e.g. spelt-type grains, spelt glume bases, heather stems, other wild/weed taxa). This includes various pits [F70, F89, F90, F141] and gullies [F64, F81]. Evidence for coniferous charcoal (cf. pine) in pit [F141] is notable. 8.23 In Area B, a third well-preserved corn dryer flue [F349] was identified. Two samples from the lowest fill [351] of the flue and one sample from the upper deposit [391] were analysed. A spelt-type grain from [351] returned a radiocarbon date of 250-420 cal AD. The fill [373] of a shallow pit [F372] at the eastern end probably reflects a continuation of the lowest flue deposit [351]. Samples from this feature are extremely rich in charred plant remains (>50 000 items), particularly spelt glume bases. Silicified and charred wheat awns are abundant. Many of the grains appear to have been charred within the spikelet (slight drop shape, traces of chaff attached to grain surfaces). A small number of intact spikelets are present and some of these have germinated. Spelt-type/wheat grains are common, although present in smaller proportions than glume bases. Variable quantities of spelt-type/wheat grains have also germinated (between 29% and 95%). Cereal coleoptiles are abundant. Hulled 6- row barley, bread wheat and peas are minor components. A sample from the upper deposit [391] of the flue, possibly reflecting the remnants of a drying surface, has a different composition and is largely composed of spelt-type/wheat grains (including germinated grains), whilst spelt glume bases and weeds are rare. 8.24 The weed flora from corn dryer flue [F349] and pit [F372] are similar in composition, with many probable arable weeds. Large grasses are particularly abundant, especially bromes, although wild oat is also present. Many of these grass caryopses have germinated. A diverse range of other potential arable weeds also includes fool’s parsley, fat-hen, black-bindweed, wild-radish, field penny-cress, knapweeds, scentless mayweed, docks, wild carrot, cleavers, hemp-nettles, long- headed/common poppy, knotgrass and docks amongst others. Sea club-rush, a species typical of brackish coastal habitats, is also present in [351] and [F372]. A small number of grassland species, often associated with calcareous soils, are present in pit [F372] including hedge/marsh bedstraw, salad burnet and yellow- rattle. As also seen in other spelt-rich samples across the site, trace quantities of Archaeological Services Durham University 56 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 species typical of grassy heathland habitats are also present (e.g. heather stems, heath-grass, sedges, sheep’s sorrel, blinks, fairy flax, rhizomes/tubers). 8.25 In Area C, the only Phase 5 feature sampled was a large enclosure ditch [F410]. The fill [421] produced a tiny flot containing an indeterminate cereal grain and wild/weed taxa (rhizomes/tubers, heath-grass, twisted grass awns). Phase 6: Romano-British 8.26 A small number of samples were taken from features corresponding to the latest phases of occupation in the Romano-British period in Areas A and B (Phase 6). 8.27 In Area A, two samples were taken from a thin occupation horizon [51, 62] identified within a very shallow hollow [F265] and was interpreted as a possible post-Roman ‘black earth’ deposit. This feature was also sampled during the evaluation [F4]. It contained very late Roman pottery and coins dating to after 370 AD. The samples produced tiny flots with only trace quantities of charred plant remains including poorly preserved cereal grains, spelt glume bases and wild/weed taxa (heather stems, heath-grass, sedges). A similar deposit [82] within hollow [F439] also produced a very small assemblage of charred plant remains, consisting of some cereal grains (barley, spelt wheat), spelt glume bases and wild/weed taxa (heather stems, buttercup). 8.28 In Area B, a large pit [F348] was sampled which also contained very late Roman pottery dating to after 370 AD. The sample produced occasional charcoal (alder, birch), some heather stems, rhizomes/tubers and trace quantities of other charred plant remains. This includes cereal remains (hulled barley, spelt wheat), a pea and wild/weed taxa (heath-grass, sheep’s sorrel, vetches, large grasses). Four fragments of seaweed were recovered. A radiocarbon date of 250-430 cal AD was obtained on birch charcoal. 8.29 During archaeological monitoring, a stone-lined pit [F430] containing late Roman pottery (dating after 360 AD) was sampled. This produced some oak charcoal, wheat grains, occasional heather stems and other wild/weed taxa (sedges, dock, heath- grass, ribwort plantain). Phase 7: early medieval period (5th/6th century) 8.30 One sample was assessed from the fill [338] of an early medieval grave [SK3, F337] cut in into an earlier Romano-British ditch [F228]. The burial was dated radiocarbon dated to 430-600 cal AD. The sample contained only traces of fragmented coal/coal shale and cinder together with wild/weed taxa (heather stems, rhizomes/tubers, heath-grass, sedges). This material is probably residual from the earlier ditch fill. Unphased 8.31 One sample from ditch/gully [F8] identified in Trench 5 during the evaluation phase was selected for full analysis. This feature produced a large assemblage of cereal grains including spelt-type/wheat and hulled 6-row barley. A high proportion (72%) of the grains are indeterminate. Indeterminate/spelt glume bases are abundant, whilst only trace quantities of barley rachises are present. Arable weeds are relatively rare, with evidence for stinking chamomile, scentless mayweed, bromes, wild oat and vetches/tares. Heather stems and rhizomes/tubers are also present. Archaeological Services Durham University 57 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Roman pottery was recovered from this ditch/gully and it is probably a late Romano- British feature. Discussion Peat deposit 8.32 The potential for peat deposits to exist near Holme Fleet Creek had already been identified and in Test Pit 1 a dark brown peat [6] was sampled and a palaeoenvironmental assessment undertaken on a bulk-sample (Archaeological Services 2019a). This indicated that pollen grains, spores and other microfossils were either absent or very poorly preserved, although low numbers of uncharred wood fragments (alder, indeterminate bark) and plant macroremains were present including pondweeds, crowfoots, cf. beaked tasselweed and bramble. These remains are indicative of a coastal floodplain environment with shallow, standing water. The poor preservation of palaeoenvironmental evidence probably reflects intermittent drying of the peat deposit. Radiocarbon dating indicates that this peat formation began in the Middle-Late Neolithic (2890-2630 cal BC), whilst an Early Bronze Age date (2020-1770 cal BC) from the top of the peat deposit provides a terminus post quem for increased sediment deposition. No evidence for subsequent periods of peat formation was identified, possibly due to loss from later agricultural activity (cf. Mott Macdonald 2018). Dating of these peat deposits is of wider relevance to understand their archaeological and palaeoenvironmental significance. 8.33 At nearby Cowpen Marsh, an episode of sediment deposition sealing a peat deposit was also dated to the Early Bronze Age (1890-1630 cal BC) and derived from marine inundation (Shennan 1992). Sampling at Greatham Creek (e.g. Archaeological Services 2018a) and other areas of the Tees Estuary indicate periods of peat formation and increased sedimentation throughout the mid to late Holocene, probably relating to changes in relative sea-level (Plater et al. 2000; Shennan et al. 2000; Waughman 2005; Fell & Robinson 2016). Mid to late Holocene records of increased sedimentation have been identified across Britain, particularly around the period c.2300-2200 cal BC, potentially reflecting a combination of changes in relative sea-level, climate and increased human-impact through clearance and agriculture (Macklin et al. 2010; Mansell et al. 2014). The Mid-Iron Age evidence 8.34 Evidence for cereal cultivation during the mid-Iron Age is indicated by low numbers of cereal remains including wheat grains, wheat glume bases (emmer or spelt) and hulled barley grains. These cereal remains occur alongside probable arable weeds (e.g. black-bindweed, cleavers, redshank) and other species typical of ruderal or wide-niche habitats (e.g. goosefoots, common chickweed). Whilst evidence for cereals is slight, the assemblages are consistent with later Iron age sites in the local area (e.g. Huntley 2011; Archaeological Services 2020c) and wider region which indicate that spelt and hulled 6-row barley were the main crops cultivated (Hall & Huntley 2007). 8.35 The charcoal evidence indicates that oak, hazel, cf. blackthorn/plum, alder and birch were components of woodlands, which is consistent with regional pollen records (Fenton-Thomas 1992). Hazel and blackthorn/plum are light-demanding species, probably growing along woodland edges or within clearances (Preston et al. 2002). Alder and birch are typical of damp, open conditions, with birch often present in Archaeological Services Durham University 58 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 heathland habitats (Preston et al. 2002). Charred soil fungus (Cenococcum geophilum) sclerotia recorded in pit [F292] are commonly associated with woodland soils, probably indicating small patches of woodland or scrubland near the site (Hudson 1986). In pit/posthole [F233], mature oak trees are indicated by heartwood fragments, whilst some fast-grown oak roundwood fragments with widely spaced rings suggests re-growth following cutting; this would not be inconsistent with woodland management. Hazel roundwood fragments could also derive from coppiced wood, although this remains speculative. Oak and hazel have traditionally been highly valued economic resources, particularly for use in construction, and as excellent sources of fuel (Gale & Cutler 2000). The Romano-British evidence 8.36 The large and very-rich assemblages of charred plant remains recovered contribute significantly to our understanding of arable farming practices and the wider rural economy during the mid to late Romano-British period. The evidence is of wider regional and national significance since few comparative archaeobotanical assemblages have been analysed from rural settlements in the north-east, particularly where corn dryers have also been identified (cf. Hall & Huntley 2007; Lodwick 2017a). Crop choice 8.37 Spelt wheat was the main crop, although hulled 6-row barley was also cultivated on a smaller-scale. Barley may be underrepresented if it was primarily used as a source of fodder (Jones 1998). Emmer wheat is only present in trace quantities as a crop contaminant, whilst bread wheat is present in low numbers in several features, probably also existing as a weed contaminant (Jones & Halstead 1995). Oat grains are common throughout the samples, although diagnostic chaff elements indicate these derive from the weed, wild oat. One exception was a single oat floret identified as cultivated/bristle oat; it is possible that this represents an aberrant hybrid of wild and cultivated oat (Körber-Grohne et al. 1988). Pulse crops are also present with slight evidence for pea and Celtic bean in several features. Overall, spelt dominates the samples, and it was likely cultivated as a pure crop (monocrop), since it is present in very high percentages (often >90%) relative to hulled 6-row barley (Table 1.24). There is little evidence to suggest that other crops were cultivated on a substantial scale. Crop-processing 8.38 Information on crop processing practices may be obtained by analysing the various different proportions of grain, chaff and weeds, with wider implications for understanding factors such as the scale of production (Jones 1984, 1987; Hillman 1981, 1984). In the case of spelt, threshing separates the straw and breaks ears into individual spikelets consisting of two grains enclosed by glumes; winnowing then removes light weeds and chaff. Coarse-sieving removes remaining straw and large >4mm weeds, whilst ‘medium’ coarse-sieving removes weeds smaller than spikelets. The crop may be stored at this stage in a semi-clean state, with spelt traditionally stored within the spikelet since this protects it from pests/damage. The spikelets require dehusking to separate the grain from the tightly enclosed glumes and corn dryers may have been used to parch/dry spikelets prior to this (Hillman 1982). Following de-husking, fine-sieving removes runt/tail grains, small weeds, glume bases and other small chaff (‘fine-sieve by-product’). Grain and grain-sized weeds are retained on the sieve (‘fine-sieve product’). Barley undergoes a similar sequence Archaeological Services Durham University 59 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 of processing stages, although threshing breaks ears into individual grains and rachis segments. 8.39 Several samples from Phase 5 can be identified as fine-sieving by-products since they are very rich in spelt glume bases and weeds compared to grain (Table 1.25). The large quantities and high densities of spelt fine-sieving by-products reflect bulk- handing and processing of harvests (Hillman 1981; Stevens 2003; Lodwick 2017a). Processing of cereals on this scale requires significant investment of labour and capital, highlighting communal organisation, perhaps as part of a larger agricultural estate (cf. Stevens 2003). These spelt-rich samples are primarily found in association with corn dryers, indicating a relationship between these structures and spelt crop- processing (van der Veen 1989; Lodwick 2017a). In turn, this range of evidence has been taken to indicate a degree of specialisation and an expansion in the scale of spelt cultivation in the mid- to late Romano-British period (Lodwick 2017a). Production was evidently on a scale beyond the requirements of the farmstead and surpluses could have been transported to other settlements or military garrisons, potentially via the River Tees (cf. Allen & Lodwick 2017). Crop-husbandry 8.40 A well-developed arable weed flora is present, especially in samples associated with corn dryer [F349], ‘stoking pits’ [F101; F204] and pit [F114=F138=F418]. Bromes are particularly common, although other species are also well-represented: docks, scentless mayweed, goosefoots, wild oat, vetches, cleavers, stinking chamomile, wild radish and knotgrass. Seeds of field gromwell are abundant in the fill [413] of pit [F418] and a single seed of this species was also found in corn dryer flue [F142]. A diverse range of other potential ‘arable’ weeds also exist in these spelt-rich samples including fool’s parsley, wild carrot, fumitories, redshank, black-bindweed, field penny-cress, narrow-fruited cornsalad, hemp-nettles, field madder, fumitories, nipplewort, violets, thistles, parsley-pierts, ivy-leaved speedwell, common/long- headed poppy and corncockle. These weeds species are generally typical of arable or ruderal habitats, suggesting they derive from arable fields. 8.41 Several of the weed species present appear to be ‘new’ arable weeds (archaeophytes) in the Romano-British period in the north-east, or at least species which were very rare prior to this period (Hall & Huntley 2007; Stevens & Fuller 2018). This includes corncockle, common/long-headed poppy, stinking chamomile, field gromwell, field madder, narrow fruited-cornsalad and possibly also knapweeds and nipplewort. The occurrence of these ‘new’ weeds alongside the crop contaminant bread wheat has also been noted by others and they were probably introduced together (van der Veen 1992). Importation of spelt seedcorn to improve yields may explain this pattern, especially if it was imported from Romano-British sites in southern England or the continent (cf. Allen & Lodwick 2017). Equally, this evidence is indicative of increasing crop circulation during the Romano-British period (cf. Smith & Kenward 2011; Fulford et al. 2017). In either scenario, the River Tees would have provided a mechanism for the movement of crops into, and from, Cowpen Bewley. 8.42 Arable weeds provide valuable information on crop husbandry practices such as sowing time and cultivation techniques. Spelt was probably autumn-sown based on the predominance of bromes within the samples, as well as the presence of species such as cleavers (Jones 1981; Lodwick 2017a; Stevens & Fuller 2018). Autumn- Archaeological Services Durham University 60 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 sowing is also indicated by species such as field gromwell and field penny-cress which avoid destruction from spring tillage by flowering early in the season for a short period (Bogaard et al. 2001). Whilst autumn-sowing of spelt was probably the norm, sowing times would have been flexible and species considered indicators of spring-sowing such as wild oat are also present (Campbell 2008; Lodwick 2017a). 8.43 Evidence for the cultivation of light, dry calcareous soils is suggested by the presence of narrow fruited-cornsalad, field madder and field gromwell (Hill et al. 2004; Stace 2010). Field gromwell is particularly abundant in deposit [413], pit [F418], potentially reflecting an imported crop since this is an unusual weed for the north-east region (cf. Lodwick 2017a). However, localised areas of calcareous soil exist in the area around the Tees lowlands, particularly where limestone forms the underlying geology around the East Durham Plateau (Brodin 2001). Field gromwell has been recorded as a very rare weed currently growing near the coast to the north of Hartlepool. Other species typical of calcareous soils are present in corn dryer [F349] including salad burnet, hedge/marsh bedstraw and yellow-rattle (Stace 2010). These species are commonly associated with long-established grassland or managed meadows and they have been identified as hay in Romano-British sites, alongside knapweeds and fairy flax (Greig 1984, 1988; Robinson 2007; Lodwick 2017b). Alternatively, some of these weeds could also have existed on the edges of arable fields, or from the conversion of pasture to arable (cf. Hinton 1991). 8.44 Cultivation of heavy clay soils is indicated by stinking chamomile (Kay 1971). This probably occurred alongside the introduction of iron coulters on ards which enabled deeper tillage of heavy soils and a shift towards more extensive cultivation regimes (Jones 1981; van der Veen & O’Connor 1998; Stevens & Fuller 2018). Stinking chamomile is a weed which becomes more common throughout the region in the mid- to late Romano-British period, although this does not necessarily indicate that heavy clay soils were not cultivated before this date (e.g. van der Veen 1992; Busby et al. 1996; Bishop 2005; Huntley 2011). The high proportion of annual arable weeds within the assemblage is also associated with this shift towards deeper tillage (Hillman 1991). However, soil disturbance from ploughing was not sufficiently deep to remove perennials such as docks (Lodwick 2017a), whilst the short seed- dormancy of bromes is associated with ‘shallow’ cultivation (Jones 2009). Cultivation practices would have varied depending on soil-type and field location as well as the availability of labour draught animals (Halstead 2014). A cattle herd is indicated in the faunal assemblage at Cowpen Bewley (Gidney, this report), although whether draught cattle were present is speculative. 8.45 The grouping of weeds according to their modern preferences for certain environmental conditions (autecology) potentially risks excluding species rarely found in current arable fields (Hillman 1991). For example, sea-club rush, a species typical of coastal marshes and which grows in Cowpen Marsh (Natural England 2020), was probably an arable weed of brackish, poorly drained fields (Hillman 1991). Sea-club rush was a common weed of arable fields in coastal areas of the Netherlands from later prehistory through the medieval period (Schepers et al. 2013). In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish between weeds which could have grown in arable fields in the past and weeds which have a non-arable origin. 8.46 Species typical of wet/damp, acidic grasslands or heathland habitats are present throughout the samples (e.g. fairy flax, cinquefoils, sedges, blinks, sheep’s sorrel, Archaeological Services Durham University 61 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 heath-grass, heather). These plant remains are present in samples rich in spelt wheat as well as samples containing low densities of ‘background settlement noise’. Some of these species potentially grew as arable weeds in poorly drained fields (e.g. sedges, blinks) or slightly acidic soils (e.g. sheep’s sorrel) around Cowpen Bewley (cf. Hillman 1991). In particular, heath-grass has been considered a common arable weed in this period due to its common occurrence alongside spelt crop-processing by-products (Hillman 1991; van der Veen 1992). However, an alternative explanation is that some of these species derive from turves cut in grassy heathland habitats, particularly considering the presence of heather stems and small rhizomes/tubers (Hall 2003). Turves could have been used for fuel or within construction (e.g. roofing, ovens), potentially forming the superstructure of corn dryers (cf. Huntley 2011). Heathland plants may also have been introduced through fodder or animal dung (Spengler 2018). This characteristic range of charred plant debris is widely found in sites across the north-east, particularly in later prehistoric and Romano-British period (Hall & Huntley 2007). 8.47 A potential explanation for the increased occurrence of heathland species in this period is the clearance of lowland heath through burning to enlarge cultivated areas. Ethnographic evidence indicates small quantities of heather stems and species typical of these damp/wet, grassy heathland habitats may be found in crop- processing by-products from land cleared of heath and other vegetation (Hinton 1991). Heathlands are often characterised by species with persistent seed-banks which are likely to have remained in soils after clearance, later germinating within fields or around their edges (Thompson 1986; Hall 2003). It is likely that a combination of factors has contributed to the formation of the assemblages, with some heathland species introduced through turves, whilst others could have existed as weeds in fields, or at least on the edges of fields. Corn dryers 8.48 Corn dryers are amongst the most enigmatic structures found on rural Romano- British sites, especially from the 3rd century onwards (Lodwick 2020). They were overwhelmingly associated with processing spelt wheat and had a number of potential functions including drying crops harvested in wet years, to ‘rescue’ crops beginning to spoil, to facilitate de-husking by parching/drying, to dry and harden grain for milling and the production of malt for brewing ale (Hillman 1982; van der Veen 1989; Lodwick 2017a). Corn dryers were often fuelled by spelt fine-sieving by- products (van der Veen 1999), as seen at Cowpen Bewley in corn dryers [F142, F349] and pit [F114=F138=F418] which probably contains fuel raked out from a nearby corn dryer (e.g. [F151]). Since the deposits preserved and sampled typically derive from the flue, rather than the drying surface, it is often difficult to establish their function. For example, heather was used as fuel in corn dryer [F151], although this does not rule out a use for cereal processing. Whilst corn dryers had multiple functions, evidence for malt production is clearly attested at Cowpen Bewley in corn dryer [F351], and possibly also pit [F114=F138=F418]. 8.49 The production of malt for brewing ale has been outlined in detail in previous publications and this is summarised below (van der Veen 1989; Helm & Carruthers 2011; Lodwick 2017a). Spelt spikelets are first steeped in water to aid germination and then left on a malting floor for a few days until a sufficiently high rate of germination has been achieved. Spelt was germinated within the spikelet since de- husking risks damaging the embryo. Germination then needs to be ceased by Archaeological Services Durham University 62 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 heating using a corn dryer, and charring accidents during this process were probably commonplace (Hillman 1982). Once dried, germinated spikelets required de-husking to remove the chaff and coleoptiles (sprouts). This material from de-husking (‘comings’) was often then used as a fuel within corn dryers. The germinated grain is ground into ‘grist’ or ‘malt’ ready for brewing, although it could be stored for several months. The main archaeobotanical indicators of malt production are: (i) a high proportion of germinated grains/spikelets; (ii) abundant spelt glume bases and cereal coleoptiles (the ‘comings’). 8.50 In corn dryer [F349], the ‘comings’ were used as fuel within the flue [351] and pit [F372] due to the large quantities of spelt glume bases, coleoptiles and weeds, many of which have evidently germinated alongside the crop. In comparison, a sample from the possible remnants of a drying surface [391] is primarily composed of germinated grains and spikelets, whilst chaff and weeds are rare. Some material from the product of brewing also appears to be present in the flue [351] and pit [F372], including germinated spikelets and spelt-type/wheat grains (between 29%- 95% have germinated). This could reflect material accidentally charred during the drying stage with grain later becoming separated from the spikelet during burial and subsequent recovery (Hillman 1982). Germinated fragments of cereal grains (probably all wheat) are also common, bearing some resemblance to ‘grist’ or ‘malt’ (cf. Helm & Carruthers 2011). Material from the drying surfaces and flue could become partly combined together through accidental incorporation or through later movement of material following abandonment. Corn dryers are also likely to contain amalgamations of material from several different uses (Campbell 2008). Further evidence for malting may be present in [F114=F138=F418] which also contains spelt fine-sieving by-products alongside coleoptiles. Malt production was a specialised industry, possibly for domestic use, although it could have been a ‘cash-crop’ produced for a wider market (Stevens 2013; Lodwick 2017a). 8.51 To provide a comparison to the cereal-rich deposits from these corn dryers, samples were analysed from enclosure ditches which are likely to contain material from a wide range of sources (‘background settlement noise’). These features probably incorporate material such as crop-processing debris, fuel waste and remnants of other general occupation debris (e.g. stable manure, industrial processes). The earlier Phase 2, 3 and 4 deposits contain particularly low densities of charred remains. In comparison, the Phase 5 north-eastern enclosure ditch [F60=F79=F94] contains a higher density of remains reflecting a broader increase in the intensity of agricultural activity at the site, as indicated by the construction of corn dryers. Local environment 8.52 The use of fertile soils which exist around Cowpen Bewley and the Tees lowlands for arable production can also be placed within a wider landscape context. As already outlined above, it is evident that a range of different soils were used for cultivation and there is also evidence for the exploitation of coastal and grassy heathland habitats. 8.53 Areas of coastal grasslands, marshes and mudflats exist around the site today (Natural England 2020), and these were probably more extensive in the Romano- British period. Charred seaweed fragments in ditch/gully [F146], ditch [F60], pit [F348] and possibly also ditch [F94], provide evidence for the exploitation of this coastal environment. All these features are very late Roman in date and the Archaeological Services Durham University 63 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 seaweed was recovered from secure contexts, making it unlikely to be a later contaminant. Seaweed is relatively routinely identified as a component of refuse in early and later medieval sites in both coastal and inland areas across the north-east (e.g. Archaeological Services 2011, 2015, 2016b, 2017). Considering its presence in features containing ‘background settlement noise’, it is difficult to provide an explanation for its occurrence. Seaweed has a range of potential uses such as food (salt), fodder, fuel and as fertiliser (Mooney 2018). 8.54 The existence of grassy, lowland heath around Cowpen Bewley has already been outlined above. Clear evidence for heather growing in the local environment is provided by corn dryer flue [F151] which contained abundant heather stems and flower buds. Grassy heathland habitats were evidently a valuable economic resource in this period for fuel, construction material and grazing/fodder (Hall & Huntley 2007). Lowland heath is now very rare in the Tees area (Brodin 2001), although it was evidently more widespread in the later prehistoric and Romano-British periods. Pollen evidence from a Romano-British ditch at nearby Ingleby Barwick indicates a relatively open environment of grassland and heath (Ranner 2011). 8.55 The charcoal assemblages indicate areas of oak woodland, whilst other species recorded are typical of relatively open environments including ash, hazel, blackthorn/plum, hawthorn/apple, birch and alder (Preston et al. 2002). Some of these species could have grown within hedgerows in field systems (Gale & Cutler 2000). A fragment of coniferous charcoal (cf. pine) in pit [F141] is unusual, although it is possible that pine was a component of regional woodlands (cf. Ranner 2011). Alternatively, the pine may derive from imported timber (e.g. barrels), provided that it is not a residual or intrusive contaminant in the deposit (Huntley 2010). Regional pollen records indicate a relatively open environment (Fenton-Thomas 1992) and the general rarity of charcoal within the assemblage from Cowpen Bewley might indicate only limited areas woodland existed near the farmstead. The Romano-British results in a wider context 8.56 Several sites in the Tees lowlands have produced mid- to late Romano-British assemblages, including Newton Bewley (Archaeological Services 2000), Catcote (Huntley 1989), Ingleby Barwick (Huntley 2011), Bonny Grove Farm (Annis 1996), Teesside to Saltend Pipeline (Neal 2000), Rockliffe Park (Johnson 2009) and Faverdale (Archaeological Services 2010). These reveal a consistent pattern, with arable production focused on spelt wheat and hulled 6-row barley. Emmer wheat and free-threshing/bread wheat appear to have only existed as crop contaminants. A limited presence of common oat, rye and flax is only seen at Ingleby Barwick (Huntely 2011), and nationally these were minor crops (Lodwick 2017a). Pulses (pea, Celtic bean) are present in several sites in the Tees lowlands and these appear to be ‘new’ crops around this period in the north-east (Treasure & Church 2017). The evidence from Cowpen Bewley fits into this picture of an arable regime principally focusing on spelt and hulled 6-row barley, and more widely this is consistent with evidence from the wider north-east region and national level (Hall & Huntley 2007; Allen 2016; Lodwick 2017a). 8.57 A valuable comparison to Cowpen Bewley is at Ingleby Barwick c.10km to the south- west. Here, evidence for a later 2nd to 4th/5th century villa and complex farmstead was identified with a network of enclosure ditches, an aisled hall/barn, ovens and corn dryers alongside evidence for milling (Carne & Willis 2011). Most features Archaeological Services Durham University 64 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 contained low densities of cereals, however, several pits, ditches, ovens and corn dryers produced assemblages rich in spelt, particularly crop-processing by-products (Huntley 2011). No evidence for malt production was identified. Hulled 6-row barley was also present, although perhaps largely existing as a contaminant of spelt crops. Traces of cultivated oat, bread wheat and rye reflect introduced ‘weed’ contaminants, rather than cultivated crops. A similar weed flora was recorded at both sites, indicating comparable crop husbandry practices. Stinking chamomile is present as a ‘new’ weed from the 2nd-3rd century onwards and becomes more frequent in the 4th century, indicating increasing cultivation of heavy clay soils. Other ‘new’ weeds such as corncockle and long-headed poppy are also present, especially in the later phases of occupation (4th-5th century). The particular emphasis on arable production, mainly spelt cultivation, which is seen at Cowpen Bewley also appears to be paralleled at Ingleby Barwick. 8.58 The later centuries of the Romano-British period are seen as a time of arable expansion across Britain (Allen & Lodwick 2017). This involved cultivation of spelt on a larger-scale, developments in ploughing (e.g. iron coulters on ards, draught cattle) and increasing use of specialist agricultural structures such as corn dryers, granaries and mills (Allen & Lodwick 2017). Cultivation regimes became more extensive with larger areas cultivated, alongside some intensification through practices such as manuring (Morrison 1994; van der Veen & O’Connor 1998). This was accompanied by introductions of new seedcorn and increasing circulation of crops within Britain, as well as the continent (Smith & Kenward 2011). This led to the widespread diffusion of crop contaminants such as bread wheat and ‘new’ weeds (Lodwick 2017a; Stevens & Fuller 2018). 8.59 The expansion in arable cultivation and subsequent increase in the production of surpluses can be placed within the context of a growing rural and urban population, an expanding market-economy and a requirement to provision military garrisons (Allen & Lodwick 2017). The extent of state involvement in arable production and the wider rural economy is unclear, although taxation of surpluses would have been a key component of provincial administration (Fulford et al. 2017). Particularly strong evidence for an expansion in arable production is seen in south-eastern and central England, although an increase in the scale of spelt cultivation is evident at a national level (Lodwick 2017a; Allen & Lodwick 2017). An outcome of this was malt production for brewing ale, although evidence for the development of this specialised industry is rare in northern regions (Stevens 2013; Lodwick 2017a). In the north-east, evidence for a well-developed arable economy appears to be largely restricted to areas in the south of the region around York, and further north around the Tees lowlands, as seen at Cowpen Bewley (Allen 2016; Allen & Lodwick 2017). 9. Radiocarbon dating 9.1 AMS radiocarbon dating and calibration were carried out by the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC), East Kilbride, Scotland. The charred macrofossil material selected for ten individual dates provided adequate carbon for accurate measurement in each case, and analyses proceeded normally. Sample information and results are summarised in Table 1.24, and details of the results and calibrations are presented in Appendix 6. Archaeological Services Durham University 65 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 10. Conclusions 10.1 A limited number of flint artefacts, primarily dating from the later Bronze Age period onwards, were recovered during the excavation. All were residual in later contexts. Although no features were identified associated with these flints, they do indicate a low level of human activity around the site from this time onwards; the identification of residual flint assemblages at Iron Age and Romano-British settlement sites is relatively common. 10.2 A peat deposit identified near Holme Fleet Creek began forming in the middle-late Neolithic period (2890-2630 cal BC) with plant remains indicating a coastal floodplain environment, with shallow, standing water. This peat was sealed in the Early Bronze Age (2890-2630 cal BC) by increased sediment deposition, potentially due to changes in relative sea-level. 10.3 Later Iron Age radiocarbon dates (400-200 cal BC) were obtained from two of the pits on the site. Again they demonstrate a low level of human activity around the site at this time. It is not uncommon to find evidence for Iron Age activity prior to Roman settlement, and often a significant pre-Roman settlement exists in advance of their arrival. At some sites, including recent excavations at Hurworth (23km south-west of Saltholme), there is evidence to suggest Roman structures may have been deliberately superimposed over the pre-existing Iron Age sites (Archaeological Services 2020a). The Iron Age resource identified at Saltholme is scant by comparison, althouth it is associated with a small assemblage of cereal grain which may indicate a settlement in the vicinity. 10.4 The main period of activity on site spanned the later Roman (3rd Century) to the early post-Roman period, with a smaller number of pottery sherds pre-dating the late-3rd century. This comprised a settlement that was primarily agricultural in nature, principly focused on spelt and hulled 6-row barley, together with cattle and sheep. The lack of evidence for domestic dwellings may indicate that the area investigated was on the periphery of a larger settlement. 10.5 Although the large number of intercutting ditches across the site allowed a detailed stratigraphy to be constructed, divided into several different phases of activity, the various radiocarbon dates obtained showed little variation in date. Even where feature fills changed significantly from the lighter colours of earlier phases to the darker, more charcoal-rich ones of later phases, the radiocarbon dates obtained proved to be almost identical. Therefore these phases of activity must have been short lived, following each other in quick succession. 10.6 In the 3rd or 4th century the burial of a young child burial was placed in a stone- lined cist. The child was 1½-2½ years of age and dated to 251-410 cal AD. Two stone slabs formed the roof of the cist, and the grave had apparently been used as a marker when establishing the position of a later enclosure. The body had been laid with the head at the western end of the cist, suggesting Christian burial rites. Roman burials are diverse, taking the form of inhumations in coffins, cists or soil-cut graves, and cremations with and without vessels. They are not uncommon within relative close proximity to settlements, particularly with juvenile burials. There has been a notion that infant deaths were not mourned and that their bodies may be unceremoniously dumped in rubbish deposits, or even that groups of such burials may represent evidence for the deliberate disposal of unwanted infants who had Archaeological Services Durham University 66 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 been killed at birth. Millet and Gowland (2015) have disputed this idea, noting the careful spatial distribution of infant burials on sites at Hayton and Shiptonthorpe within domesticated parts of the settlements, often within close proximity to the footprints of houses or workshops. At Saltholme the child was perhaps too old to be described as an infant in these terms, but the consideration afforded with the construction of the cist and its use as a marker for the later enclosure demonstrates the significance of the child’s death. 10.7 Although other than the burial, only field ditches, pits and kilns were identified by the works, a number of finds were indicative of a substantive structure in the near vicinity. In particular, a fragment of tegula roof tile was recovered from one of the droveway ditches and part of a decorative fitting from a passenger vehicle was recovered from the other. These demonstrate that a building with a tiled roof was present in the near vicinity, and that this was of sufficiently high status to possess passenger vehicles. It is therefore possible that a villa or similar structure is present outside the development area. This is probably to the north or east of the site, since areas to the south and west were investigated by geophysical survey and trial trenching as part of the evaluation, but identified no such structure. 10.8 In this respect, possibly the closest regional parallel to the site is Faverdale, 23km to the west on the outskirts of Darlington. Here, a Romano-British field system was present, containing frequent finds that included high-status items. A hypocausted building, interpreted as part of a bath house, was present, although no other buildings were found. The site was interpreted as a villa complex from which the main villa building had been removed by later truncation (Proctor 2012). Recent excavations at Hurworth, to the south of Darlington, may offer another regional parallel. Stone buildings were present here and fragments of roof and box tiles also suggest hypercaust systems indicative of a higher status site. A full analysis of this site is forthcoming (Archaeological Services 2020a). 10.9 A small number of villa complexes (with proven buildings) are known from the North East. An aisled villa building, surrounded by extensive field systems, is present at Ingleby Barwick, 10km to the south-west. The villa, identified by trial trenching in advance of a proposed development, was preserved in situ and has not been further investigated, although the field system surrounding it was excavated (Willis and Carne, 2013). A villa is also present at Dalton-on-Tees, 25km to the south-west, and has been partially excavated by Teesside Archaeological Society (Brown 1999). On the other side of the River Tees, Hurworth may also be another potential villa site (Archaeological Services 2020a). At Holme House, to the south of Piercebridge and 30km to the west of Saltholme, villa buildings were partially excavated in advance of gravel extraction in 1969 and 1970 (Harding 1984, 2008). Another villa was removed in the 1940s by gravel extraction at Old Durham, 30km to the north-west (Richmond et al. 1944, Wright and Gillam 1951). 10.10 Although all these sites are unique in certain respects, all show a number of similarities to the Saltholme site. The main phase of activity on all of them dates from the mid to the late Roman, with activity dating from the 2nd to the late 4th centuries. With the exception of Faverdale, all are located close to a major river (the Wear for Old Durham, the Tees for the others). Where details are known, all are surrounded by extensive rectilinear field systems. The pattern of pottery supply at Archaeological Services Durham University 67 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Saltholme is also similar to that at Ingleby Barwick and at nearby Newton Bewley (Petts 2013, 197). 10.11 There was a noticeable change in activity on the site in the later 4th century, with at least three corn dryers being constructed. These had very dark fills largely consisting of charcoal and charred cereal grains. Several pits surrounding these kilns had similar fills, presumably a product of waste raked out from the kilns. In at least one case, a pit cut through the intersection of two of the earlier ditches, clearly separating the earlier from the later phases. This trend towards the increasing use of corn dryers throughout the 4th century has parallels not just regionally but also nationally (Van der Veen 1989). In the North East, at least two corn dryers were added to the site at Ingleby Barwick, including one inserted into the bathhouse (Willis and Carne 2013, 190). A ‘possible corn dryer’ has been noted at Dalton-on- Tees (Brown 1999, 23), and a structure at Old Durham has recently been reinterpreted as another one (Willis and Carne ibid.). A possible corn dryer was also noted in the evaluation phase of works at Hurworth (Archaeological Services 2016a). The subsequent excavation suggested this feature was late in the Roman sequence (Archaeological Services 2020a). 10.12 All Roman features in the north-east corner of Area A was overlain by a thin but persistent layer of black silt. This contained large quantities of animal bone and late Roman pottery, but had no internal stratification, while samples proved to be devoid of palaeoenvironmental information. Little can therefore be said about this deposit. It has similar characteristics to ‘dark earth’ horizons frequently identified overlying the latest features in Roman towns, and similarly difficult to interpret (MacPhail 1981). It may be significant that the horizon here overlay the area containing the greatest concentration of kilns and kiln refuse pits, where soot from these features had similarly darkened the fills of the neighbouring late Roman features, and could potentially have darkened this horizon. 10.13 Although no identifiable Anglo-Saxon pottery was recovered from the site, occupation is likely to have lasted at least into the early fifth century. The later burial cut into the upper fill of the eastern droveway ditch produced a radiocarbon date of 430-600 cal AD, proving that it was of post-Roman date. Because of its poor state of preservation, analysis of the bone provided little information except to confirm that it was an adult and had been buried with the head to the west. The presence of this burial does however suggest that although the focus of activity had shifted away from the site, it retained a significance. As with many such sites, the evidence for early post-Roman activity is frustratingly meagre. 11. Sources Advisory Panel on the Archaeology of Burials in England [APABE], 2013 Science and the Dead: A Guideline for the Destructive Sampling of Archaeological Human Remains for Scientific Analysis, Swindon Allen, M, & Lodwick, L, 2017 Agricultural strategies in Roman Britain, in M Allen, L Lodwick, T Brindle, M Fulford & A Smith (eds) The Rural Economy of Roman Britain: Farming, Industry, Transport and Markets, 142-177. London Allen, M, 2016 The north-east, in A Smith, M Allen, T Brindle & M Fulford (eds.), The rural settlement of Roman Britain, 242-281. 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Report 2592, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2015 North Seaton, Ashington, Northumberland: palaeoenvironmental and bone assessment. Report 3947, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2016a Hurworth-on-Tees, Darlington: archaeological evaluation. Report 4212, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2016b Wooperton Quarry, Northumberland: archaeological works. Report 4306, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2017 College Farm, Dalton Piercy, Hartlepool: archaeological evaluation. Report 4377, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2018a Greatham South flood alleviation scheme, Stockton on Tees: post-excavation assessment. Report 4590, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2018b Saltholme North, Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees: archaeological desk-based assessment. Report 4855, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2018c Saltholme South, Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees: archaeological desk-based assessment. Report 4856, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2019a Saltholme, Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees: archaeological evaluation. Report 4998, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2019b Saltholme, Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees: geophysical survey. Report 5001, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2020a Hurworth-on-Tees, Darlington: archaeological post- excavation assessment. Report 4968, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2020b Saltholme, Cowpen Bewley, Stockton-on-Tees: post- excavation assessment. Report 5049, Archaeological Services Durham University Archaeological Services 2020c Land at Ingleby Barwick, Stockton on Tees: post- excavation analysis. 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Coastal Cons. 17, 755-773 Scheuer, L, & Black, S, 2000 Developmental Juvenile Osteology, San Diego Schmidt, P. 2014. What causes failure (overheating) during lithic heat treatment? Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 6: 107-112 Schweingruber, F H, 1990 Microscopic wood anatomy. Birmensdorf Shennan, I, 1992 Late Quaternary sea-level changes and crustal movements in eastern England and eastern Scotland: an assessment of models of coastal evolution. Quat Int 15, 161-173 Shennan, I, Lambeck, K, Horton, B P, Innes, J B, Lloyd, J M, McArthur, J J, & Rutherford, M M 2000 Holocene isostasy and relative sea-level changes on the east coast of England, in I Shennan & J Andrews (eds) Holocene land- ocean interaction and environmental change around the North Sea, 275-298. Geological Society Special Publications 166. London Skinner, M F, & Hung, J T W, 1989 Social and biological correlates of localized enamel hypoplasia of the human deciduous canine tooth, Am J Phys Anthropol 79, 159-175 Slayton, R L, Warren, J J, Kanellis, M J, Levy, S M, & Islam, M, 2001 Prevalence of enamel hypoplasia and isolated opacities in the primary dentition, Pediatr Dent 23, 32-36 Smith, D, & Kenward, H, 2011. Roman grain pests in Britain: implications for grain supply and agricultural production. Britannia 42, 243-262 Archaeological Services Durham University 75 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Spengler, R N III, 2018 Dung burning in the archaeobotanical record of West Asia: where are we now? Veget Hist Archaeobot https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334- 018-0669-8 Stace, C, 2010 New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge Stevens, C J, & Fuller, D Q, 2018 The Fighting Flora: An Examination of the Origins and Changing Composition of the Weed Flora of the British Isles, in E Lightfoot, X Liu & D Q Fuller (eds) Far from the Hearth: Essays in Honour of Martin K. Jones. Cambridge Stevens, C J, 2003 An investigation of agricultural consumption and production models for prehistoric and Roman Britain. Env Archaeol 8, 61-76 Stevens, C, J, 2013 Charred plant remains in G Wakeham & P Bradley, A Romano- British malt house and other remains at Weed Hill, Aylesbury. Records of Bucks 53, 1-45 Stewart, N A, Gerlach, R F, Gowland, R L, Gron, K J, & Montgomery, J, 2017 Sex determination of human remains from peptides in tooth enamel, P Natl Acad Sci USA 114, 13649-13654 Tomber, R and Dore, J, 1998 The National Roman Fabric Collection: a Handbook, M.o.L.A.S. Mon. 2. Thompson, K, 1986 Small-scale heterogeneity in the seed bank of an acidic grassland. J Ecol 74, 733-738. Treasure, E R & Church, M J, 2017 Can't find a pulse? Celtic bean (Vicia faba L.) in British prehistory. Enviro Archaeol 22, 113-127 Trinkhaus, E, 1978 Bilateral asymmetry of human skeletal non-metric traits, Am J Phys Anthropol 49, 315-318 Tu, M-G, Liu, J-F, Dai, P-W, Chen, S-Y, Hsu, J-T, & Huang, H-L, 2010 Prevalence of three-rooted primary mandibular first molars in Taiwan, J Formos Med Assoc 109, 69-74 Tyrell, A, 2000 Skeletal non-metric traits and the assessment of inter- and intra- population diversity: past problems and future potential, in M Cox & S A Mays (eds) Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science, 289-306, London Van der Veen, M, & O’Connor, T, 1998 The expansion of agricultural production in late Iron Age and Roman Britain, in J Bayley (ed.), Science and archaeology: an agenda for the future, 127-143. London Van der Veen, M, 1989 Charred grain assemblages from Roman-period corn driers in Britain. Archaeol J 146, 302-319 Van der Veen, M, 1992 Crop husbandry regimes; an archaeobotanical study of farming in northern England 1000 BC – AD 500, Sheffield Archaeological Monographs 3, Sheffield Van der Veen, M, 1999 The economic value of chaff and straw in arid and temperate zones Veget Hist Archaeobot 8, 211-224 Vyner, B, 2019 Iron Age pottery and briquetage from the excavations in 2009-11 (Areas E-G), in Sherlock, S J, A Neolithic to Late Roman Landscape on the North-East Yorkshire Coast. Excavations at Street House, Loftus, 2004-17, Tees Archaeol. Mono. 7, 117-26. Waughman, M, 2005 Archaeology and environment of submerged landscapes in Hartlepool Bay, England. Tees Archaeology Monograph Series 2. Hartlepool Whittaker, J. C. 1994 Flintknapping: Making and Understanding Stone Tools. University of Texas Press. Austin. Willis, S, & Carne, P, 2013 A Roman villa at the edge of Empire: excavations at Ingleby Barwick, Stockton-on-Tees, 2003-4, CBA Research Report 170, York Archaeological Services Durham University 76 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Wright R, P, and Gillam J, P, 1951 Second report on Roman buildings at Old Durham, AA 4th series, 31, 116-26 ` Young, R, 1984 Potential Sources of Flint and Chert in the North-East of England, Lithics 5, 3-9 Young, R, 1984 Aspects of the prehistoric archaeology of the Wear Valley, Co. Durham. Unpublished PhD thesis. Durham University. Archaeological Services Durham University 77 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 1: Data tables Table 1.1: Context data The symbols in the columns at the right indicate the presence of artefacts of the following types: P pottery, B animal bone, H human burials, M metals, F flint, I industrial residues, C ceramic building material, O other materials. No Area Description P B H M F I C O 1 All Topsoil 2 All Natural subsoil 3-49 - Evaluation contexts 50 A Fill of pit F51 F51 A Pit cut 52 A Medieval clay deposit 53 A Roman occupation layer 54 A Fill of gully F55 F55 A Gully cut 56 A Roman occupation layer – same as 53 57 A Upper fill of ditch F60 58 A Middle fill of ditch F60 59 A Lower fill of ditch F60 F60 A Ditch cut 61 A Fill of gully F62 F62 A Gully cut 63 A Fill of ditch F64 F64 A Ditch cut 65 A Fill of pit F66 F66 A Pit cut 67 A Upper fill of pit F70 68 A Lower fill of pit F70 F69 A Stone lining to pit F70 F70 A Pit cut 71 A Fill of pit F72 F72 A Pit cut 73 A Fill of gully F74 F74 A Gully cut 75 A Fill of ditch F76 F76 A Ditch cut 77 A Upper fill of ditch F79 78 A Lower fill of ditch F79 F79 A Ditch cut 80 A Fill of ditch F81 F81 A Ditch cut 82 A Fill of pit F439 83 A Fill of ditch F84 F84 A Ditch cut 85 A Upper fill of ditch F87 86 A Lower fill of ditch F87 F87 A Ditch cut 88 A Fill of pit F89 F89 A Pit cut 90 A Fill of pit F91 F91 A Pit cut 92 A Upper fill of ditch F94 93 A Lower fill of ditch F94 F94 A Ditch cut 95 A Fill of ditch F96 F96 A Ditch cut 97 A Upper fill of ditch F99 98 A Lower fill of ditch F99 F99 A Ditch cut 100 A Fill of pit F101 Archaeological Services Durham University 78 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 No Area Description P B H M F I C O F101 A Pit cut 102 A Fill of pit F103 F103 A Pit cut 104 A Fill of pit F105 F105 A Pit cut F106 A Ditch cut – same as F227 107 A Fill of ditch F108 F108 A Ditch cut 109 A Upper fill of pit F114 110 A Fourth fill of pit F114 111 A Third fill of pit F114 112 A Second fill of pit F114 113 A Lowest fill of pit F114 F114 A Pit cut 115 A Fill of ditch F116 F116 A Ditch cut 117 A Fill of gully F118 F118 A Gully cut 119 A Fill of cist F120 F120 A Cut of cist burial 121 A Fill of ditch F122 F122 A Ditch cut 123 A Upper fill of ditch F126 124 A Middle fill of ditch F126 125 A Lowest fill of ditch F126 F126 A Ditch cut 127 A Fill of ditch F128 F128 A Ditch cut 129 A Fill of ditch F130 F130 A Ditch cut 131 A Upper fill of ditch F138 132 A Sixth fill of ditch F138 (charcoal-rich) 133 A Fifth fill of ditch F138 134 A Fourth fill of ditch F138 135 A Third fill of ditch F138 (burnt horizon) 136 A Second fill of ditch F138 137 A Lowest fill of ditch F138 F138 A Ditch cut 139 A Sandstone lining of cist F120 140 A Fill of pit F141 F141 A Pit cut F142 A Flue F143 A Inhumation Sk1 in cist F120 F144 A Inhumation Sk2 in cist F120 145 A Fill of ditch F146 F146 A Ditch cut 147 A Upper fill of gully F149 148 A Lower fill of gully F149 F149 A Gully cut 150 A Fill of flue F151 F151 A Cut of flue 152 A Fill of probable furrow F153 A Furrow cut 154 A Upper fill of flue F142 155 A Middle, white fill of flue F142 156 A Lower, black fill of flue F142 157 A Fill of gully F158 F158 A Gully cut 159 A Fill of animal burrow F160 F160 A Animal burrow cut 161 A Fill of animal burrow F162 Archaeological Services Durham University 79 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 No Area Description P B H M F I C O F162 A Animal burrow cut 163 A Fill of animal burrow F164 F164 A Animal burrow cut 165 A Fill of animal burrow F166 166 A Animal burrow cut 167 A Fill of animal burrow F168 F168 A Animal burrow cut 169 A Fill of animal burrow F170 F170 A Animal burrow cut 171 A Fill of animal burrow F172 F172 A Animal burrow cut 173 A Fill of animal burrow F174 F174 A Animal burrow cut 175 A Fill of pit F176 F176 A Pit cut 177 A Fill of ditch F178 F178 A Ditch cut 179 A Fill of ditch F180 F180 A Ditch cut 181 A Fill of ditch F182 F182 A Ditch cut 183 A Fill of pit F184 F184 A Pit cut 185 A Upper fill of ditch F187 186 A Lower fill of ditch F187 F187 A Ditch cut 188 A Fill of ditch F189 F189 A Ditch cut 190 A Fill of ditch F191 F191 A Ditch cut 192 A Fill of ditch F193 F193 A Ditch cut 194 A Fill of ditch F195 F195 A Ditch cut 196 A Fill of ditch F197 F197 A Ditch cut 198 A Upper fill of ditch F202 199 A Third fill of ditch F202 200 A Second fill of ditch F202 201 A Lowest fill of ditch F202 F202 A Ditch cut 203 A Ash spread next to flue F142 F204 A Pit cut 205 A Fill of gully F206 F206 A Gully cut 207 A Fill of gully terminus F208 F208 A Gully terminus cut 209 A Fill of ditch F210 F210 A Ditch cut 211 A Middle fill of ditches F213/F214 212 A Lower fill of ditches F213/F214 F213 A E-W ditch cut F214 A N-S ditch cut 215 A Fill of ditch F216 F216 A Ditch cut 217 A Fill of pit F218 F218 A Pit cut 219 A Fill of ditch F220 F220 A Ditch cut 221 A Fill of pit F204 222 A Fill of pit F223 Archaeological Services Durham University 80 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 No Area Description P B H M F I C O F223 A Pit cut 224 A Fill of ditch F225 F225 A Ditch cut 226 A Fill of ditch F227 F227 A Ditch cut F228 A Ditch cut 229 A Lower fill of ditch F228 230 A Middle fill of ditch F228 231 A Upper fill of ditch F228 232 A Fill of posthole F233 F233 A Posthole cut 234 A Upper fill of ditches F213/F214 235 A Fill of gully F236 F236 A Gully cut 237 A Fill of gully F238 F238 A Gully cut 239 A Fill of gully F240 F240 A Gully cut 241 A Fill of ditch F242 F242 A Ditch cut 243 A Fill of ditch F244 F244 A Ditch cut 245 A Fill of ditch F246 F246 A Cut of ditch 247 A Fill of ditch F248 F248 A Ditch cut 249 A Fill of ditch F250 F250 A Ditch cut 251 A Fill of pit F252 F252 A Pit cut 253 A Upper fill of ditch F256 254 A Middle fill of ditch F256 255 A Lower fill of ditch F256 F256 A Ditch cut 257 A Fill of gully F258 F258 A Gully cut 259 A Fill of gully F260 F260 A Gully cut 261 A Fill of gully terminus F262 F262 A Gully terminus cut 263 A Fill of ditch F264 F264 A Ditch cut F265 A Cut of natural hollow (filled by black silt 53) 266 A Fill of gully terminus F267 F267 A Gully terminus cut 268 A Fill of ditch F269 F269 A Ditch cut 270 A Fill of tree throw pit F317 271 A Fill of sondage through 53 F272 A Same as 265 273 A Upper fill of pit F275 274 A Lower fill of pit F275 F275 A Pit cut 276 A Fill of ditch F277 F277 A Ditch cut 278 A Fill of ditch F279 F279 A Ditch cut 280 A Fill of sondage through 53 281 A Same as 341 F282 A Same as F342 283 A Fill of pit F284 Archaeological Services Durham University 81 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 No Area Description P B H M F I C O F284 A Pit cut 285 A Fill of ditch F286 F286 A Ditch cut 287 A Fill of ditch F288 F288 A Ditch cut 289 A Fill of pit F290 F290 A Pit cut 291 A Fill of pit F292 F292 A Pit cut 293 A Upper fill of pit F295 294 A Lower fill of pit F295 F295 A Pit cut 296 A Fill of ditch F297 F297 A Ditch cut 298 A Fill of ditch F299 F299 A Ditch cut 300 A Fill of ditch F301 F301 A Ditch cut 302 A Fill of ditch F303 F303 A Ditch cut 304 A Same as 52 305 A Upper fill of ditch F306 F306 A Ditch cut – same as F60 307 A Middle fill of ditch F306 308 A Lower fill of ditch F306 309 A Same as 308 310 A Roman occupation layer - same as 53 311 A Fill of ditch F312 F312 A Ditch cut 313 A Fill of ditch F314 F314 A Ditch cut F315 A Ditch cut 316 A Fill of ditch F315 F317 A Cut of tree throw 318 A Fill of pit F319 F319 A Pit cut 320 A Fill of gully F321 F321 A Gully cut 322 B Third fill of ditch F326 – redeposited natural 323 B Fourth fill of ditch F326 324 B Second fill of ditch F326 325 B Lowest fill of ditch F326 F326 B Ditch cut 327 B Upper fill of ditch F326 328 A Roman occupation layer – same as 53 329 A Fill of ditch F330 F330 A Ditch cut 331 A Fill of ditch terminus F332 F332 A Ditch terminus cut 333 A Fill of pit F334 F334 A Pit cut 335 A Fill of pit F336 F336 A Pit cut F337 A Grave cut 338 A Fill of grave F337 339 A Fill of field drain F340 F340 A Field drain cut 341 A Fill of possible gully F342 F342 A Gully cut 343 A Fill of ditch F344 F344 A Ditch cut Archaeological Services Durham University 82 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 No Area Description P B H M F I C O 345 A Fill of ditch F346 F346 A Ditch cut 347 B Fill of pit F348 F348 B Pit cut F349 B Cut of possible corn dryer flue F350 B Burnt clay lining of corn dryer flue F349 351 B Black silt in base of corn dryer flue F349 352 B Clay overlying corn dryer flue F349 353 B Fill of pit F354 F354 B Cut of modern pit 355 B Fill of ditch F356 F356 B Ditch cut 357 B Upper fill of ditch F358 F358 B Ditch cut 359 B Fill of ditch F360 F360 B Ditch cut 361 B Fill of ditch F362 F362 B Ditch cut 363 B Lower fill of ditch F358 364 B Fill of ditch F365 F365 B Ditch cut 366 B Fill of ditch F367 F367 B Ditch cut 368 B Fill of ditch F369 F369 B Ditch cut 370 B Fill of ditch F371 F371 B Ditch cut F372 B Cut of posthole in base of corn dryer flue F349 373 B Fill of posthole F372 374 A Fill of gully F375 F375 A Gully cut 376 B Fill of pit F426 377 B Fill of ditch F379 378 - VOID F379 B Ditch cut 380 B Fill of ditch F382 381 - VOID F382 B Ditch cut 383 B fill of recut ditch F384 F384 B Ditch recut 385 B Fill of ditch F386 F386 B Ditch cut 387 B Upper fill of ditch F389 388 B Lower fill of ditch F389 F389 B Ditch cut 390 B Clay fill above 351 in corn dryer flue F349 391 B Charcoal fill above 390 in corn dryer F349 392 B Fill of ditch F393 F393 B Ditch cut 394 A Animal inhumation in ditch fill 249 395 C Fill of ditch F396 F396 C Ditch cut 397 C Fill of ditch F399 398 C Overcut natural subsoil F399 C Ditch cut 400 C Fill of ditch F401 F401 C Ditch cut 402 C Fill of ditch F403 F403 C Ditch cut 404 D Variation in natural subsoil 405 B Fill of pit F406 Archaeological Services Durham University 83 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 No Area Description P B H M F I C O F406 B Pit cut 407 C Fill of ditch F408 F408 C Ditch cut 409 C Upper fill of ditch F410 F410 C Ditch cut 411 B Fill of ditch F412 F412 B Ditch cut 413 A Upper fill of pit F418 414 A Redeposited natural fill of pit F418 415 A Grey/black laminated horizon in pit F418 416 A Thin black horizon in pit F418 417 A Lower fill of pit F418 F418 A Pit cut 419 A Fill of pit F420 F420 A Pit cut 421 C Middle fill of ditch F410 422 C Lower fill of ditch F410 423 C Fill of ditch F424 F424 C Ditch cut F425 A Ditch cut F426 B Pit cut 427 WB Fill of pit F428 F428 WB Pit cut 429 WB Fill of pit (possible cist) F430 F430 WB Pit cut 431 WB Upper fill of pit F436 432 WB Burnt clay deposit in pit F436 433 WB Upper ash deposit in pit F436 434 WB Clay deposit (deliberate relining?) in pit F436 435 WB Lower ash deposit in pit F436 F436 WB Pit cut 437 WB Fill of F438 F438 WB Cut of modern disturbance F439 A Pit cut Archaeological Services Durham University 84 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.2: Pottery assemblage by fabrics expressed as percentages Fabric NRFRC Wt No EVE Samian 0.6 1.8 1.2 Mortarium Local 0.9 0.3 N Yorks 0.8 0.3 1.4 Mancetter-Hartshill MAH WH 6.1 1.6 5.1 Crambeck whiteware CRAM WH 1.4 0.3 1.9 Crambeck parchment CRAM PA 1.1 0.5 1.1 Coarsewares SE Dorset black burnished 1 DOR BB1 5.8 10.4 5.9 Black burnished 2 BB2 0.1 0.3 SE reduced ware 0.5 0.8 1.6 Hard grey ware 1.4 2.1 3.7 Crambeck parchment CRA PA 2.8 2.3 2.6 Crambeck reduced CRA RE 9.9 6 11.9 Local traditional ware group 1 0.8 1 Local traditional ware group 4 0.8 0.8 Handmade fabric 1 1.8 1.6 1.2 Handmade fabric 2 4 5.5 1 Handmade fabric 3 3.2 4.7 2 Late gritty ware 1 0.5 2.9 Calcite gritted HUN CG 49.5 48.3 47.3 Late handmade 1.5 2.9 5.9 Unsourced flagon 0.8 0.5 2.3 Unsourced oxidised wares 0.7 1.6 Unsourced reduced wares 4.2 6.1 1.1 Total 6660 385 732 (g) no % Table 1.3: pottery assemblage vessel type by EVE shown as a percentage Vessel Type EVE by % Flagon 2.3 Drinking vessel x Small jar x Cooking pot 69.1 Storage jar x Wide-mouthed bowl 1.5 Bowl/dish 17.6 Mortarium 9.4 Total 732% (x = form present but no rim sherds) Archaeological Services Durham University 85 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Tables 1.4: Bone fragment counts for the species present by phase and area Area A Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Cattle 14 4 66 27 Cattle size 1 2 Sheep/goat 2 1 32 13 Sheep 1 Pig 1 6 3 Horse 3 1 7 2 Dog 1 * 2 Mussel? 1 * = partial skeleton Area B Unphased Phase 3 Phase 4 Cattle 1 9 * 4 Sheep/goat 1 2 Pig 2 * = partial skeleton Area C and monitoring Area C Area C Monitoring Phase 4 Phase 5 U/S Cattle 1 12 3 Sheep/goat 1 Pig 1 Oyster 1 Cockle 1 Table 1.5: All Phases and Areas: Relative proportions of the domestic species Phase 3 % Phase 4 % Phase 5 % Phase 6 % Cattle & cattle size 23 72% 16 76% 80 63% 27 60% Sheep/goat & sheep 3 9% 3 14% 34 27% 13 29% Pig 3 9% 1 5% 6 5% 3 7% Horse 3 9% 1 5% 7 5% 2 4% N 32 21 127 45 Table 1.6: Area A, Phase 4, Ditch F60: Relative proportions of the domestic species Context 57 % Context 58 % Context 59 % Cattle & cattle size 6 25% 11 61% 8 73% Sheep/goat & sheep 17 71% 5 28% 2 18% Pig 1 4% 1 5% Horse 1 5% 1 9% N 24 18 11 Archaeological Services Durham University 86 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.7: Body part representation for the domestic species Phase 3 Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse Head: skull, jaw 11 1 1 Loose teeth 3 2 2 1 Forelimb: scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, 4 carpals Vertebrae and ribs Hindlimb: pelvis, femur, 4 1 1 patella, tibia, tarsals Feet: Metapodials 3 Toes: phalanges Phase 4 Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse Head: skull, jaw 9 Loose teeth 1 2 Forelimb: scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, 2 carpals Vertebrae and ribs 1 Hindlimb: pelvis, femur, 3 1 patella, tibia, tarsals Feet: Metapodials 2 1 1 Toes: phalanges Phase 5 Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse Head: skull, jaw 14 11 2 Loose teeth 14 6 1 Forelimb: scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, 10 5 1 3 carpals Vertebrae and ribs 3 Hindlimb: pelvis, femur, 17 7 2 4 patella, tibia, tarsals Feet: Metapodials 10 5 Toes: phalanges 3 2 Phase 6 Cattle Sheep/goat Pig Horse Head: skull, jaw 6 3 2 Loose teeth 4 7 1 Forelimb: scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, 5 1 carpals Vertebrae and ribs Hindlimb: pelvis, femur, 7 3 1 patella, tibia, tarsals Feet: Metapodials 4 Toes: phalanges 1 Archaeological Services Durham University 87 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.8: Number of contexts in which species present in samples No of contexts sampled with bones 41 No of contexts with bones in sample but none 27 hand recovered Cattle 3 Sheep/goat 5 Pig 1 Dog 1 Vole 1 Sm. mammal 1 Frog/toad 1 Eggshell? 1 Indeterminate only 28 Archaeological Services Durham University 88 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.9: Cattle. Epiphyses in approximate order of fusion Phases 2 3 4 5 U JF F U JF F U JF F U JF F by 18 months Scap tub 3 1 Acet symph 1 Prox rad 1 2 1 Dist hum 2 1 2 1 Prox Ph 2 1 1 1 Prox Ph 1 by 2-3 years Dist tib 1 1 1 Dist mc 1 1 2 Dist mt 1 1 1 2 by 3.5-4 years Prox cal Prox fem 1 1 Dist rad Prox hum 1 Prox tib 1 Dist fem 2 1 2 Prox uln by >5 years Ant vert ep Post vert ep Ages of fusion after Silver (1969) U = Unfused, JF = Just Fused, F = Fused Archaeological Services Durham University 89 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.10: Teeth in approximate order of eruption, all maxillary and mandibular teeth Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Cattle U/W S/W H/W U/W S/W H/W U/W S/W H/W U/W S/W H/W 5-6m M1 2 1 6 1 1 6 2 15-18m M2 2 5 3 4 1 2 5-18m M1/2 1 1 3 24-30m P2 1 1 1 1 1 18-30m P3 1 1 1 1 2 24-30m M3 1 2 2 1 4 5 1 28-36m P4 2 1 4 5 6 3 2 1 Sheep/goat U/W S/W H/W U/W S/W H/W U/W S/W H/W U/W S/W H/W 3-5m M1 2 3 9-12m M2 5 1 3 3-12m M1/2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 21-24m P2 21-24m P3 18-24m M3 5 2 2 4 21-24m P4 2 Ages after Silver (1969). m = months U/W = unerupted or unworn S/W = slight wear H/W = heavy wear Archaeological Services Durham University 90 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.11: Mandibular Tooth Wear Stages (TWS) after Grant 1982 Phases 2-5 TWS a b c d e f g h j k l m n Cattle dlp4 1 1 4 2 P4 1 1 1 1 1 M1 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 1 M1/M2 M2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 M3 5 2 1 2 2 Sheep/goat dlp4 P4 1 M1 2 1 2 M1/M2 2 2 2 M2 1 1 1 1 3 1 M3 2 1 4 Table 1.12: Cattle Mandible wear scores, Phases 3-5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Mandible Wear Scores (MWS) after Grant 1982 Archaeological Services Durham University 91 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.13: Typological composition of the lithics assemblage Typology Number % Flakes 4 30.8 Chips 3 23.1 Core 1 7.7 Fragment 1 7.7 Tools 4 30.8 Total 13 100 Table 1.14: Raw material type Raw material Frequency Artefact type on raw material Reddish-brown flint 5 Fragment, flake, retouched flake, core, chip Light brown/ beige flint 1 Flake Grey flint 4 Flake, retouched flake, chip Brown flint 2 Flake, piercer Black flint 1 Scraper Total 13 Table 1.15: Amount of cortex present Cortex Frequency % None 7 54% <25% 3 23% 25-50% 1 8% 50-75% 1 8% >75% 1 8% Wholly cortical 0 0% Total 13 100% Archaeological Services Durham University 92 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.16: Fired clay and fired clay/pot by weight and context Context Wt (g) Fired clay Fired clay/pot 50 28 X 54 8 X 63 3 X 73 <2 X 75 <2 X 77 2 X 80 32 X 82 8 X 85 2 X 88 <2 X 90 4 X 93 <2 X 100 14 X 104 <2 X 111 93 X 119 3 X 121 6 X 125 3 X 127 3 X 129 <2 X 132 3 X 136 3 X 145 <2 X 148 7 X 150 329 X 156 783 X 203 19 X 215 21 X 232 7 X 280 <2 X 291 26 X 338 <2 X 342 <2 X 350 1426 X 351 11 X 352 1903 X 359 55 X 368 <2 X 373 6 X 391 175 X 402 <2 X 413 10 X 429 <2 X 431 4 X 435 101 X Total c5111g Archaeological Services Durham University 93 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.17: Fuel waste and industrial residue by weight and context Context Hand- Cinder/clinker Unburnt Fuel Ironworking Wt Hammerscale recovered Coal ash slag residue (g) present u/s x x 6 50 x <2 54 x <2 x 58 x <2 x 63 x <2 75 x 77 x <2 x 85 x <2 x 88 x 20 x 88 x <2 90 x 3 93 x <2 100 x <2 104 x <2 x 111 x <2 x 119 x <2 121 x <2 x 125 x <2 x 127 x <2 129 x <2 132 x <2 x 136 x <2 x 140 x 3 145 x <2 148 x <2 150 x 14 156 x x 17 198 x 7 x 203 x <2 x 215 x <2 221 x 3 x 232 x 4 270 inc SF7 x 8 x 280 x <2 283 x <2 291 x 2 x 347 x <2 x 351 x <2 x 352 x x 16 391 x 3 402 x x 6 402 x x 178 429 x 437 x 7 x Archaeological Services Durham University 94 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.18: Summary of osteological and palaeopathological results (skeletons) Sk Preservation* Stature Dental Age Age Sex Skeletal Pathology No SP F C (cm) Disease DEH Possible metabolic condition: (deciduous slightly thickened cranial and vault, endocranial porosity 20- 1/ 1½- permanent (possibly healed lamellar 4 sev 30 YJ - - 2 2½ teeth); bone), ectocranial porosity, % Rdm1 has possible lamellar bone on the a third R ulna and unidentified long root bone fragments 4- ~1 3 ext A 18+ ? - - - 5 0% * SP = Surface Preservation, grades according to McKinley (2004); F = Fragmentation (minimal, slight, moderate, severe, extreme); C = Completeness. Archaeological Services Durham University 95 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.19: Updated results from the palaeoenvironmental assessments, excluding analysed samples (evaluation and excavation phase) Volume Flot volume Phase Area Sample Context Feature Feature type Rank Notes processed (l) (ml) Small flot, modern root and small assemblage of charred plant macrofossils, trace of coal, cinder, 2 A 44 119 F120 Cist Burial 27 20 * charcoal and charred heather. A few pitted/degraded spelt grains, low number of spelt chaff and a few small weeds seeds dock, heath-grass. C14 date: 250-420 cal AD. Tiny flot, occasional coal and cinder fragments and a trace of charcoal including oak. Occasional 2 A 46 129 F130 Ditch/Gully 14 5 * modern roots. Trace of charred indeterminate tuber/rhizomes and an indeterminate cereal grain in very poor, broken condition and two sedge nutlets. W Enclosure Small flot, traces of coal and cinder and tiny charcoal fragments. Tiny charred plant macrofossil 3 A 42 121 F122 17 15 * Ditch assemblage of two extremely poorly preserved cereal grains and a heath-grass caryopsis. Tiny flot with occasional modern roots and straw fragments, insect/beetle remains and Droveway 3 A 56 198 F202 13 5 * earthworm egg cases. Trace of charred heather twigs and rhizome. No charred plant Ditch macrofossils. Trench E Enclosure 4 6 13 F14 20 15 * Trace of charcoal and charred rhizomes/tubers, cf. spelt-type wheat grain. 6 Ditch Trench 4 7 15 F16 Gully 7.5 10 * Trace of charcoal (oak) and charred heather stems. Other charred remains absent. 6 Trench W Enclosure Charcoal absent. Indeterminate cereal grain, spelt wheat spikelet fork, wild/weed taxa 4 9 19 F20 18.5 15 * 6 Ditch (buttercup, rhizome/tuber). Rare fragmented coal/coal shale and clinker/cinder. Trace of charcoal. Rare charred heather stems (one large diameter fragment). Rare cereal grains N Enclosure 4 A 43 127 F128 16 15 ** (hulled barley, wheat), occasional spelt wheat chaff and rare barley rachises, wild/weed taxa Ditch including heath-grass, sedge, vetch and grasses (oat, bromes). Small flot, traces of charcoal oak sapwood slivers, heather. Modest amount of charred spelt W Enclosure 4 A 45 125 F126 18 30 ** chaff, few barley rachis. Some poorly preserved spelt + barley grains, few charred weed seeds Ditch cleavers + dock. Moderate flot generally comprising small silvers of oak sapwood. A few charred hazel nutshell 4 A 57 215 F216 E Ditch 28 30 ** fragments. Trace of cinder and rare coal/coal shale fragments present. A trace of calcined bone also noted. Charcoal absent. Rare charred heather stems and rhizomes/tubers. Indeterminate cereal grain, Trench 5 5 11 F12 Ditch/Gully 15.5 20 * spelt wheat glume base, wild/weed taxa (heath-grass). Occasional fragmented coal/coal shale 6 and clinker/cinder. Archaeological Services Durham University 96 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Volume Flot volume Phase Area Sample Context Feature Feature type Rank Notes processed (l) (ml) Tiny flot with occasional modern roots and a trace of charcoal and cinder. Trace of insect/beetle 5 A 25 63 F64 Gully 13 5 * remains noted. A single charred indeterminate tuber/rhizome present. Small charred plant macrofossil assemblage available including a vetch seed fragment and a number of dock nutlets. 5 A 26 67 F70 Pit 7 5 - Tiny flot with traces of modern roots and coal ash. No evidence of burnt material. Small flot, traces of coal, cinder and charcoal (cf. Maloideae), small charred plant macrofossil 5 A 30 80 F81 Gully 10 20 * assemblage with a few poorly preserved spelt wheat grains, a few spelt glumes bases and cleavers seeds. NE Enclosure Small flot, traces of modern roots, coal, cinder and charred heather. Two pitted/degraded spelt 5 A 32 77 F79 15 15 * Ditch wheat grains, a spelt glume base and a small buttercup seed. No charcoal. Small flot, traces of modern roots, coal, cinder, charcoal (oak sapwood), modest charred plant 5 A 33 85 F87 Gully 16 30 ** macrofossils comprising pitted/degraded spelt wheat and barley grains, frequent spelt chaff, few brome seeds. Small flot, modern roots, traces of coal + cinder, some charcoal is oak small branchwood, charred 5 A 34 88 F89 Pit 17 15 * rhizomes. A few pitted/degraded grains including spelt wheat and a spelt glume base. Tiny flot, traces of charcoal, coal, cinder, charred heather, charred rhizome and modern roots. A 5 A 36 90 F91 Pit 15 10 * few charred pitted/degraded grains (spelt wheat), a few spelt glume bases and heath-grass and cleavers seeds. 5 A 47 140 F141 Pit 4 5 * Tiny flot, a few slivers of oak sapwood and cf. pine charcoal, no charred plant macrofossils. Small flot, traces of modern roots, charcoal, coal and cinder. Low number of charred plant 5 A 59 221 F204 ‘Stoking' pit 18 10 * remains includes chaff - mainly spelt glume bases and a barley rachis, small damaged seeds of heath-grass and dock. Half a wheat grain cf. spelt. Tiny flot with occasional modern roots. Trace of indeterminate tuber/rhizomes. Single Enclosure indeterminate cereal grain in poor condition and a twisted awn fragment. Small charred weed 5 C 73 421 F410 15 3 * Ditch (N-S) assemblage including a heath-grass caryopsis and damaged indeterminate seed. (Uncertain). Small worked bead fragment recovered from flot. Small flot, traces of charcoal, coal, cinder and charred heather. Charred plant macrofossil 6 A 31 82 F439 Hollow 18 20 * assemblage includes a few pitted/degraded grains (spelt wheat + barley), a spelt glume base, a small buttercup seed, and uncharred elder fruitstone. Small flot, traces of charcoal, coal, cinder, charred heather and grass-type rhizome. A few Occupation 6 A 51 53 F265 18 20 * charred seeds of heath-grass and sedge. No charred cereal remains. Charcoal is fragmented and layer in poor condition. Archaeological Services Durham University 97 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Volume Flot volume Phase Area Sample Context Feature Feature type Rank Notes processed (l) (ml) Occupation Small flot, modern roots and traces of coal, cinder and charcoal (oak sapwood), a few charred 6 A 62 280 F265 11 15 * layer cereal grains in poor condition (pitted/degraded) and a few charred spelt chaff and heath-grass. Trench Occupation 6 1 3 F4 17.5 10 * Trace of coal/coal shale. Rare charred heather twigs and heath-grass caryopsis. 6 layer Small flot, traces of charcoal (oak), coal and cinder. Modest amount of charred heather twigs, a Stone-lined 6 - 77 429 F430 20 50 ** few poorly preserved hexaploid wheat grains (pitted/degraded), no chaff, small weed seeds - Pit mainly sedge with dock, heath-grass and a ribwort plantain. Small flot, traces of cinder, coal and charred heather. A few charred weed seeds of sedge and Grave in 7 A 66 338 F337 13 15 * heath-grass and a charred herbaceous rhizome. No cereal remains and no charcoal. Ditch F228 C14 date: 430-600 cal AD. Trench Charcoal rare (oak). Trace of charred heather stems. Indeterminate cereal grain and wheat - 4 9 F10 Gully 15 60 * 5 grains. Trace of fragmented clinker/cinder. Charcoal absent. Rare charred plant remains: indeterminate cereal grains, barley rachis, spelt Trench - 8 17 F18 Ditch 14 40 * wheat glume bases, wild/weed taxa (bromes, heath-grass). Trace of fragmented coal/coal shale 5 and clinker/cinder. Waterlogged peat deposit. Abundant uncharred vegetative material. Occasional uncharred plant Test remains including pondweeds, crowfoots, cf beaked tasselweed (Ruppia cf. maritima), bramble - 2 + 41 6 - Peat deposit 8 1100 ** Pit 1 fruitstones. Abundant wood fragments, alder roundwood, bark. Pollen, spores and other microfossils absent, or very rare. [Rank: *: low; **: medium; ***: high; ****: very high potential to provide further palaeoenvironmental information] Archaeological Services Durham University 98 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.20: Charred plant remains and charcoal from analysed samples < Sample 3 22 23 29 35 39 40 48 49 50 52 53 Context 7 58 59 75 100 93 111 145 132 136 150 148 Feature F8 F60 F60 F76 F101 F94 F114 F146 F138 F138 F151 F149 Feature type G E-D E-D E-D P E-D P G P P CD G Phase n/a 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Volume processed (l) 12 18 19 17 14 15 16 16 14 4 12 17 Volume of flot (ml) 40 5 5 10 120 10 110 10 100 5 120 40 Residue contents Bone (burnt) indet. frags ------(+) - - - - - Bone (calcined) indet. frags ------(+) (+) (+) (+) - (+) Bone (unburnt) indet. frags - ++ +++ (+) - (+) - ++ (+) ++ - - Coal / coal shale - - - - - (+) - (+) - - - - Clinker / cinder ------(+) - - - - Fired clay + - ++ + ++ - + (+) (+) (+) + (+) Glass ------Heat-affected stone ------+ - - - Hammerscale spherical / flake - (+) ------Metal-based remains Cu ------++ - - - - Flot matrix Roots (modern) +++ (+) (+) - - - - ++ - - - + Clinker / cinder + - - (+) - (+) - + - - - - Coal / coal shale (+) - (+) (+) - (+) - (+) - - - - Semi-vitrified fuel waste - - - - (+) - - - - - +++ - Charcoal + (+) (+) - (+) + (+) (+) ++ - - (+) Heather twigs (ch) large diameter (>2mm) ------+++ - Heather twigs (ch) small diameter (<2mm) + ++ (+) (+) (+) + (+) (+) + - ++++ + Monocot stems (ch) small diameter (<2mm) (+) - (+) ------+ (+) Tuber / rhizome (ch) ++ + (+) (+) (+) ++ (+) ++ + (+) - + Charred crop remains (total counts) (c) Cerealia indeterminate coleoptile - - - - - 8 143 - 46 - - 11 (c) Cerealia indeterminate coleoptile (frag.) - - - - - + +++ - + - - - Archaeological Services Durham University 99 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 3 22 23 29 35 39 40 48 49 50 52 53 Context 7 58 59 75 100 93 111 145 132 136 150 148 (c) Cerealia indeterminate detached embryo - - - - 6 1 - - 70 - - 4 (c) Cerealia indeterminate cereal-sized culm node ------1 (c) Cerealia indeterminate cereal-sized culm frags ------(c) Cerealia indeterminate grain 346 4 1 - 496 15 422 8 410 4 1 125 (c) Cerealia indeterminate (sub-) basal rachis ------1 - - 2 (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain (frag.) ++ - - - ++++ (+) ++++ (+) ++++ - - ++ (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain (germinated) ------3 - - 3 (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain (germinated frag.) ------(c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) rachis 2 - 1 - 43 9 141 - 24 1 - 29 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) (sub-) basal rachis - - - - 1 - - - 8 - - 4 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) grain 56 - - - 8 5 14 2 8 - - - (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) hulled grain 9 - - - 1 - 36 - 21 - - 2 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) hulled tail/runt grain ------9 - 5 - - 2 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) hulled grain (germinated) ------2 - - - - - (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) straight grain 4 - - - - - 8 - 3 - - - (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) twisted grain 11 - - - - 1 28 - 16 - - - (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) twisted floret ------2 - - - - - (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) rachis 2 - - - 5 5 42 - 39 1 - 53 (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) (sub-) basal rachis - - - - 1 - 6 - 3 - - 2 (c) Pisum sativum (Pea) seed ------(c) Pisum sativum/Vicia faba (Pea/Bean) seed ------(c) Triticum aestivum (Bread Wheat) rachis ------1 - - - (c) Triticum cf. aestivum (cf. Bread Wheat) rachis ------1 - - - (c) Triticum sp. (Free-threshing wheat species) grain ------2 - - - (c) Triticum sp. (Glume wheat species) grain ------10 - 12 - - - (c) Triticum sp (Glume wheat species) glume base* 821 37 52 - 22173 394 6815 9 12183 292 9 4621 (c) Triticum sp (Glume wheat species) spikelet fork* 16 4 - - 224 6 272 - 628 14 - 218 (c) Triticum sp. (Glume wheat species) rachis frag.* 8 1 2 - 376 43 998 - 3162 38 - 281 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) grain 39 - 1 - 337 10 216 1 453 2 1 42 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) grain (germinated) - - - - 1 - 35 - - - - - (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) tail/runt grain ------1 - - Archaeological Services Durham University 100 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 3 22 23 29 35 39 40 48 49 50 52 53 Context 7 58 59 75 100 93 111 145 132 136 150 148 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) (sub-) basal rachis 5 - 1 - 6 - - - 2 4 - 6 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) awn (frag.) - - - - (+) - ++ - ++ - - - (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) silicified awn (frag.) - - - - ++ - ++++ - +++ - - - (c) Triticum cf. dicoccum (Emmer-type Wheat) grain ------2 - - - - - (c) Triticum dicoccum (Emmer Wheat) glume base ------1 - - - - - (c) Triticum cf. dicoccum (Emmer Wheat) glume base ------4 - - - - - (c) Triticum cf. spelta (Spelt-type Wheat) grain 17 - - - 333 - 114 - 293 - - 15 (c) Triticum cf. spelta (Spelt-type Wheat) grain (germinated) ------14 - - 1 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) glume base* 49 14 - 3 1855 111 810 1 1083 48 2 690 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) spikelet fork 6 - - - 19 9 16 - 42 2 - 22 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) spikelet - - - - 1 - 2 - - - - - (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) spikelet (germinated) ------2 - - - - - (c) Vicia faba (Bean) seed - - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 Charred wild/weed taxa (total counts) (a) Aethusa cynapium (Fool's Parsley) fruit ------(a) Agrostemma githago (Corncockle) seed ------(a) Anthemis cotula (Stinking Chamomile) achene 4 - - - 24 ------3 (a) Avena fatua (Wild-oat) floret base 4 - - - 1 - 85 - 4 - - 2 (a) Avena fatua (Wild-oat) floret ------4 - - - - 1 (a) Avena sp (Oat species) caryopsis (germinated) ------4 - - - - 1 (a) Avena sp (Oat species) caryopsis - 1 - - 11 1 93 - 74 - 1 1 (a) Avena sp (Oat species) floret base ------1 - - 1 (a) Avena sp (Oat species) floret ------(a) Bromus sp (Bromes) caryopsis* 3 - 1 - 35 1 308 - 528 1 - 4 (a) Bromus sp (Bromes) caryopsis (germinated) ------42 - 2 - - - (a) Chenopodium album (Fat-hen) seed - - - - - 2 1 - - 2 - 2 (a) Fallopia convolvulus (Black-bindweed) nutlet ------1 - - 2 (a) Fumaria sp (Fumitories) seed - - - - 1 ------2 (a) Lithospermum arvense (Field Gromwell) seed ------(a) cf. Raphanus raphanistrum (cf. Wild Radish) seed - - - - 1 ------(a) Raphanus raphanistrum (Wild Radish) pod (frag.) ------7 - 1 - - - Archaeological Services Durham University 101 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 3 22 23 29 35 39 40 48 49 50 52 53 Context 7 58 59 75 100 93 111 145 132 136 150 148 (a) Raphanus raphanistrum (Wild Radish) pod - - - - - 1 - - 1 - - 1 (a) Thlaspi arvense (Field Penny-cress) seed ------2 - - - (a) Tripleurospermum inodorum (Scentless Mayweed) achene 20 - 1 - 1 1 38 - 220 - 2 1 (a) Valerianella dentata (Narrow-fruited Cornsalad) fruit ------1 - - - - - (g) Arrhenatherum elatius ssp bulbosum (False Oat-grass) swollen basal internode - - - - - 1 ------(g) Galium mollugo/palustre (Hedge/Marsh Bedstraw) seed ------(g) Linum catharticum (Fairy Flax) seed ------1 - - - (g) Rhinanthus minor (Yellow-rattle) seed ------(g) Sanguisorba minor ssp. minor (Salad burnet) achene ------(h) Calluna vulgaris (Heather) flower buds ------+++ (+) (h) Danthonia decumbens (Heath-grass) caryopsis - 3 5 3 - 1 1 5 2 - - 2 (h) Rumex acetosella (Sheep’s Sorrel) nutlet - - 2 - 1 - - - 10 - - 2 (m) Bolboschoenus maritimus (Sea Club-rush) nutlet ------(m) cf. Phaeophyceae (cf. Brown Seaweed) frond midrib (frag.) - - - - - 1 ------(m) Phaeophyceae (Brown Seaweed) frond midrib (frag.) - 1 - - - - - 9 - - - - (r) Aphanes sp (Parsley-pierts) seed ------(r) Daucus carota ssp. carota (Wild Carrot) fruit ------(r) Galeopsis sp (Hemp-nettles) nutlet ------(r) Galium aparine (Cleavers) seed - - - - 7 - 9 - 24 - - 42 (r) Lapsana communis (Nipplewort) achene ------(r) Persicaria maculosa (Redshank) nutlet ------(r) Plantago lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain) seed - - - - 1 ------(r) Polygonaceae undiff. (Knotweed family) nutlet - - - - 5 2 ------(r) Polygonum aviculare (Knotgrass) nutlet - - - - 9 - 4 - 12 - - - (r) Sherardia arvensis (Field Madder) seed ------8 - - - (r) Stellaria cf. media (cf. Common Chickweed) seed - - 12 - - 5 - - 2 - - - (r) Stellaria/Cerastium sp (Stitchworts/Mouse-ears) seed - 2 ------(r) Veronica hederifolia (Ivy-leaved Speedwell) seed ------1 - - - (t) Corylus avellana (Hazel >4mm) nutshell (frag.) ------(w) Carex spp (Sedges) biconvex nutlet ------1 - - - - - (w) Carex spp (Sedges) trigonous nutlet - - 1 - - 2 1 - 2 1 - 3 Archaeological Services Durham University 102 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 3 22 23 29 35 39 40 48 49 50 52 53 Context 7 58 59 75 100 93 111 145 132 136 150 148 (w) Cyperaceae undiff. (Sedge family) nutlet ------(w) Montia fontana (Blinks) seed - 1 1 - - - - - 1 - 2 - (x) Amaranthaceae undiff. (Goosefoot family) seed - - 5 1 - - 12 - - - - - (x) Apiaceae undiff. (Carrot family) fruit - - - - 1 - - - 3 - - 1 (x) Asteraceae undiff. (Daisy family) achene - - - - 1 1 4 - - - - 4 (x) Brassica/Sinapsis sp. (Cabbages/Mustards) seed ------(x) Brassicaceae undiff. (Cabbage family) seed - - - - - 1 ------(x) Cenococcum geophilum (Soil fungus) sclerotia - - - - - (+) ------(x) Cerastium sp. (Mouse-ears) seed ------(x) Centaurea sp (Knapweeds) achene ------2 - 1 - - - (x) Chenopodium spp (Goosefoots) seed - - - - 55 5 20 - 176 2 - 30 (x) Cirsium / Carduus sp (Thistles) achene ------1 - - - (x) Fabaceae undiff. (Pea family) >2mm seed ------2 - - - (x) Fabaceae undiff. (Pea family) <2mm seed - - - - - 1 1 - 2 - - - (x) Fabaceae undiff. (Pea family) <2mm seed (germinated) ------(x) Mentha sp. (Mint species) nutlet ------(x) Papaver dubium/rhoeas (Long-headed/Common Poppy) seed ------(x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, small <2mm) caryopsis - 1 - - 2 9 2 4 80 - - 2 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, medium 2-4mm) caryopsis 1 2 - - 1 2 5 1 - - - 1 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, large >4mm) caryopsis* 43 - - - 496 15 1412 - 1090 4 1 24 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, large >4mm) caryopsis (frag.) - - - - ++ - ++++ - ++++ - - - (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, large >4mm) caryopsis (germinated) ------75 - 4 - - - (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family) twisted awn (frag.) (+) - + - +++ (+) ++++ - +++ ++ (+) ++ (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family) detached embryo - 1 3 - 2 10 54 2 120 - - 2 (x) Potentilla sp (Cinquefoils) achene - - - - - 2 - - 1 - - - (x) Prunella vulgaris (Selfheal) nutlet - - - - - 1 - - 1 - - - (x) Ranunculus subgenus Ranunculus (Buttercup) achene - - 1 2 1 1 - 1 1 1 - 1 (x) Rosaceae (Rose family <2mm) achene ------1 - - - (x) Rumex sp (Docks) nutlet - 3 4 2 99 2 20 1 462 - - 27 (x) Vicia sp (Vetches) seed - 1 1 4 - 1 51 1 55 1 - 6 (x) Vicia/Lathyrus sp (Vetches/Tares) seed 1 ------3 Archaeological Services Durham University 103 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 3 22 23 29 35 39 40 48 49 50 52 53 Context 7 58 59 75 100 93 111 145 132 136 150 148 (x) Vicia/Lathyrus/Pisum sp (Vetches/Tares/Pea) >3mm seed ------26 - 3 - - - (x) Viola sp (Violets) seed ------2 - - - Total number of charred plant remains 1467 76 95 15 26441 687 12433 45 21435 419 19 6306 Density of charred plant remains (items/litre) 122 4 5 0.9 1903 46 777 2.8 1531 105 1583 371 Charcoal: Tree species (presence) Alnus glutinosa (Alder) ------Betula sp (Birches) ------cf. Betula sp (cf. Birches) ------Corylus avellana (Hazel) ------Fraxinus excelisior (Ash) ------cf. Maloideae (cf. Hawthorn, apple, whitebeams) ------Maloideae (Hawthorn, apple, whitebeams) ------cf. Prunus spinosa / domestica (cf. Blackthorn / plum) ------Prunus spinosa / domestica (Blackthorn / plum) ------Quercus sp (Oaks) - - - - - - - - - [a-arable; c-cultivated; g-grassland; h-heathland; m-marine; r-ruderal; t-tree/shrub; w-wet/damp ground; x-wide niche. Semi-quantitative scale (+): trace; +: rare; ++: occasional; +++: common; ++++: abundant] [‘*’ includes estimated quantities] [P=Pit; G=Gully; E-D=Enclosure Ditch; CD=Corn dryer; PH=Posthole] Archaeological Services Durham University 104 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.21: Charred plant remains and charcoal from analysed samples (continued) Sample 54 58 60 64 68 69 70 71 72 75 Context 156 203 232 291 347 351 351 373 391 413 Feature F142 F204 F233 F292 F348 F349 F349 F372 F349 F418 Feature type CD P PH P P CD CD CD/P CD P Phase 5 5 1 1 6 5 5 5 5 5 Volume processed (l) 18 8 15 16 20 19 11 5 6 14 Volume of flot (ml) 20 60 50 40 25 120 210 30 10 80 Residue contents Bone (burnt) indet. frags (+) - - - (+) - - - - - Bone (calcined) indet. frags (+) - +++ ------(+) Bone (unburnt) indet. frags (+) - - - (+) - - (+) - - Coal / coal shale (+) - + - - (+) + - + - Clinker / cinder (+) - ++ ------Fired clay - - + - - ++ ++++ ++ ++++ + Glass - - - - (+) - - - - - Heat-affected stone ------Hammerscale spherical / flake ------Metal-based remains Cu ------Flot matrix Roots (modern) ------Clinker / cinder - - + - (+) - - - - - Coal / coal shale - - - - + - (+) - - - Semi-vitrified fuel waste +++ - - - - (+) + - - + Charcoal ++ (+) ++ + ++ ++ + (+) (+) (+) Heather twigs (ch) large diameter (>2mm) ------(+) Heather twigs (ch) small diameter (<2mm) - (+) - - (+) + (+) (+) - + Monocot stems (ch) small diameter (<2mm) ------+ - (+) Tuber / rhizome (ch) - + (+) - ++ ++ (+) + - + Charred crop remains (total counts) (c) Cerealia indeterminate coleoptile - 3 - - - 960 5058 822 28 203 (c) Cerealia indeterminate coleoptile (frag.) - - - - - +++ ++++ +++ ++ ++ Archaeological Services Durham University 105 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 54 58 60 64 68 69 70 71 72 75 Context 156 203 232 291 347 351 351 373 391 413 (c) Cerealia indeterminate detached embryo - 4 - - - 25 90 133 4 20 (c) Cerealia indeterminate cereal-sized culm node - 2 - - - - - 2 - 2 (c) Cerealia indeterminate cereal-sized culm frags ------+ - (+) (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain 1 378 - 1 4 35 352 25 54 250 (c) Cerealia indeterminate (sub-) basal rachis - 1 - - - 2 - 6 - 4 (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain (frag.) - ++++ - - - +++ +++ ++ ++ +++ (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain (germinated) - - - - - 42 72 - - 3 (c) Cerealia indeterminate grain (germinated frag.) - - - - - +++ +++ + (+) + (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) rachis 2 4 - - - 4 - 6 - 350 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) (sub-) basal rachis ------2 - 6 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) grain - 4 - 1 ------(c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) hulled grain - 2 1 - 1 2 6 17 1 12 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) hulled tail/runt grain - - - - - 1 1 3 - 2 (c) Hordeum sp (Barley species) hulled grain (germinated) ------(c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) straight grain ------1 4 - 2 (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) twisted grain ------3 13 - 9 (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) twisted floret ------(c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) rachis 1 2 - - - 8 81 41 - 59 (c) Hordeum vulgare (6-row Hulled Barley) (sub-) basal rachis ------1 - 5 (c) Pisum sativum (Pea) seed - - - - 1 - - 11 - - (c) Pisum sativum/Vicia faba (Pea/Bean) seed - 1 - - 1 - - - - - (c) Triticum aestivum (Bread Wheat) rachis ------2 - - 2 (c) Triticum cf. aestivum (cf. Bread Wheat) rachis ------1 (c) Triticum sp. (Free-threshing wheat species) grain - - - - - 1 2 1 - 7 (c) Triticum sp. (Glume wheat species) grain ------(c) Triticum sp (Glume wheat species) glume base* 5 6319 4 3 1 3088 22560 431 4 21057 (c) Triticum sp (Glume wheat species) spikelet fork* 1 449 - - - 84 424 21 1 155 (c) Triticum sp. (Glume wheat species) rachis frag.* - 599 - 1 - 352 13180 143 - 3618 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) grain - 397 1 - - 15 361 114 32 145 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) grain (germinated) - - - - - 280 162 96 26 19 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) tail/runt grain - 2 - - - 2 4 - - 3 Archaeological Services Durham University 106 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 54 58 60 64 68 69 70 71 72 75 Context 156 203 232 291 347 351 351 373 391 413 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) (sub-) basal rachis - 2 - - - 12 2 1 - 5 (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) awn (frag.) - ++ - - - ++ ++++ ++ - +++ (c) Triticum sp (Wheat species) silicified awn (frag.) + ++ - - - + ++++ ++ - ++++ (c) Triticum cf. dicoccum (Emmer-type Wheat) grain ------(c) Triticum dicoccum (Emmer Wheat) glume base ------(c) Triticum cf. dicoccum (Emmer Wheat) glume base ------(c) Triticum cf. spelta (Spelt-type Wheat) grain 3 202 - - - 5 225 35 31 181 (c) Triticum cf. spelta (Spelt-type Wheat) grain (germinated) - - - - - 72 78 22 63 29 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) glume base 2 706 - - 1 1012 4532 332 2 2099 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) spikelet fork - 48 - - - 36 145 32 - 79 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) spikelet - 1 - - - 1 11 - 1 1 (c) Triticum spelta (Spelt Wheat) spikelet (germinated) - - - - - 1 5 - 1 - (c) Vicia faba (Bean) seed ------Charred wild/weed taxa (total counts) (a) Aethusa cynapium (Fool's Parsley) fruit - - - - - 1 - - - - (a) Agrostemma githago (Corncockle) seed - - - - - 1 - - - - (a) Anthemis cotula (Stinking Chamomile) achene - 44 ------(a) Avena fatua (Wild-oat) floret base - 1 - - - 1 5 2 - 4 (a) Avena fatua (Wild-oat) floret - - - - - 2 3 - - 2 (a) Avena sp (Oat species) caryopsis (germinated) - - - - - 1 2 - - - (a) Avena sp (Oat species) caryopsis - - - - - 4 92 17 - 32 (a) Avena sp (Oat species) floret base ------1 - - - (a) Avena sp (Oat species) floret - 1 - - - - 2 1 - - (a) Bromus sp (Bromes) caryopsis* - 4 - - - 150 1852 117 1 288 (a) Bromus sp (Bromes) caryopsis (germinated) - - - - - 25 297 8 - 4 (a) Chenopodium album (Fat-hen) seed - - - - - 1 - 9 - - (a) Fallopia convolvulus (Black-bindweed) nutlet - - 1 - - - - 1 - 1 (a) Fumaria sp (Fumitories) seed 1 4 ------3 (a) Lithospermum arvense (Field Gromwell) seed 1 ------156 (a) cf. Raphanus raphanistrum (cf. Wild Radish) seed ------(a) Raphanus raphanistrum (Wild Radish) pod (frag.) - - - - - 13 20 2 - 1 Archaeological Services Durham University 107 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 54 58 60 64 68 69 70 71 72 75 Context 156 203 232 291 347 351 351 373 391 413 (a) Raphanus raphanistrum (Wild Radish) pod ------2 3 - - (a) Thlaspi arvense (Field Penny-cress) seed - - - - - 1 - 3 - - (a) Tripleurospermum inodorum (Scentless Mayweed) achene 1 8 - - - 30 29 88 1 95 (a) Valerianella dentata (Narrow-fruited Cornsalad) fruit ------(g) Arrhenatherum elatius ssp bulbosum (False Oat-grass) swollen basal internode ------(g) Galium mollugo/palustre (Hedge/Marsh Bedstraw) seed ------2 - - (g) Linum catharticum (Fairy Flax) seed ------1 - - (g) Rhinanthus minor (Yellow-rattle) seed ------4 - - (g) Sanguisorba minor ssp. minor (Salad burnet) achene ------2 - - (h) Calluna vulgaris (Heather) flower buds ------(h) Danthonia decumbens (Heath-grass) caryopsis - - - - 1 4 2 1 2 2 (h) Rumex acetosella (Sheep’s Sorrel) nutlet - - - - 1 - - - - 1 (m) Bolboschoenus maritimus (Sea Club-rush) nutlet ------1 1 - - (m) cf. Phaeophyceae (cf. Brown Seaweed) frond midrib (frag.) ------(m) Phaeophyceae (Brown Seaweed) frond midrib (frag.) - - - - 4 - - - - - (r) Aphanes sp (Parsley-pierts) seed - - - - - 3 - - - 1 (r) Daucus carota ssp. carota (Wild Carrot) fruit ------1 - - (r) Galeopsis sp (Hemp-nettles) nutlet ------1 3 - - (r) Galium aparine (Cleavers) seed - 3 1 - - 1 5 30 2 8 (r) Lapsana communis (Nipplewort) achene ------1 (r) Persicaria maculosa (Redshank) nutlet - - 2 3 - - 1 - - - (r) Plantago lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain) seed ------1 (r) Polygonaceae undiff. (Knotweed family) nutlet 1 3 - - - 2 - 2 - 6 (r) Polygonum aviculare (Knotgrass) nutlet - 9 - - - 4 2 3 - - (r) Sherardia arvensis (Field Madder) seed ------(r) Stellaria cf. media (cf. Common Chickweed) seed - 1 1 - - 1 2 1 - 2 (r) Stellaria/Cerastium sp (Stitchworts/Mouse-ears) seed - - 3 - - - - 1 - - (r) Veronica hederifolia (Ivy-leaved Speedwell) seed - 1 ------(t) Corylus avellana (Hazel >4mm) nutshell (frag.) - - 2 ------(w) Carex spp (Sedges) biconvex nutlet - - - - - 2 1 1 - - (w) Carex spp (Sedges) trigonous nutlet ------3 - - 1 Archaeological Services Durham University 108 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 54 58 60 64 68 69 70 71 72 75 Context 156 203 232 291 347 351 351 373 391 413 (w) Cyperaceae undiff. (Sedge family) nutlet ------1 1 - - (w) Montia fontana (Blinks) seed - - - - - 2 2 2 - - (x) Amaranthaceae undiff. (Goosefoot family) seed - - 24 ------(x) Apiaceae undiff. (Carrot family) fruit - 1 ------(x) Asteraceae undiff. (Daisy family) achene - 4 - - - 20 7 21 1 - (x) Brassica/Sinapsis sp. (Cabbages/Mustards) seed ------2 - - (x) Brassicaceae undiff. (Cabbage family) seed ------1 (x) Cenococcum geophilum (Soil fungus) sclerotia - - - ++ ------(x) Cerastium sp. (Mouse-ears) seed ------1 - - (x) Centaurea sp (Knapweeds) achene ------1 - - - (x) Chenopodium spp (Goosefoots) seed - 8 22 2 - 8 28 - - 54 (x) Cirsium / Carduus sp (Thistles) achene - - - - - 1 1 - - - (x) Fabaceae undiff. (Pea family) >2mm seed ------(x) Fabaceae undiff. (Pea family) <2mm seed - - - 1 2 2 - 2 1 2 (x) Fabaceae undiff. (Pea family) <2mm seed (germinated) - - - - - 1 - - - - (x) Mentha sp. (Mint species) nutlet ------1 - - (x) Papaver dubium/rhoeas (Long-headed/Common Poppy) seed ------2 - - (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, small <2mm) caryopsis - 2 1 1 - 6 7 9 - 24 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, medium 2-4mm) caryopsis - - - - - 8 - 2 - 6 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, large >4mm) caryopsis* 2 182 - - 1 420 593 192 4 204 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, large >4mm) caryopsis (frag.) - - - - - +++ +++ ++ - +++ (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family, large >4mm) caryopsis (germinated) - - - - - 24 88 10 - 5 (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family) twisted awn (frag.) (+) ++ (+) (+) - + +++ ++ - +++ (x) Poaceae undiff. (Grass family) detached embryo - 24 - - - 18 6 4 - 50 (x) Potentilla sp (Cinquefoils) achene ------1 (x) Prunella vulgaris (Selfheal) nutlet ------1 - - 1 (x) Ranunculus subgenus Ranunculus (Buttercup) achene ------1 (x) Rosaceae (Rose family <2mm) achene ------2 - - (x) Rumex sp (Docks) nutlet - 105 - 3 - 24 10 10 - 38 (x) Vicia sp (Vetches) seed - 2 - - 2 6 - 1 - 60 (x) Vicia/Lathyrus sp (Vetches/Tares) seed 3 3 - - - 1 1 - - - Archaeological Services Durham University 109 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Sample 54 58 60 64 68 69 70 71 72 75 Context 156 203 232 291 347 351 351 373 391 413 (x) Vicia/Lathyrus/Pisum sp (Vetches/Tares/Pea) >3mm seed ------2 (x) Viola sp (Violets) seed - - - - - 3 - - - - Total number of charred plant remains 24 9536 63 16 20 6831 50426 2880 260 29386 Density of charred plant remains (items/litre) 1.3 1192 4.2 1 1 360 4584 576 43 2099 Charcoal: Tree species (presence) Alnus glutinosa (Alder) - - - - - - - - - Betula sp (Birches) - - - - - - - - - cf. Betula sp (cf. Birches) - ------Corylus avellana (Hazel) - - - - - - - - Fraxinus excelisior (Ash) ------ - - - cf. Maloideae (cf. Hawthorn, apple, whitebeams) ------ - - Maloideae (Hawthorn, apple, whitebeams) ------ - - - cf. Prunus spinosa / domestica (cf. Blackthorn / plum) - - - - ------Prunus spinosa / domestica (Blackthorn / plum) ------ - - - - Quercus sp (Oaks) - - - [a-arable; c-cultivated; g-grassland; h-heathland; m-marine; r-ruderal; t-tree/shrub; w-wet/damp ground; x-wide niche. Semi-quantitative scale (+): trace; +: rare; ++: occasional; +++: common; ++++: abundant] [*’ includes estimated quantities] [P=Pit; G=Gully; E-D=Enclosure Ditch; CD=Corn dryer; PH=Posthole] Archaeological Services Durham University 110 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.22: Detailed results from the charcoal analysis for pit/posthole [F233] Sample 60 Context 232 Feature number F233 Feature Pit/PH Radiocarbon date (95.4%) 400-200 cal BC Charcoal (g/number of fragments) Betula sp. (Birches) 0.07 (1F) Corylus avellana (Hazel) 0.481 (13F) Corylus / Alnus (Hazel / Alder) 0.045 (1F) Quercus sp (Oaks) 0.634 (10F) Indet Diffuse porous 0.037 (1F) Weight of fragments in the >4mm fraction (g) 309.22 Weight of fragments in the >2mm fraction (g) 2.311 Number of fragments in the >4mm fraction 26 Number of fragments in the >2mm fraction 152 % of fragments > 4mm analysed 100% [F = number of charcoal fragments] Archaeological Services Durham University 111 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.23: Growth ring data from charcoal analysis of pit/posthole [F233] Growth ring curvatures (number of fragments) Sample 60 Context 232 Strong Moderate Weak Indet. Other comments Feature F233 number Betula sp. (Birches) - - - 1F - Corylus avellana (Hazel) 9F 3F 1F Some reaction wood Corylus / Alnus (Hazel / Alder) 1F - - - - Quercus sp (Oaks) 2F - 3F 4F Radially fractured slivers, some vitrification (low to strong brilliance), some reaction wood Indet Diffuse porous - - 1F - - [F = number of charcoal fragments] Archaeological Services Durham University 112 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.24: Summary of radiocarbon dating results δ13C δ15N C/N Radiocarbon Calibrated date Calibrated date Laboratory code Sample Context Feature Material ‰ ‰ ratio Age BP 68.3% probability 95.4% probability SUERC-94713 F120 Human bone 258 (20.3%) 280 cal AD 251 (27.7%) 294 cal AD SK1/2 119 -20.2 15.3 3.2 1720 ± 26 GU55690 Cist burial (?femur) 331 (48.0%) 383 cal AD 315 (67.7%) 410 cal AD SUERC-94714 F146 265 (6.5%) 272 cal AD 258 (17.0%) 281 cal AD 48 145 Charred barley grain -24.5 - - 1697 ± 26 GU55691 Ditch 350 (61.8%) 406 cal AD 330 (78.5%) 416 cal AD SUERC-94715 F204 258 (20.3%) 280 cal AD 251 (27.7%) 294 cal AD 58 203 Charred spelt-type wheat grain -21.8 - - 1720 ± 26 GU55692 Pit 331 (48.0%) 383 cal AD 315 (67.7%) 410 cal AD SUERC-94716 F233 Oak charcoal 385 (27.2%) 355 cal BC 391 (32.4%) 349 cal BC 60 232 -23.8 - - 2252 ± 26 GU55693 Posthole (small roundwood 3 wide rings) 281 (41.1%) 231 cal BC 312 (63.1%) 206 cal BC SUERC-94720 F292 Alder charcoal 388 (31.2%) 356 cal BC 393 (46.9%) 350 cal BC 64 291 -25.8 - - 2258 ± 26 GU55694 Pit (single growth ring) 280 (37.1%) 232 cal BC 306 (58.6%) 208 cal BC F337 440 (9.3%) 454 cal AD SUERC-94721 Human bone 433 (41.7%) 521 cal AD SK3 338 Grave in -21.1 12.3 3.4 1544 ± 26 478 (13.8%) 496 cal AD GU55695 (right femur) 526 (53.8%) 593 cal AD ditch F228 534 (45.2%) 574 cal AD SUERC-94722 F348 Birch charcoal 258 (11.2%) 280 cal AD 68 347 -26.1 - - 1677 ± 26 363 (68.3%) 417 cal AD GU55696 Pit (5 growth rings) 335 (84.3%) 427 cal AD SUERC-94723 F349 263 (10.9%) 275 cal AD 255 (19.8%) 285 cal AD 69 351 Charred spelt-type wheat grain -22.3 - - 1703 ± 26 GU55697 Kiln flue 346 (57.4%) 405 cal AD 326 (75.7%) 416 cal AD Peat 2011 (1.2%) 2001 cal BC SUERC-94724 Waterlogged bark 1942 (59.5%) 1879 cal BC 41 Top 6 (monolith -26.9 - - 3552 ± 26 1973 (68.3%) 1871 cal BC GU55698 (indeterminate) 1839 (8.7%) 1826 cal BC tin) 1848 (25.9%) 1773 cal BC Peat 2875 (14.3%) 2850 cal BC 2882 (20.2%) 2835 cal BC SUERC-94725 41 Base 6 (monolith Waterlogged alder wood -26.2 - - 4170 ± 26 2810 (36.3%) 2746 cal BC 2819 (73.1%) 2666 cal BC GU55699 tin) 2728 (17.7%) 2697 cal BC 2649 (2.2%) 2635 cal BC [The calibrated age ranges are determined using OxCal4.4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2020); IntCal20 curve (Reimer et al. 2020)] Archaeological Services Durham University 113 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.25: Summary data, Phase 5: relative proportions of spelt and hulled-6 row barley Crop % Sample Context Feature Feature type Hulled 6- Spelt row barley 3 7 F8 Gully/Ditch 92% 8% 22 58 F60 Encl. Ditch 100% 0% 23 59 F60 Encl. Ditch 98% 2% 35 100 F101 ‘Stoking’ Pit 100% <1% 39 93 F94 Encl. Ditch 96% 4% 40 111 F114 Pit 97% 3% 49 132 F138 Pit 99% 1% 50 136 F138 Pit 99% 1% 53 148 F149 Gully 98% 2% 58 203 F204 ‘Stoking’ Pit 100% <1% 69 351 F349 Corn dryer 100% <1% 70 351 F349 Corn dryer 100% <1% Corn 71 373 F372 93% 7% dryer/Pit 72 391 F349 Corn dryer 99% 1% 75 413 F418 Pit 98% 2% [Spelt includes both wheat (Triticum sp.) and spelt (Triticum spelta)] [Barley includes both barley (Hordeum sp.) and hulled 6-row barley (Hordeum vulgare] [Grain and chaff items counted, with spikelet forks counted as 2] [Analysis only undertaken for samples with >100 spelt/hulled barley remains] Archaeological Services Durham University 114 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Table 1.26: Summary data, Phase 5: relative proportions of spelt grain/chaff/weeds in selected samples presented by feature groups Corn dryer [F142] Pit [F114] Pit [F101] Corn dryer [349] Feature group Ditch [F94] Pit [138] Pit [F204] Pit [F372] Pit [F418] Gully [F149] Sample(s) 39 35, 53, 54, 58 40, 49, 75 69, 70, 71 Context(s) 93 100, 148, 156, 203 111, 132, 413 351, 373 Percentage of spelt grain/chaff/weeds Spelt grain 4% 6% 5% 6% Spelt chaff* 85% 91% 84% 83% Weeds** 11% 3% 11% 11% [Spelt includes both (Triticum sp.) and spelt (Triticum spelta)] [*spikelet forks counted as 2] [**excludes potential non-arable weeds] Archaeological Services Durham University 115 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 2: Roman pottery catalogue context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date 53 5 mort: CRAM PA m mort bsh 1 7 tight packed trit grit 370+ 53 5 unk RW c unk bsh 1 10 thick, white, burnt 53 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt, highly curved rim 1 102 26 23 sooting on rim; large vessel 53 5 late handmade c cp bsh, scrap 1 11 sooted 53 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 2 23 15 16 small 53 5 unk RW c cp bsh 1 4 sandy; buff int 53 5 CRAM RE c bowl hemi fl C&B 5a rim 3 27 16 18 pink core, speckled surface 2 wavy 53 5 CRAM RE c bowl fl C&B 1b rim, bsh lines 3 196 30 26 15 pink core, rimpled ext 370+ 53 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 52 13 20 heavy sooting under rim 53 5 HUN CG c cp bsh, scrap 2 8 from sample <51> do not draw; almost 53 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 73 18 20 14 identical to d8 53 5 CRAM RE c sj bsh 2 25 burnt white cf sh in 65 53 5 sam s bowl prob 31 bsh 1 4 burnt Ant 53 5 HUN CG c cp sh, base 25 206 1 all oxid; 2 w groove dec 53 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 44 20 15 31 or 53 5 sam s bowl 31R rim 1 17 9 Ant 53 5 sam s cup 33 bsh 1 6 Ant 54 HUN CG c cp bsh 2 11 57 4 late gritty grey c cp bsh 1 5 very light grey 57 4 handmade 2 c ind bsh, b/bsh 10 122 some sooted on int 57 4 late handmade c ind bsh 1 8 shiny black soot on ext 57 4 CRAM RE c bowl bsh 1 10 sandy with speckled surface poss like York fig.342, no. 57 4 handmade 2 c cp rounded everted rim 1 7 3 3237 Archaeological Services Durham University 116 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date 57 4 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 75 13 28 large vess 57 4 handmade 3 c cp bsh, scrap 11 81 badly shattered plain, slightly out- 57 4 handmade 3 c bowl turned rim, scrap 1 14 2 57 4 HUN CG c cp bsh 1 6 57 4 sam s b/d footstand 1 2 Ant v white; dark grey, speckled 58 4 CRAM RE c b/d base 2 60 surface 58 4 late handmade c cp everted w shoulder rim, bsh 3 3 43 12 13 roughly burnished ext 58 4 HUN CG c cp bsh 1 23 heavy sooting round neck 58 4 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 39 8 150- 58 4 mort: MAH WH m mort f & b rim 1 67 6 220 59 4 CRAM RE c bowl flanged C&B 1 rim 1 66 13 27 11 sandy 59 4 late gritty grey c cp cupped rim 1 61 21 15 10 heavily sooted under rim 59 4 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 25 7 less prom quartz; slightly 65 5 handmade 2 c cp bsh 3 39 oxid surfaces 65 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 28 13 17 heavy sooting under rim 65 5 CRAM RE c sj C&B 3 bsh vert line 1 38 burnt white on int 65 5 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 26 12 18 bit flat topped 65 5 HUN CG c cp bsh 2 18 1 x all oxid; 1 x oxid ext 65 5 late handmade c cp bsh 1 5 71 5 HUN CG c cp bsh 2 grooves 1 14 fully oxid uneven thickness; mort, but 75 3 unk OW c ind bsh 1 19 v worn?? 82 2 HUN CG c cp bsh 13 117 some with groove dec 82 2 unk RW c cp bsh 1 6 sandy Archaeological Services Durham University 117 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date 82 2 handmade 1 c cp everted rim 1 7 4 rim cd be b/d; v small large vess, thick soot on int 82 2 DOR BB 1 c cp everted rim, bsh 35 320 43 19 05 rim 82 2 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 34 11 17 heavy sooting under rim slightly cupped & 82 2 unk flag c flag flanged rim 1 10 17 8 hard pale orange line above diffr vess from other; black 82 2 DOR BB 1 c cp bsh oal 1 17 core 250+ base, 82 2 CRAM PA c bowl solid footring scrap 1 42 burnt on int/shattered <31> 370+ black fab, soft, decayed 82 2 LTW gp 1 c ind bsh 1 13 looking dol incl? 82 2 unk RW c ind scrap 1 9 base? flat top, bit rim, base, badly burnt/shattered; solid 82 2 CRAM PA c bowl rounded C&B 13 scrap groove 7 78 8 footring 370+ base, 82 2 handmade 1 c cp scrap 1 27 3 small scraps 82 2 HUN CG c cp bsh, scrap 8 38 <31> 82 2 CRAM RE c sj base 1 25 82 2 handmade 3 c ind bsh 1 19 82 2 unk RW c cp bsh 2 9 88 4 HUN CG c ind bsh 1 1 scrap 88 4 SERW c flask? bsh 1 4 poss flask; slipped ext 88 4 CRAM RE c stor jar C&B 3 bsh vert line 1 12 98 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim, bsh grooves 8 150 17 21 04 119 1 unk OW c beak? bsh 2 7 dark cream w some red incl 121 2 handmade 2 c ind bsh 1 13 1 bright orange oxid surf orange w white quartz grit 129 1 mort: local m mort base 1 62 grit C2 Archaeological Services Durham University 118 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date single base sh not from any 140 4 HUN CG c cp bsh, base 12 76 of the 3 other bases 140 4 HUN CG c cp base, bsh 2 161 half base surviving complete lower part but 140 4 HUN CG c cp base, bsh 7 444 only half base complete base & part of 140 4 HUN CG c cp base, bsh 7 232 lower body base, 140 4 HUN CG c cp scrap 4 26 <47> 270+ with heavy sooting/food 145 4 HUN CG c cp bsh 5 67 resid on int as well as ext C&B 1 or mottled surface; poss int 145 4 CRAM RE c bowl fl 1b rim 1 64 10 wavy line, but worn 145 4 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 36 20 16 groove faint 145 4 CRAM RE c closed groove 1 3 <48> 145 4 HUN CG c unk scrap 1 0 <48> everted but no 177 2 HUN CG c cp groove rim 1 30 18 16 thick soot under rim soft orange fab, slightly 181 4 unk OW c ind bsh 1 3 gritty grey core, buff ext margin, 181 4 unk RW c cp bsh 1 22 grey ext 181 4 LTW gp 1 c ind bsh 1 7 1 oxid surf 188 3 HUN CG c cp bsh groove 1 6 196 3 unk RW c cp bsh 2 19 soft light grey, 'slag' incl 198 2 hard GW c cp everted rim 1 20 15 13 02 BB imit C2-C3 198 2 HUN CG c cp bsh 1 3 <56> highly fired, fine mid grey 203 4 hard GW c cp bsh 1 15 <58> hard mid grey, thin oxid 205 4 hard GW c b/d fl rim 1 22 12 19 wash Archaeological Services Durham University 119 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date bit distorted in firing; 224 4 handmade 2 c cp cupped squared rim 1 5 4 sooting on int of rim 224 4 HUN CG c cp bsh 1 7 sandy light grey, slightly oxid 229 2 unk RW c ind bsh 1 11 ext, 231 2 handmade 2 c bowl bsh 2 15 smoothed int surface small inc only; light grey & 231 2 LTW gp 1 c ind bsh 1 12 oxid 231 2 unk RW c cp bsh 2 18 241 3 CRAM RE c sj bsh 1 19 mottled Had 253 3 sam s dish - bsh 1 7 surface almost all gone or Ant cheesewire; black slag trit l C2 - 263 2 mort: MAH WH m mort base 1 60 grit C3 Had 263 2 sam s cup 33 bsh 1 4 or Ant 268 2 BB2 c b/d bsh 1 6 Hunt, 2 groove, 271 5 HUN CG c cp droopy rim 1 19 9 17 17 heavy sooting under rim 360+ groove 271 5 HUN CG c cp bsh dec 10 116 5 x grooved 271 5 DOR BB 1 c cp bsh 1 13 light grey core, dark grey 273 4 unk RW c cp bsh 1 37 surf, almost soapy groove seems to taper off at an angle, as if roughly 273 4 HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 30 5 produced 360+ 280 5 HUN CG c cp bsh groove 6 25 1 x all oxid 280 5 late handmade c cp bsh 2 18 1 sh burnished ext 300 3 amph: BAT AM a amph dr 20 bsh 2 63 buff fab C1-C3 300 3 hard GW c cp bsh 3 5 Archaeological Services Durham University 120 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date 316 3 amph: BAT AM a amph dr 20 bsh 1 24 sandwich fab C1-C3 late 325 1 mort: MAH WH? m mort bead & flange rim 1 62 8 prob MH C2? combed 325 1 handmade 1 c cp squared everted rim, bsh dec 3 83 5 07 heavy sooting on ext 325 1 handmade 3 c ind bsh 1 4 329 2 handmade 3 c cp cupped straight rim 2 79 13 20 01 sooted 329 2 CRAM RE c bowl flanged C&B 1 rim 1 48 13 19 sandy fab 329 2 handmade 3 c ind scrap 1 6 329 2 HUN CG c ind base 1 10 weathered surface; no paint 347 3 CRAM PA c bowl grooved collar C&B 9 rim 1 69 11 24 12 left 370+ 347 3 HUN CG c cp bsh 8 66 1 thick sh 347 3 DOR BB 1 c b/d base scribbled 1 5 347 3 HUN CG c cp ir 2 14 13 20 347 3 HUN CG c cp Hunt ir 1 25 360+ 351 4 SERW c cp G151 rim 1 10 2 20 fab A 351 4 late handmade c unk scrap 1 3 <70> 270+ 351 4 HUN CG c cp bsh 1 6 352 5 unk RW c ind scrap 2 3 thin cream core, wide brown 359 2 unk RW c cp bsh 1 9 margins, dark grey ext 359 2 HUN CG c cp everted rim 1 9 6 heavy sooting under rim complete base; cheese wire 359 2 unk RW c cp base 2 69 mark, light grey, soft 359 2 DOR BB 1 c cp bsh lattice 1 2 359 2 handmade 1 c ind bsh 1 2 359 2 hard GW c cp bsh 2 29 Archaeological Services Durham University 121 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date 31 or prob 359 2 sam s bowl sim bsh 1 3 Ant 368 un LTW gp 4 c ind bsh 1 6 with thick oxid int 368 un HUN CG c cp Hunt ir 1 21 360+ 370 un unk RW c sj bsh 1 8 thick sandy GW 385 2 unk OW c bowl bsh stamped 1 03 stamped rect & circ comb/wipe marks on thick 385 2 LTW gp 4 c ind bsh, scrap 2 45 oxid ext; thick walled 385 2 handmade 2 c ind bsh 1 33 387 2 CRAM RE c sj bsh 1 6 395 1 CRAM RE c b/d bsh 1 6 mottled grooved 400 3 mort: North Yorks m mort collar/spout rim 1 50 10 27 06 or poss l C2 C3 dark grey core, very pale 400 3 unk RW c cp bsh 1 11 grey surfaces 402 3 unk OW c ind bsh 1 16 squared cupped thick soot under rim; buff 405 4 SERW c cp everted rim 1 18 10 17 19 core, dark grey surfaces 405 4 unk RW c small cp bsh 1 4 fine black fab 407 4 late handmade c cp base, bsh ral 2 51 thick sooting/resid on ext 407 4 unk RW c cp bsh 1 3 416 4 mort: MAH WH m mort hammerhead rim 1 196 23 26 09 250+ 427 un mort: CRAM WH m mort rilled flange type 6 rim 1 91 14 29 c.270+ 429 un HUN CG c cp bsh 4 65 some with oxid ext 429 un HUN CG c cp Hunt rim, bsh 4 grooves 3 253 32 18 08 heavy sooting under rim 360+ 429 un DOR BB 1 c cp bsh 1 31 429 un HUN CG c cp Hunt, very pointed rim 1 13 2 360+ Archaeological Services Durham University 122 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 context ph pub fab cat vessel sub-type type part dec sh no wt EVE diam dr comments date quartz and mica plates, U/S us handmade 3 c ind bsh 1 10 slightly oxid int U/S us mort: MAH WH m mort bsh 2 24 thin-walled, red grits early dark grey, slightly oxid ext, U/S us unk RW c cp bsh 1 6 slag int? solid footring w complete base, soft pale U/S us unk flag c flag groove base 1 44 orange U/S us handmade 2 c ind bsh 2 31 burnt U/S us HUN CG c cp bsh 1 7 hooked everted w U/S us unk RW c cp shoulder rim 1 16 8 C3? U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 58 10 22 flat topped 360+ U/S us LTW gp 1 c ind scrap 1 23 U/S us HUN CG c cp bsh 1 6 U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 55 12 18 sooting under rim 360+ diag U/S us HUN CG c mwb Hunt rim groove 1 128 11 30 16 or wide-mouthed jar 360+ U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 34 12 23 flat topped; oxid tip to rim 360+ U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt ir 1 12 6 flat topped 360+ int wavy U/S us CRAM RE c bowl fl C&B 1b rim line 1 55 5 burnt, but not sandy type 370+ U/S us CRAM RE c ind bsh 1 2 U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 28 13 14 360+ U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt rim 1 9 4 360+ U/S us HUN CG c cp Hunt ir 2 12 360+ U/S us HUN CG c cp bsh grooves 2 20 U/S us HUN CG c cp bsh, base 13 82 U/S us mort: CRAM PA m mort wallside C&B 7 rim 1 65 8 19 18 no paint surviving 370+ Archaeological Services Durham University 123 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 CBS19 Roman pottery catalogue key A amphora amph amphora beak beaker b/d bowl/dish bsh body sherd C coarseware C & B Corder & Birley cp cup diag diagonal dol dolerite dr dressel ext exterior fab fabric f & b flange and bead fl flanged flag flagon hard GW hard grey ware hemi fl hemispherical flanged hunt Huntcliff imit imitation incl inclusions ind indeterminate int interior ir interior rim M mortarium mort mortarium mwb wide mouthed bowl oal obtuse angle lattice oxid oxidised ral right angle lattice resid residue rw reduced ware S samian sam samian sh sherd sj counter-sunk jar stor jar storage jar trit trituration unk unknown unk ow unknown oxidised ware vert vertical Archaeological Services Durham University 124 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 3: Worked lithics catalogue [57] – Broken, partially cortical flake, break on right dorsal side, step termination and butt removed. Cortex covers 50-75% of the dorsal surface, secondary flake from middle of core knapping sequence. Single previous removal on the dorsal from the proximal. The flake is in fresh condition and displays a moderate sheen, although there is a patch of matt on the ventral surface and slight damage to the right ventral edge. Raw material is a reddish brown flint with a yellowish inclusion shown on ventral. L = 28.07mm, W = 14.51mm, Th = 5.76mm. [57] – Broken retouched flake/ blade with a triangular cross-section. Break at distal end and damage present on the proximal dorsal end, which has removed the butt and platform. This has also resulted in the removal of a part of the dorsal ridge in this area, creating a clear crack which can be seen partially extending through the dorsal surface. Non-cortical tertiary flake with two scars on the dorsal surface. The one from the distal end has irregular ripples and a very flat surface, which suggests it is likely of natural origin. The one from the proximal is a clear flake scar. The dorsal surface sheen is more matt, whereas the ventral is more glossy in appearance. Fine, sub-parallel, non-invasive, steep retouch is present along 80% of the right dorsal ventral edge. There is some edge damage, although the piece is generally in fresh condition. The raw material is reddish brown flint, very similar in appearance to [57] above. L = 18.43mm, W = 12.37mm, Th = 5.26mm. [57] – Very small pebble core on reddish brown speckled flint. Cortex is present on 25-50% of the surface and is thin and pitted, suggesting the raw material source was from a secondary deposit such as a river pebble. Condition is slightly worn as can be seen from the arretes and glossy surface sheen, which might suggest waterborne movement. Opposing platform core with three removals from one direction and three from the other. All are small and mostly blade-like, however the small size of the raw material is likely to have constrained the type of removal products. L = 24.92mm, W = 13.50mm, Th = 9.63mm. [134] – Large cortical hard hammer flake. >75% cortex with 2 natural removals on the dorsal making this a primary flake from the first stages of the knapping sequence. Thin and pitted cortex suggests secondary source such as glacial or large river cobble. Raw material is a light brown/ beige flint which has been quite heavily patinated to cream and white in places. Rolled, but matt surface sheen on ventral. Feather termination with point of percussion and sizeable cone and bulb present. Butt is natural and damaged and the crudeness and size of the artefact suggests this is more likely of a later date, maybe Bronze Age or Iron Age. L = 54.66mm, W = 48.79mm, Th = 13.54mm. [129] <46> - Small chip on reddish brown flint, break on proximal end removing butt, feather termination, non-cortical, 2 removals on the dorsal surface. Too small to gain any other information or date. L = 5.29mm, W = 2.34mm, Th = 0.6mm. [198] – Fragment on reddish brown speckled flint with slight white patination visible on the dorsal surface. Ventral surface is a natural pot-lid fracture with concentric ripples and a matt surface, which contrasts with the other two worked surfaces. These have a glossy sheen and battered edges. This is most likely a fragment which has been naturally fractured off a core. There are three removals on the main surface, all originating from the top, which limited evidence suggests was a uni-directional knapping technique. The actual edges are fresh except where battering has occurred. Non-cortical. L = 24.95mm, W = 30.98mm, Th = 15.09mm. Archaeological Services Durham University 125 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 [270] <6> - Tiny flint chip off a blade, with triangular cross-section and breaks at both proximal and distal ends. Raw material is grey flint with black inclusions, non-cortical. Not datable and too small to gain any further information. L = 3.08mm*, W =1.32mm, Th 0.90mm. [270] <6> - Grey flint chip, non-cortical, surface is uneven and suggests that the artefact might have been subject to heat at some stage, although it is too small to determine properly. L = 4.49mm, W = 3.31mm, Th = 0.86mm. [273] – Piercer on brown speckled flint. Thin and pitted cortex <25% suggests secondary raw material source such as a river cobble. Secondary flake. Break/ removal down left distal edge, creating one side of the point. Other side is minimally retouched, non-invasive, fine, sub-parallel removals creating an almost serrated edge. Most likely a piercer style implement. Two previous removals present on dorsal, butt has been removed but would have been at right angles to the point as the piece is manufactured on a wide flake. Step termination, glossy sheen and slightly rolled. Possibly Bronze Age in date as piercers sometimes utilised a break or natural edge to form part of the point (Butler 2005). L = 40.46mm, W = 20.27mm, Th = 7.66mm. [316] – Thin triangular flake fragment, broken on all three sides. Patch of cortex on distal, <25%, which is white and of a chalky consistency which suggests this might have come from a primary source such as a nodule from the chalk. Brown flint with darker black patch under the area of cortex. Fresh condition with slight glossy sheen. Butt and termination removed. Single flake scar on dorsal from proximal direction. Not dateable. L = 28.24mm, W = 14.22mm, Th = 2.46mm. [316] – Retouched flake fragment, possibly a minimally retouched piercer/borer? Distal flake fragment on grey speckled flint, glossy sheen, non-cortical tertiary flake from the later stages of core reduction, hinge termination. One flake scar present on dorsal. Edge damage on left distal edge, right side has steep scalar, semi-invasive retouch along the bottom and non- invasive parallel retouch on the distal right edge. The retouch seems to be shaping the flake, narrowing it in this area. This may be linked to hafting or more likely, the creation of a point for drilling or piercing. Ripples are very defined, suggesting hard hammer percussion. Impact/ edge damage is present on the pointed area. This piece is similar to [273] in that it is manufactured on a wide flake, with the retouched area along the narrower side. The manufacture of this feels very ad-hoc and might be a more expedient tool than [273]. L = 20.49mm, W = 32.94mm, Th = 3.94mm. [385] – Thin, well made, burnt and fire-cracked distal flake fragment. This feels technologically different to the rest of the assemblage. Moderately rolled and slight sheen present on surfaces. Grey flint, <25% cortex, which is thin and pitted and beige in colour suggesting a secondary source. Heated, with fine cracking lines visible and internal damage which has caused breakages along most of the edges and a pot-lid like fracture on the dorsal surface. Termination and butt both removed/ damaged. Two previous flake scars on the dorsal, one from the proximal and one from the right. The form and technology hints at a possible Neolithic date. L = 24.12mm, W = 23.98mm, Th = 6.21mm. [407] – Transverse/end scraper on distal flake fragment. Manufactured on black flint which has been slightly patinated and stained brown in places. Non-cortical tertiary flake from the later stages of the knapping process. Termination and butt removed, moderately rolled with a glossy surface sheen. Damaged edges, especially on the proximal. Sub-parallel/parallel Archaeological Services Durham University 126 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 steep retouch reaches from the left to the right edge, creating a broad curving convex distal edge. Neatness of retouch and form suggest a possible Neolithic or early Bronze Age date. L = 22.28mm, W = 33.54mm, Th = 6.03mm. Archaeological Services Durham University 127 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 4: Articulated skeletons catalogue Skeleton 1/2 (one individual thought to be two during excavation) Surface Preservation Poor (Grade 4) Fragmentation Severe Completeness 20-30% Cranium, ear ossicles (incus x2, malleus x1), part mandible, vertebrae (6 cervical, 2 thoracic, 1 lumbar, + unidentified), 13 rib shaft fragments Bones Present (unsided), part L scapula, part humerus (unsided), part R ulna, part femur (L?), part fibula (R?) Age 1½-2½ years (young juvenile) Sex - Stature - Cranial NMT Open posterior condylar canal (L) Post-Cranial NMT - Pathology Possibly some thickening of the cranial vault – the R(?) parietal in a couple of places is 5.1 mm thick and the L parietal is 4.9 mm thick, probably in the area of the parietal bosses. The cross-section shows clear inner and outer tables with diploë in between. Some slight linear arrangement to the diploë is evident, slight lamination, but this is subtle. There is some subtle fine scattered porosity on the internal occipital, focussed on the cruciform eminence and extending into the L transverse sulcus. The margins of the porosity are smooth and rounded. Possibly well remodelled lamellar bone. There is some subtle fine dense porosity with remodelled margins on the external occipital – on the L lateral portion, extending in a band from the point where it fuses with the squama to an area posterior to the condyle, and on a small area of the R squama close to the region where it fuses with the lateral portion. There is a cluster of fairly dense porosity on the external surface of a vault fragment alongsie a suture – seems likely to be parietal or occipital. The R ulna has some striated bone on the anterior midshaft, occupying most of the anterior surface. Possibly well healed lamellar bone. Two undidentified long bone shaft fragments have a fairly dense area of fine porosity that look like deposits of well remodelled lamellar bone. Dental Health 2 tooth positions, 19 deciduous teeth present (at least one of which probably erupting), 11 unerupted permanent teeth 5 deciduous teeth with DEH – slight pits in deciduous first molars (both upper and lower left), and both lower deciduous canines have a couple of buccal pits on the crown 1 permanent tooth with DEH Archaeological Services Durham University 128 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Rdm1 – has an upper molar three-root pattern. The crown is definitely lower molar morphology, plus there is a small part of the mandible present with the socket and it is evident this tooth fits into the socket. Therefore it is confident that this is a lower molar rather than a duplicated Ldm1. Right Dentition Left Dentition Present - - - P(l) P(l) - P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) - - - Calculus ------Location ------DEH - - - - P ------P - - - - Caries ------Wear - - - 1 1 - 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 - - - Maxilla - - - e d c b a a b c d e - - - Mandible - - - e d c b a a b c d e Present - - - P(E) P P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) P(l) - - - Calculus ------Location ------DEH - - - - - P - - - - P P - - - - Caries ------Wear - - - 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 - - - Right Dentition Left Dentition Present - - P(U - - - ?P(U) P(U P(U - - - - P(U - - ) ) ) ) DEH ------P ------Maxilla 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mandible 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Present - - P(U - - P(U ?P(U) P(U - - P(U - - P(U - - ) ) ) ) ) DEH ------ Archaeological Services Durham University 129 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Skeleton 3 Surface Preservation Poor to Very Poor (Grade 4 to 5) Fragmentation Extreme Completeness ~10% Mandible fragment; lumbar vertebra fragment; part R ox coxa (acetabulum); proximal R femur; distal L tibia; L foot (calcaneus, talus, MT 1-5, Bones Present 1st proximal phalanx); R foot (part calcaneus); multiple small unidentifiable fragments Age 18+ years (adult) Sex - Stature - Cranial NMT - Post-Cranial NMT Acetabular crease (R) Pathology - Dental Health 3 tooth positions; 1 tooth lost post-mortem; 2 small broken root fragments in two sockets, but very degraded Right Dentition Left Dentition Present ------Maxilla 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mandible 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Wear - - B PM B ------Present - Tooth presence; AM - ante-mortem tooth loss; PM - post-mortem tooth loss; P - tooth present; P(l) – tooth present but socket absent; P (U) – tooth present but unerupted; P(E) – tooth present and erupting; S – sampled; - - jaw not present Calculus – dental calculus; F - flecks of calculus; S - slight calculus; M - moderate calculus; H - heavy calculus; a - all surfaces; b - buccal surface; d - distal surface; m - mesial surface; l - lingual surface; o - occlusal surface DEH - dental enamel hypoplasia; L - lines; G - grooves; P - pits Caries – dental caries; - S - small lesions; M - moderate lesions; L - large lesions; a - all surfaces; b - buccal surface; d - distal surface; m - mesial surface; l - lingual surface; o - occlusal surface Wear - dental wear; numbers from 1-8 - slight to severe wear Archaeological Services Durham University 130 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 5: Disarticulated skeletons catalogue Preservation Age ID Context Feature Bone Part of Bone Side Age Sex Other % SP F Group Midshaft, including 1 400 401 Fibula R 20 3 7 A/Ad 16+ ? 7 joining shaft fragments nutrient foramen 6 shaft fragments (2 of which joining) 2 400 401 Fibula? Shaft fragments x 6 ? - 2 6 A/Ad 16+ ? likely to be fibula 3 400 401 Tibia Part of anterior crest ? 5 3 2 A/Ad 16+ ? 2 joining fragments 4 400 401 Tibia Part of anterior crest ? 5 3 3 A/Ad 16+ ? 3 joining shaft fragments 5 400 401 Tibia Part of anterior crest ? 2 3 1 A/Ad 16+ ? - 6 400 401 Femur? Shaft ? 5 3 4 A/Ad 16+ ? 4 joining shaft fragments 7 400 401 Femur/tibia? Shaft ? 10 3 5 A/Ad 16+ ? 5 joining shaft fragments 8 400 401 Femur/tibia? Shaft ? 5 3 4 A/Ad 16+ ? 4 joining shaft fragments 3- 9 400 401 Long bone Shaft fragments x ~30 ? - 30 A/Ad 16+ ? - 4 Not fully certain that this bone is ?Human 10 400 401 Shaft ? 20 4 1 A/Ad 16+ ? human, but if it is, it is probably a Femur?? femur Preservation: % = completeness of the bone scored as a percentage; SP = surface preservation socred according to McKinley’s (2004) grading system, 0 = excellent through to 5+ = extremely poor; F = number of fragments Age Group: A = adult (18+ years); Ad = adolescent (12-18 years); A/Ad = probable adult or older adolescent, likely 16+ years Sex: ? = unknown Archaeological Services Durham University 131 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 6: Radiocarbon certificates Archaeological Services Durham University 132 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 133 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 134 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 135 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 136 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 137 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 138 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 139 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 140 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 141 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 142 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 143 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 144 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 145 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 146 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 147 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 148 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 149 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 150 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Archaeological Services Durham University 151 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Appendix 7: Stratigraphic matrices Archaeological Services Durham University 152 1 Topsoil Land 339 drain F340 61 152 PHASE 7 Furrow Furrow F62 F153 Medieval 52 = 50 = 304 ploughsoil 71 271 = 53 = 56 = 310 = 328 = 280 338 Black 82 F72 Black PHASE 6 Grave spread F272 = F265 Hollow F337 F439 65 spread F66 88 Pit F89 Zig-zag 80 219 179 261 57 = 305 gully 154 F81 F220 F180 F262 307 NE 147 = 85 155 67 enclosure 97 = 77 = 58 = 308 = 309 = 92 Kiln 157 = 266 Dark 148 = 86 = 235 Stone ditch 109 203 = 100 156 68 224 = 98 = 78 = 59 = 93 lined F158 = F267 gullies F149 = F87 = F236 145 F101 = F142 69 pit F225 = F99 = F79 = F60 F306 = F94 110 Gully PHASE 5 293 = 273 131 F146 F70 Big pit 294 = 274 Dark 63 = = 205 132 = 413 = 111 159-174 223 gully SE F295 = F275 corner F64 = = F206 133 Stoking F222 Black 134 = 414 = 112 pits 221 183 54 Pit 135 = 415 140 Pot 341 = 281 F204 F184 150 90 104 F55 Gully Kiln 136 = 416 = 113 F141 pit F342 = F282 F151 F91 F105 137 = 417 F138 = F418 = F114 335 = 333 Northern Recuts 311 = 127 = 226 251 = 300 237 F336 = F334 East-West Gully Recut F312 = F128 = F227 = F106 ditch F252 = F301 F238 Animal filling 394 burial 302 entrance 239 = 259 = 257 Curving 285 = 241 = 181 = 331 = 298 207 central F303 Recut F240 = F260 = F258 ditches F286 = F242 = F182 = F332 = F299 PHASE 4 F208 Eastern 95 = 107 = 215 = 249 North-South 234 123 253 ditch F96 = F108 = F216 = F250 211 124 254 Western North-South Southern 188 = 196 = 75 = = 316 = = = 209 = 192 = 243 = = = 212 = 296 = 276 = 125 = 313 = 255 ditch East-West ditch F189 = F197 = F76 = = F315 = = = F210 = F193 = F244 = = = F213 F214 = F297 = F277 = F126 = F314 = F256 245 = 121 = 278 Western enclosure 198 F246 = F122 = F279 ditch 185 199 231 PHASE 3 Western droveway 186 = 194 = 200 230 Eastern ditch droveway 201 229 ditch F187 = F195 = F202 F228 Main 190 = 263 = = 268 = 287 = = 115 = = = 177 = = 83 = 329 enclosure ditch F191 = F264 = = F269 = F288 = = F116 = = = F178 = = F84 = F330 318 Pit F319 119 345 = 247 Original 143 144 South PHASE 2 320 F346 = F248 Gully Cist ditch F321 burial 139 129 = 343 Western gully F120 F130 = F344 291 217 232 F292 =? Pit PHASE 1 Pits F218 F233 289 F290 73 283 175 Pit 183 50 102 270 374 419 117 Gully Pit Pit Pits Gully UNPHASED F74 F284 F176 F176 F51 F103 F317 F375 F420 F118 2 Natural Saltholme Cowpen Bewley on behalf of Stockton-on-Tees Statera Energy post-excavation analysis report 5290 Area A stratigraphic matrix Saltholme Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of Statera Energy post-excavation analysis report 5290 Area B-D stratigraphic matrix AREA B AREA C AREA D Monitoring 1 Topsoil 1 Topsoil 1 Topsoil 1 Topsoil 353 427 Pit Pit PHASE 7 F354 F428 347 429 Pit Pit PHASE 6 F348 F430 352 405 383 409 431 Pit Gully 391 F406 F384 421 = 407 = 397 432 Recut 390 F425 = F408 = F399 433 Kiln Kiln PHASE 5 376 = 373 = 351 434 350 395 = 422 North 435 South F426 = F372 = F349 F396 = F410 ditch F436 392 = 355 = 377 Northern 364 = 361 = = 411 Southern East 400 = 402 PHASE 4 East-West East-West West F393 = F356 = F379 ditch F365 = F362 = = F412 ditch ditch F401 = F403 PHASE 3 387 = 357 Western droveway 388 = 363 = 366 380 = 359 = 385 Eastern 370 = 368 Eastern Eastern 423 ditch droveway North-South droveway F389 = F358 = F367 F382 = F360 = F386 ditch F371 = F369 ditch ditch F424 327 323 Ditch in 322 eastern PHASE 2 baulk 324 325 F326 2 Natural 2 = 398 Natural 2 = 404 Natural 2 Natural Saltholme Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of Statera Energy post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 1: Site location Reproduced from Explorer 306 1:25 000 by permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of The Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office. © Crown copyright 2015. All rights reserved. Licence number AL100002176 25 24 23 22 48 49 50 0 1km site location scale 1:20 000 for A4 plot 237 238 239 240 Reproduction in whole or part is prohibited without the prior permission of Statera Energy 488 9 2 489 8 3 7 1 D 490 4 6 B C A 491 TP1 5 Holme Fleet Figure 2: Location of excavation post-excavation analysis Cowpen Bewley report 5290 Stockton-on-Tees Saltholme geophysical survey: B 0 land drain area of monitoring ridge and furrow evaluation trenches excavation areas grave track test pit former field boundary ferrous/ fired material service soil-filled feature site boundary Statera Energy scale 1:1500 for A3 plot on behalf of 75m 30 F79 F118 96 77 F256 117 43 253 F70 F51 67 50 26 313 20 F128 F314 F312 224 F225 84 127 226 112 311 F99 F227 40 39 F94 24 48 97 F60 59 F184 203 57 221 F153 92 F204 183 57 F142 152 37 F89 154 F96 95 F306 66 55 36 305 85 88 90 100 F223 F265 F101 222 F236 131 35 38 49 15053 147 F91 53 107 235 F87 F151 F149 54 85 F138 F105 F55 88 33 42 104 22 54 271 F126 50 83 F272 123 F267 32 101 F158 155 157 266 F114 31 99 F418 F84 44 117 413 F342 120 56 341 177 F330 45 119 109 83 82 F178 177 115 52 100 F284 F269 F120 34 283 329 41 110 F178 F439 extent of excavation SK1+2 F81 F116 140 F141 F103 102 296 F297 268 80 61 157 F108 107 F420 F62 evaluation trench 23 80 F286 419 F176 79 109 175 F317 114 293 298 106 unphased 285 F295 270 F299 90 145 phase 1 287 F146 F275 116F319 F288 273 103 F242 115 241 102 394 phase 2 318 320 F220 F265 F279 F321 53 278 104 proposed earlier phase of 219 58 81 east-west ditch 263 181 108 F182 276 179 F277 F264 F180 2 section F4 152 F14 F16 skeleton F20 F12 53 F72 F130 51 53 65 0 7.5m 331 27 123 F265 scale 1:150 for A2 plot 237 F238 F332 F66 129 105 F336 121 122 F292 291 89 335 239 259 F334 261 F240 95 F260 333 98 257 94 F258 F262 F250 F122 249 47 F218 121 F252 132 78 F375 97 251 215 F216 374 87 82 F233 F344 302 111 343 F303 29 245 77 F246 60 F191 F76 on behalf of F214 F189 F197 F301 300 F315 F210 125 92 234 190 Statera Energy 91 93 209 75 113 247 243 234 192 64 196 65 188 63 345 316 205 21 F248 F244 F193 F208 25 F213 61 194 F206 F64 F346 185 231 207 73 28 F195 F228 126 F74 F187 63 F337 Saltholme 124 198 Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees F202 231 F228 62 86 post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 3: Area A, Phase 1and 2 30 F79 F118 96 77 F256 117 43 253 F70 F51 67 50 26 313 20 F128 F314 F312 224 F225 84 127 226 112 311 F99 F227 40 39 F94 24 48 97 F60 59 F184 203 57 221 F153 92 F204 183 57 F142 152 37 F89 154 F96 95 F306 66 55 36 305 85 88 90 100 F223 F265 F101 222 F236 131 35 38 49 15053 147 F91 53 107 235 F87 F151 F149 54 85 F138 F105 F55 88 33 42 104 22 54 271 F126 50 83 F272 123 F267 32 101 F158 155 157 266 F114 31 99 F418 F84 44 117 413 F342 120 56 341 177 F330 45 119 109 83 82 F178 177 115 52 100 F284 F269 F120 34 283 329 41 110 F178 F439 SK1+2 F81 F116 140 F141 F103 102 296 F297 268 80 61 157 F108 107 F420 F62 23 80 F286 419 F176 79 109 175 F317 114 293 298 106 extent of excavation 285 F295 270 F299 90 145 evaluation trench 287 F146 F275 116F319 F288 273 103 F242 115 241 102 394 phase 3 318 320 F220 F265 F279 F321 53 278 104 proposed earlier phase of 219 58 81 east-west ditch 263 181 108 F182 276 179 F277 F264 F180 2 section F4 152 F14 F16 skeleton F20 F12 53 F72 F130 51 53 65 0 7.5m 331 27 123 F265 scale 1:150 for A2 plot 237 F238 F332 F66 129 105 F336 121 122 F292 291 89 335 239 259 F334 261 F240 95 F260 333 98 257 94 F258 F262 F250 F122 249 47 F218 121 F252 132 78 F375 97 251 215 F216 374 87 82 F233 F344 302 111 343 F303 29 245 77 F246 60 F191 F76 on behalf of F214 F189 F197 F301 300 F315 F210 125 92 234 190 Statera Energy 91 93 209 75 113 247 243 234 192 64 196 65 188 63 345 316 205 21 F248 F244 F193 F208 25 F213 61 194 F206 F64 F346 185 231 207 73 28 F195 F228 126 F74 F187 63 F337 Saltholme 124 198 Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees F202 231 F228 62 86 post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 4: Area A, Phase 3 30 F79 F118 96 77 F256 117 43 253 F70 F51 67 50 26 313 20 F128 F314 F312 224 F225 84 127 226 112 311 F99 F227 40 39 F94 24 48 97 F60 59 F184 203 57 221 F153 92 F204 183 57 F142 152 37 F89 154 F96 95 F306 66 55 36 305 85 88 90 100 F223 F265 F101 222 F236 131 35 38 49 15053 147 F91 53 107 235 F87 F151 F149 54 85 F138 F105 F55 88 33 42 104 22 54 271 F126 50 83 F272 123 F267 32 101 F158 155 157 266 F114 31 99 F418 F84 44 117 413 F342 120 56 341 177 F330 45 119 109 83 82 F178 177 115 52 100 F284 F269 F120 34 283 329 41 110 F178 F439 SK1+2 F81 F116 140 F141 F103 102 296 F297 268 80 61 157 F108 107 F420 F62 23 80 F286 419 F176 79 109 175 F317 114 293 298 106 extent of excavation 285 F295 270 F299 90 145 evaluation trench 287 F146 F275 116F319 F288 273 103 F242 115 241 102 394 phase 4 318 320 F220 F265 F279 F321 53 278 104 219 58 phase 4A 263 81 181 108 F182 276 179 F277 F264 F180 2 section F4 152 F14 F16 skeleton F20 F12 53 F72 F130 51 53 65 0 7.5m 331 27 123 F265 scale 1:150 for A2 plot 237 F238 F332 F66 129 105 F336 121 122 F292 291 89 335 239 259 F334 261 F240 95 F260 333 98 257 94 F258 F262 F250 F122 249 47 F218 121 F252 132 78 F375 97 251 215 F216 374 87 82 F233 F344 302 111 343 F303 29 245 77 F246 60 F191 F76 on behalf of F214 F189 F197 F301 300 F315 F210 125 92 234 190 Statera Energy 91 93 209 75 113 247 243 234 192 64 196 65 188 63 345 316 205 21 F248 F244 F193 F208 25 F213 61 194 F206 F64 F346 185 231 207 73 28 F195 F228 126 F74 F187 63 F337 Saltholme 124 198 Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees F202 231 F228 62 86 post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 5: Area A, Phase 4 30 F79 F118 96 77 F256 117 43 253 F70 F51 67 50 26 313 20 F128 F314 F312 224 F225 84 127 226 112 311 F99 F227 40 39 F94 24 48 97 F60 59 F184 203 57 221 F153 92 F204 183 57 F142 152 37 F89 154 F96 95 F306 66 55 36 305 85 88 90 100 F223 F265 F101 222 F236 131 35 38 49 15053 147 F91 53 107 235 F87 F151 F149 54 85 F138 F105 F55 88 33 42 104 22 54 271 F126 50 83 F272 123 F267 32 101 F158 155 157 266 F114 31 99 F418 F84 44 117 413 F342 120 56 341 177 F330 45 119 109 83 82 F178 177 115 52 100 F284 F269 F120 34 283 329 41 110 F178 F439 SK1+2 F81 F116 140 F141 F103 102 296 F297 268 80 61 157 F108 107 F420 F62 23 80 F286 419 F176 79 109 175 F317 114 293 298 106 extent of excavation 285 F295 270 F299 90 145 evaluation trench 287 F146 F275 116F319 F288 273 103 F242 115 241 102 394 phase 5 318 320 F220 F265 F279 F321 53 278 104 219 58 phase 6 263 81 181 108 F182 276 179 F277 F264 F180 2 section F4 152 F14 F16 skeleton F20 F12 53 F72 F130 51 53 65 0 7.5m 331 27 123 F265 scale 1:150 for A2 plot 237 F238 F332 F66 129 105 F336 121 122 F292 291 89 335 239 259 F334 261 F240 95 F260 333 98 257 94 F258 F262 F250 F122 249 47 F218 121 F252 132 78 F375 97 251 215 F216 374 87 82 F233 F344 302 111 343 F303 29 245 77 F246 60 F191 F76 on behalf of F214 F189 F197 F301 300 F315 F210 125 92 234 190 Statera Energy 91 93 209 75 113 247 243 234 192 64 196 65 188 63 345 316 205 21 F248 F244 F193 F208 25 F213 61 194 F206 F64 F346 185 231 207 73 28 F195 F228 126 F74 F187 63 F337 Saltholme SK 3 124 198 Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees F202 231 F228 62 86 post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 6: Area A, Phase 5 and 6 30 F79 F118 96 77 F256 117 43 253 F70 F51 67 50 26 313 20 F128 F314 F312 224 F225 84 127 226 112 311 F99 F227 40 39 F94 24 48 97 F60 59 F184 203 57 221 F153 92 F204 183 57 F142 152 37 F89 154 F96 95 F306 66 55 36 305 85 88 90 100 F223 F265 F101 222 F236 131 35 38 49 15053 147 F91 53 107 235 F87 F151 F149 54 85 F138 F105 F55 88 33 42 104 22 Geo Tech 54 271 F126 50 Test Pit 83 F272 123 F267 32 101 F158 155 157 266 F114 31 99 F418 F84 44 117 413 F342 120 56 341 177 F330 45 119 109 83 82 F178 177 115 52 100 F284 F269 F120 34 283 329 41 110 F178 F439 SK1+2 F81 F116 140 F141 F103 102 296 F297 268 80 61 157 F108 107 F420 F62 23 80 F286 419 F176 79 109 175 F317 114 293 298 106 extent of excavation 285 F295 270 F299 90 145 evaluation trench 287 F146 F275 116F319 F288 273 103 F242 115 241 102 394 phase 7 318 320 F220 F265 F279 F321 53 278 104 219 58 land drain 263 81 181 108 F182 276 179 F277 F264 F180 2 section F4 152 F14 F16 skeleton F20 F12 53 F72 F130 51 53 65 0 7.5m 331 27 123 F265 scale 1:150 for A2 plot 237 F238 F332 F66 129 105 F336 121 122 F292 291 89 335 239 259 F334 261 F240 95 F260 333 98 257 94 F258 F262 F250 F122 249 47 F218 121 F252 132 78 F375 97 251 215 F216 374 87 82 F233 F344 302 111 343 F303 29 245 77 F246 60 F191 F76 on behalf of F214 F189 F197 F301 300 F315 F210 125 92 234 190 Statera Energy 91 93 209 75 113 247 243 234 192 64 196 65 188 63 345 316 205 21 F248 F244 F193 F208 25 F213 61 194 F206 F64 F346 185 231 207 73 28 F195 F228 126 F74 F187 63 F337 Saltholme SK 3 124 198 Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees F202 231 F228 62 86 post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 7: Area A, Phase 7 86 160 F430 159 F371 370 387 F389 F382 380 127 143 145 F349 135 134 148 139 133 154 151 357 F358 392 355 377 129 F393 F379 F356 F326 327 F428 368 149 158 Area B F406 131 F369 405 118 366 141 128 F360 F367 359 364 136 361 347 411 F362 F348 140 F365 F412 156 385 353 138 F354 F386 137 F384 383 153 161 F410 F424 F436 409 423 147 400 Area C F403 402 F401 F408 395 F396 407 Area D 144 397 F399 146 150 404 Saltholme extent of on behalf of Cowpen Bewley phase 3 phase 6 excavation Statera Energy Stockton-on-Tees unphased phase 4 phase 7 post-excavation analysis report 5290 0 10m phase 2 phase 5 2 section scale 1:200 for A2 plot Figure 8: Areas B, C and D and monitoring (land drains and furrows excluded for clarity) Saltholme stone Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m drain Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 9: Sections 20-34 Section 20 Section 22 Section 23 Section 24 Section 25 S N E W E W S N SW NE 4.65m OD 4.60m OD 4.50m OD 4.30m OD 4.75m OD 50 54 F55 57 63 61 F62 56 F64 F51 58 F60 59 Section 28 Section 26 Section 29 Section 30 N SE 4.68m OD W E 73 S N W E 67 4.70m OD Section 27 F74 4.70m OD 5.20m OD F69 F69 F70 68 75 NE SW 1 4.70m OD F76 F72 F66 65 77 71 F79 78 Section 31 Section 32 Section 33 Section 34 N S E W S N SW NE 52 4.61m OD 4.31m OD 4.95m OD 5.00m OD 80 53 85 F439 F87 F81 83 86 F84 Section 21 N 55 S 1 1 52 1 52 F265 4.50m OD 53 soil 53 sample 0 5m scale 1:100 for A3 plot Saltholme charcoal red sandstone human remains Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m drain fired clay Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 10: Sections 35-53, plan 46 Section 35 Section 36 Section 37 Section 38 E W E W W E S N 4.40m OD 4.55m OD 4.54m OD 4.97m OD 58 90 F91 88 88 F101 100 F89 F60 F89 Section 39 Section 40 Section 41 Section 42 Section 43 NE SW SW NE N S NW SE S N 4.58m OD 4.60m OD 4.94m OD 4.68m OD 4.47m OD 92 104 F105 117 97 F103 102 F118 95 98 F94 93 F96 F99 Section 44 Section 45 Plan 46 Section 47 Section 48 S N W N S F120 139 E N S 109 4.78m OD 5.10m OD 5.06m OD 4.88m OD 119 SK 2 107 121 111 F120 119 127 112 F116 SK 1 139 F122 113 115 F128 F108 110 45 F114 Section 49 Section 50 Section 51 Section 52 Section 53 W E E W W E N S N S 4.67m OD 5.00m OD 5.03m OD 4.66m OD 4.72m OD 131 140 150 132 123 129 F141 F151 134 F130 133 F84 124 82 135 F126 137 136 125 F138 Saltholme stone Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m drain Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 11: Sections 54-82 Section 54 Section 55 Section 56 Section 57 Section 58 S N N S N S SW NE N 147 S 4.95m OD 4.96m OD 4.96m OD 4.96m OD 5.00m OD 152 157 155 154 F149 F153 156 148 F158 F142 179 181 F180 F182 Section 59 Section 62 NE SW Section 61 E W Section 63 4.93m OD 5.02m OD 183 N S 198 E W F184 5.01m OD 199 5.10m OD 185 200 188 F202 194 Section 60 186 201 194 S N F189 F187 5.10m OD F195 190 192 F191 F193 Section 64 Section 65 Section 66 Section 77 S N E W W E S N 5.10m OD 5.10m OD 4.98m OD 4.96m OD 234 203 203 207 211 205 196 F204 22 209 212 F208 F213 F214 F210 F197 F206 Section 78 Section 79 Section 80 Section 81 Section 82 E W NE SW NE SW E W N S 5.00m OD 4.31m OD 4.14m OD 5.04m OD 4.97m OD 145 217 215 219 215 F146 159 F160 175 F176 F218 F216 F220 F216 Saltholme stone red sandstone Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m drain Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 12: Sections 83-100 Section 83 Section 84 Section 85 Section 86 S N W E E W E W 4.91m OD 4.68m OD 4.80m OD 157 222 1 F158 F223 221 F204 177 226 5.00m OD 224 231 F178 F227 F228 230 F225 229 Section 87 Section 88 Section 89 Section 90 Section 91 N S S N W E SW NE W E 4.67m OD 4.93m OD 5.05m OD 5.00m OD 5.04m OD 235 239 F216 F238 F236 237 245 F240 241 232 F233 F242 F246 Section 92 Section 93 Section 94 Section 95 Section 96 S N N S SW NE SW NE W E 5.03m OD 5.02m OD 5.07m OD 5.06m OD 247 257 F258 F260 1 245 243 259 F248 253 5.00m OD F244 254 F246 253 255 F256 Section 97 Section 98 Section 99 Section 100 E W W E S N W E 5.02m OD 5.04m OD 4.86m OD 5.02m OD 249 216 251 F262 266 F267 268 F250 F269 already F120 excavated F252 Saltholme charcoal Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m drain Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 13: Sections 101-115 Section 102 Section 103 Section 101 W E N S 5.09m OD 5.04m OD W E 271 4.42m OD 276 273 273 F275 F272 F277 274 274 F275 Section 104 Section 105 Section 106 Section 107 E W E W S N 5.03m OD 289 4.98m OD 5.05m OD N S 273 F275 287 285 F290 F292 F286 1 276 278 304 291 F288 4.33m OD 310 F277 F279 305 308 F306 307 Section 109 Section 110 Section 108 E W S N 4.96m OD Section 111 W E 4.99m OD 5.01m OD 298 W E 293 296 263 293 5.03m OD 263 F299 302 F264 F297 302 F295 F295 300 F303 F303 294 294 F301 Section 112 Section 113 Section 115 S N S N Section 114 E W 4.99m OD 5.00m OD S N 5.02m OD 313 F315 318 231 263 F321 316 4.91m OD 320 311 F314 230 270 F317 F264 F319 229 F312 F228 Saltholme drain bone Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m clay lining Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 14: Sections 116-135 Section 116 Section 117 Section 118 Section 119 Section 120 N S S N E W E W N S 5.02m OD 4.31m OD 4.54m OD furrow 111 4.70m OD 4.23m OD 320 F321 283 F284 327 322 109 177 1 323 110 F178 324 111 F114 52 325 F326 112 328 F330 329 Section 121 Section 122 Section 123 Profile 124 Section 125 W E NE SW SE NW E W 5.06m OD 5.04m OD 5.06m OD 4.94m OD N S 333 335 331 F334 F336 F337 5.01m OD F332 343 345 F344 F346 Profile 126 Section 127 Section 128 Section 129 Section 130 S N S F350 N S N E W E W 4.91m OD 4.82m OD 4.65m OD 4.86m OD 4.66m OD 347 F337 F349 357 370 352 351 F348 355 F371 F356 363 F358 Section 131 Section 132 Section 133 Section 134 Section 135 S N S N S N N S E W 4.70m OD 5.06m OD 4.88m OD 4.84m OD 5.00m OD 374 347 368 387 F348 F375 377 380 F389 F369 388 F379 F382 11 Saltholme drain bone Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m fired clay Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 15: Sections 136-151, plan 148 Section 136 Section 137 Section 138 Section 139 E W E W W E S N 4.80m OD 4.80m OD 4.80m OD 4.47m OD 359 392 383 385 385 361 F393 F360 F384 F386 F386 F362 Section 141 Section 143 Section 144 Section 145 Section 140 W E N S E W S N 352 N S 4.86m OD 4.80m OD 4.41m OD 4.84m OD 4.83m OD 352 366 391 390 391 F349 395 364 F349 F349 F367 373 F372 F396 351 F365 Section 146 Section 147 Plan 148 N S N S 127 4.26m OD 4.46m OD 143 145 397 400 151 F399 F401 148 F372 F349 Section 150 N Section 149 S 4.73m OD Section 151 NE SW 1 W E 4.80m OD 4.81m OD 405 385 391 F406 407 F349 F408 Saltholme drain Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of 0 2m stone Statera Energy scale 1:40 for A3 plot post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 16: Sections 152-161 Section 152 E W 4.91m OD evaluation 1 trench 52 53 Section 153 W E Section 155 4.70m OD N 409 Section 154 S 421 4.80m OD S N 413 422 4.90m OD F410 414 377 380 415 416 F418 F379 417 Section 156 Section 157 Section 158 S N SE NW S N 4.80m OD 4.35m OD 4.47m OD 411 419 F427 F420 F412 Section 160 Section 161 Section 159 SW NE S NE 431 4.50m OD SE NW 4.67m OD 4.51m OD 434 432 435 F436 433 F430 F430 Saltholme Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of Stratera Energy post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 17: Illustrated pottery d2 d1 d3 d5 0 4cm d3 scale 1:2 for A4 plot d4 d6 d8 d7 0 20cm scale 1:4 for A4 plot d9 d10 d11 d12 d15 d13 d17 d16 d18 d19 d20 d21 d22 d23 d24 d1 - 329; d2 - 198; d3 - 385; d4 - 98; d5 - 82; d6 - 400; d7 - 325; d8 - 429; d9 - 416; d10 - 59; d11 - 59; d12 - 347; d13 - 58; d15 - 53; d16 - u/s Area H; d17 - 271; d18 - u/s in vicinity of 53; d19 - 405; d20 - 351; d21 - 359 sf10 ?spindle whorl; d22 - 140 pot 1, d23 - 140 pot 2; d24 - 140 pot 3 Saltholme Cowpen Bewley Stockton-on-Tees on behalf of Stratera Energy post-excavation analysis report 5290 Figure 18: Illustrated flints d25 d26 d25 - piercer from context 273 0 5cm d26 - scraper from context 407 scale 1:1 for A4 plot Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 1: Cist F120 after cleaning, looking north Photograph 2: Cist F120, Skeleton 1/2, looking north Archaeological Services Durham University 153 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 3: Cist F120 post-excavation, looking north Photograph 4: Ditch F122, looking south Archaeological Services Durham University 154 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 5: Ditch F228, looking south Photograph 6: Skeleton 3, looking south Archaeological Services Durham University 155 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 7: Ditch F126, looking south Photograph 8: Ditch F128, looking east Archaeological Services Durham University 156 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 9: Pit F418, looking south-east Photograph 10: Pit F138, looking north Archaeological Services Durham University 157 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 11: Pit F295 (R) cutting ditch F299 (L), looking south Photograph 12: Ditch F60, looking west Archaeological Services Durham University 158 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 13: Flue F142, looking south Photograph 14: Flue F142, looking east Archaeological Services Durham University 159 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 15: Flue F151, looking north Photograph 16: Flue F151, looking east Archaeological Services Durham University 160 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 17: Dark horizon 53 below medieval clay 52, looking south Photograph 18: Flue F349, looking east Archaeological Services Durham University 161 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 19: Flue F349, looking west Photograph 20: Posthole F372 in flue F349, looking east Archaeological Services Durham University 162 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 21: Ditch F410, looking north Photograph 22: Ditch F408, looking east Archaeological Services Durham University 163 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 23: Skeleton 1/2: external surface of occipital bone (A) and close-up of right part (B) with subtle fine porosity (arrows) Photograph 24: Skeleton 1/2: external surface of parietal bone (unsided) with porosity (arrows) Archaeological Services Durham University 164 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 25: Skeleton 1/2: striated lamellar bone on the anterior right ulna Photograph 26: Skeleton 1/2: lamellar bone on unidentified long bone fragment (arrow) Archaeological Services Durham University 165 Saltholme ∙ Cowpen Bewley ∙ Stockton ∙ post-excavation analysis ∙ report 5290 ∙ December 2020 Photograph 27: Skeleton 1/2: localised enamel defects in the labial surfaces of the crowns of the lower deciduous canines (A); areas of missing enamel with rounded margins on the buccal crown of the lower left deciduous first molar (B) Photograph 28: Skeleton 1/2: distal root of the lower right deciduous first molar divided into two (a), compared to the normal single distal root of the lower left deciduous first molar (b) (inferior view) Archaeological Services Durham University 166