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In Search of Environmental Justice in Malaysia: the Cases of Broga and Bukit Merah

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In Search of Environmental Justice in Malaysia: the Cases of Broga and Bukit Merah IN SEARCH OF ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN MALAYSIA: THE CASES OF BROGA AND BUKIT MERAH Li Kheng Poh A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Brighton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2015 University of Brighton ABSTRACT The thesis examines two environmental campaigns in Malaysia in order to consider their significance in relation to conceptualising ideas of environmental justice and citizenship. The first campaign, the Broga anti-incinerator campaign is compared and contrasted to the second campaign, the Bukit Merah anti-radioactive waste campaign. Using a qualitative approach, the thesis examines how campaigners made use of a wide range of international environmental justice concepts and discourses, and campaigning strategies. These were locally adapted to fit the Malaysian political and social context, so that campaigners could demand their rights and challenge the responsibilities of the state and business interests. Campaigners made their demands for accountability not only through the law courts, but also through using discourses and strategies of environmentalism, rights to information and participation, citizen science, and lobbying internationally via transnational advocacy networks. Collectively, these actions brought both internal and external pressures to bear on the state and business interests, and created new spaces for dissent and for the construction of rights and entitlements. While actual material gains were not substantial, there were gradual incremental changes in feelings of personal empowerment and political consciousness, and in institutional health and safety processes. From this, I argue that conceptual links should be made between ideas of environmental justice and environmental citizenship. Concepts of environmental citizenship help to strengthen arguments for environmental justice, and vice versa. Much of the literature on environmental citizenship focuses on issues of individual social responsibility. However, many environmental conflicts in developing countries are refracted through the prisms of justice, equalities and rights because environmental rights are not distributed unconditionally or equally. In the context of Malaysia, where there is a highly unequal distribution of social and environmental rights, demonstrated understandings of why one should act responsibly will not automatically result in an ethics of environmental responsibility. The politicisation of social rights and justice helps to bring about understandings of an ethics of environmental responsibility. Arguments for justice made from the position of citizens actively claiming and demanding accountability further strengthens such arguments. Hence, the evolution of rights and responsibilities has to go hand-in-hand together; thereby defining environmental justice campaigners as also environmental citizens. 2 CONTENTS List of Tables.………….……...……………...………………………..………………..6 List of Boxes…………………………………...………………………………………..7 Abbreviations and shortened organisational names………………...…………….....8 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………..9 Declaration………………...………………………………………………………..…10 Map 1: Peninsula Malaysia and approximate location of case studies….……...…11 Chapter One: Introduction…………………….…………..………………….…….12 1.1 Research questions……………………………...…………………………………15 1.2 Malaysia……………………………...……………………………………………16 1.3 Broga and Bukit Merah campaigns…………………………...…………………...18 1.4 Approach to the research…………………………...……………………………...22 1.5 Terms and concepts………………………...……………………………………...23 1.6 Structure of the thesis…………………………...…………………………………26 Chapter Two: The Broga and Bukit Merah Case Studies……………………...…28 2.1 Case study one: the Broga Anti-Incinerator Campaign………………..……….…28 2.2 Case study two: the Perak Anti-Radioactive Action Committee (PARC)……...…33 2.3 Conclusion……………………...……………………………………………….…39 Chapter Three: Theoretical Underpinnings………...……………………………...40 3.1 Social movement theories…………………………...…………………………….42 3.2 Environmental justice theories………………………………………...…………..51 3.3 Questioning science…………………………………………...…………………...60 3.4 Environmental citizenship: broadening the political significance of environmental justice………………………………………………………...……68 3.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………78 Chapter Four: Research Methodology and Fieldwork……………………...……..80 4.1 Reflexivity…………………………………….……………………..…………….82 4.2 Justification for a case study methodology/approach…………..…………………85 4.3 Data collection: methods, strategies and ethics…………………………………....88 4.4 Practical issues and complexities of fieldwork…………………………………....99 4.5 Data management, analysis and interpretation…………………………………...102 4.6 Validity and reliability of research findings………………………………...……107 4.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………...…..….109 Chapter Five: The Racialised Political Economy of Malaysia, New Villages and Sustainable Development…………...……………………….111 5.1 The marginalisation of the Chinese: from colonial Malaya to New Villages…... 114 5.2 Sustainable development………………………………………………...……….131 5.3 Reformasi………………………………………………………………...………138 5.4 Conclusion…………………………………………………………...…………...142 3 CONTENTS Chapter Six: Understanding the Campaigns from Above…...…………………...144 6.1 Ignorant and emotional campaigners……………………………...……………..145 6.2 Acceptable risks and expert solutions……………………...…………………….148 6.3 Improving environmental governance………………..………………………….156 6.4 Other vested interests…………………………...………………………………..159 6.5 The politics of risk assessment………………………………………...…………162 6.6 Risk discourse: is it democratic?............................................................................163 6.7 Conclusion……………………………………...………………………………...168 Chapter Seven: Understanding the Campaigns from Below..................................170 7.1 Views from below………………………………………………………...……...171 7.2 Poverty and unequal distribution of risk……………………………………...….173 7.3 Experiential knowledges……...……………………………………...…………..176 7.4 Values, place and identity………………………………………………….....….178 7.5 The lack of trust………………………………………………………..…………181 7.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………...……...192 Chapter Eight: Methods of Campaigning: Discourses and Practices…………....195 8.1 The power of a new discourse: environmentalism……………………...………..197 8.2 A rights approach………………………………………………………...………204 8.3 Citizen science…………………………………………………………………....215 8.4 Transnational advocacy networks and the role of NGOs…………………...……221 8.5 Litigation…………………………………………………………………...…….228 8.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………...……...234 Chapter Nine: Contextualising Environmental Justice and Environmental Citizenship……………………………...………..236 9.1 Race and the environmental justice frame…………………………...…………..239 9.2 How the environmental justice frame travelled………………………...………..244 9.3 Outcomes of the Broga and Bukit Merah campaigns…………………..………..252 9.4 Environmental citizenship………………………………………………...……...259 9.5 The limitations of environmental justice…………………………………...…….265 9.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………...……...269 Chapter Ten: Conclusion………………………………………………...…………272 10.1 Time, place and scale in the Malaysian context……………………………...…284 10.2 The wider implications………………………………………………...………..285 Bibliography………………………………………………………………...……….292 Appendices Appendix One: Questions Used to Guide Semi-Structured Interviews…………...….345 Appendix Two: Participant Information Sheet (English)………………………….…346 Participant Information Sheet (Chinese)……………………...……..348 Appendix Three: Participant Consent Form (English)……………...………………...350 Participant Consent Form (Chinese)…………………...……….….351 4 CONTENTS Appendix Four: Insinerator mengganggu kehidupan kami (2003) [Broga anti-incinerator campaign booklet]……….…………………352 5 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 The Broga and Bukit Merah campaigns at a glance………………....…19-20 Table 4.1 Case study characteristics………………………………………...…..…….86 Table 4.2 A summary profile of the 44 interview participants……………………91-92 Table 8.1 Campaign discourses and practices…………………………………..196-197 Table 9.1 Evidence, justice and process components in the Bukit Merah and Broga campaigns……………………………………………………….…238 6 LIST OF BOXES Box 6.1 Kualiti Alam Sendirian Berhad……………………………………………..154 Box 9.1 The Consumers’ Association of Penang (CAP)……………………..…246-248 7 ABBREVIATIONS AND SHORTENED NAMES AELB The Atomic Energy Licensing Board BA Barisan Alterntif (Alterntive Front) BN Barisan Nasional (National Front) CAP Consumers’ Association of Penang D and D Decommissioning and decontamination DAP Democratic Action Party DANCED Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development) FDI Foreign Direct Investment Gagasan Gagasan Demokrasi Rakyat (Coalition for People’s Democracy) GAIA Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives/Global Anti- Incinerator Alliance Gerak Majlis Gerakan Keadilan Rakyat Malaysia (Malaysian People’s Movement for Justice) GDP Gross Domestic Product IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency (a United Nations body) ISA Internal Security Act KPKT Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan (The Ministry of Housing and Local Government; since 2013, the Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government) LTSF Long term storage facility MCA Malaysian Chinese Association MIC Malaysian Indian Congress MOSTI The Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Muhd/Mohd Muhammad/Mohammad NBA Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada Movement) NGO Non-governmental organisation Nuklear Malaysia Malaysian Nuclear Agency NV New Village PARC Perak Anti-Radioactive Action Committee (The Bukit Merah Campaign) PAS
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