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Discourse of Doubt: the Testing of Apocalyptic Figures in Jewish and Christian Traditions of Late Antiquity

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Discourse of Doubt: the Testing of Apocalyptic Figures in Jewish and Christian Traditions of Late Antiquity Discourse of doubt: The testing of apocalyptic figures in Jewish and Christian traditions of Late Antiquity Helen Spurling* Department of History and the Parkes Institute University of Southampton This paper will examine Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature of the seventh- eighth centuries to discuss a shared ‘discourse of doubt’ that cuts across different religious traditions. This discourse is manifested in the doubts of different sections of society regarding the end of time and their place in the future world, and the associated requirement that major apocalyptic figures undergo tests to prove their identity, most commonly through performing the miracle of resurrection. This discourse indicates the need to endorse the religious claims of a given group, which in turn reflects the wider political turmoil of the seventh century and a search for identity and clarification of status in uncertain times. The analysis presented here not only contributes to discussion on the relationship between Jewish and Christian apocalyptic writings of this period, but highlights what potential contacts and conflict as evidenced in this literature can reveal about the state of Jewish-Christian relations at a formative period for the Abrahamic religions. Keywords: apocalyptic literature, seventh century, Jewish-Christian relations, Sefer Zerubbabel, Otot ha-Mashiaḥ, Pirqe Mashiaḥ, messianism, miracles, resurrection Introduction The seventh and eighth centuries, with the Byzantine and Sassanid conquests along with the rise of Islam, is a crucial period in the history of the relations between Jews, Christians and Muslims in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was a time of political change and turmoil but also an age when religious identities were challenged and religious claims were emphasised. This article will examine claims to religious authority through analysis of apocalyptic and eschatological traditions as evidenced in Jewish and Christian writings of this period. Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature received a new impetus in the seventh-eighth centuries when political events, including the Sassanid and then the Arab conquests, were regarded as a sign of the messianic era. This so called ‘revival’ is highlighted, perhaps most famously, by Sefer Zerubbabel on the Jewish side and Pseudo-Methodius on the Christian side, but these texts are part of a broader outpouring of apocalyptic writings in the seventh-eighth centuries that can shed light on contemporary attitudes to events, perspectives on ‘other’ socio- religious groups, and perceptions of religious authority as manifested in theological claims.1 It is with interest in the relationship between Jewish and Christian apocalypticism that this article focuses on analysis of a particular motif shared across these different traditions: what can be described as a ‘discourse of doubt’ reflected in the need for key apocalyptic figures to demonstrate the validity of their identity and claims. This theme is a prominent feature of both Jewish and Christian apocalypses from the seventh-eighth centuries, with * [email protected] 1 numerous parallels in approach albeit representing very different theological perspectives. These traditions of doubt and testing of eschatological leaders highlight the close connections between Jewish and Christian apocalypticism, but are also part of a wider discourse of competing claims reflected in Jewish and Christian literature from this period. The events of the seventh-eighth centuries prompted the wide circulation of apocalyptic ideology and traditions, which was connected with an underlying motivation for scholars of different traditions to validate the religious claims of their particular group or community in light of the changing political circumstances in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here the focus will be on examination of the Jewish sources Sefer Zerubbabel, Otot ha-Mashiaḥ and Pirqe Mashiaḥ.2 Produced in the aftermath of the Sassanid Persian conquests in the early seventh century, Sefer Zerubbabel is widely acknowledged as the locus classicus Jewish apocalyptic work of this period and sets the foundation for subsequent apocalyptic writings. Otot ha-Mashiaḥ also from this period offers an interesting development of the ‘discourse of doubt’ in relation to the satanic figure of Armilos, and Pirqe Mashiaḥ represents a fully developed exploration of doubt and testing of the Messiah in the context of the Arab conquests. These compositions will be assessed with reference to contemporary Christian apocalyptic sources. Pseudo-Methodius, widely dated to the seventh century, will be examined as the foundational Christian apocalyptic text, and the Syriac Apocalypse of Daniel will also be explored due to its development apparently without knowledge of Pseudo-Methodius. These sources represent a selection of diverse but influential apocalyptic traditions from the seventh-eighth centuries, which will be analysed in terms of how they reflect the heightened need to explain and emphasise theological claims of authority in the Eastern Mediterranean in this period, and in ways that shed light on a shared ‘discourse of doubt’. The Despicable Messiah: Sefer Zerubbabel Sefer Zerubbabel is perhaps the most widely known and discussed Jewish apocalyptic text of the seventh century.3 The apocalypse is dated to this period largely on the basis of a concern for the role of the Persians in the final redemption of Israel. This is highlighted by the title of the text as the ‘Book of Zerubbabel’, the governor of Judah who led the Jewish people following their restoration by the Persians after exile in Babylonia.4 Jellinek’s edition of the text possibly alludes to Kavad II, the Sassanid Shah who brokered a peace deal with Heraclius in c.628-630 to end the current round of Byzantine-Persian warfare, restore territory to Heraclius and secure the return of the True Cross taken from Jerusalem.5 The apocalypse reflects the political instability of the early seventh century, and Jewish hopes and expectations for restoration raised by the Persian conquests and then dashed by subsequent withdrawal. Presented as a vision delivered to Zerubabbel ben Shealtiel, while in exile in Babylonia, the apocalypse addresses the question of when the Messiah and hoped for vindication at the end of time will come. It builds on and fully develops eschatological themes often familiar from earlier rabbinic traditions, including material on the Messiahs of Joseph and David, the status of Jerusalem and the Temple, the Day of the Lord and Gog and Magog, the resurrection of the dead, and the rule and defeat of Armilos.6 It is without doubt of major significance for understanding a Jewish response to the Persian conquests and attitudes to Christians and Christian traditions in this period.7 For the purposes of this article, the focus is on the motif of doubt, which is found in Sefer Zerubbabel in connection with the identification of the Messiah ben David. In Sefer Zerubbabel, the identity of the Messiah ben David appears suspect because of his lowly and despicable appearance. Zerubbabel is taken to Rome where he sees a man who 2 Zerubbabel questions this individual as to his 8.(נבזה ופצוע) ’is ‘despicable and wounded identity and receives the response that ‘I am the Messiah of the Lord and I am bound here until the time of the End’. Zerubbabel is taken aback and remains silent, but, upon further questioning and encouragement by Menaḥem ben ‘Ami’el, Zerubbabel acknowledges that he is indeed speaking to the Messiah ben David.9 This affirmation results in the transformation of the Messiah from a despicable character into a handsome young man.10 It is clear that Zerubbabel’s recognition that he is in the presence of the Messiah allows him to see the true nature of the person to whom he is speaking. Thus, the principle of the importance of recognition is found with regard to apocalyptic leadership. Zerubbabel as governor of the Jewish people and of the Davidic line is suitably righteous to be able to understand the significance of who is in front of him. In contrast, however, Zerubbabel is informed that, when it comes to the end times and the revelation of the Messiah ben David, resistance and doubt will be the first response of the Jewish leadership: ויאמר אלי מנחם בן עמיאל יבא פתאום בחדש ניסן ויעמד על בקעת ארבאל ויצאו אליו כל חכמי ישראל ולהם יאמר בן עמיאל אני הוא משיח אשר שלחני ה' לבשרכם ולהצילכם מיד צורריכם ויביטו בו החכמים ויבזוהו כמו שאתה בזית אותו )נ''א מוסיף ולא יאמינו בו( ויבער בו חמתו וילבש בגדי נקם תלבושת ויבא בשערי ירושלים ועמו אליהו ויקיצו ויחיו את נחמיה )נ''א בן שאלתיאל הנהרג( ויאמינו בו. (Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch, 2:56) He said to me: ‘Menaḥem ben ‘Ami’el will come suddenly in the month of Nisan. He will stand by the Valley of ’Arb’el, and all the sages of Israel will go out to him. Ben ‘Ami’el will say to them: “I am the Messiah sent by the Lord to bring good tidings to you and to deliver you from the hand of your adversaries!” The sages will look at him and will despise him, just as you despised him (gloss adds: and they will not believe in him). Then his anger will burn within him, ‘And he will dress in garments of vengeance as clothing’ (Isaiah 59:17), and he will enter the gates of Jerusalem, and with him will be Elijah. They will awaken and resurrect Neḥemiah (gloss: ben Shealtiel who was killed)11 and they will believe in him. The text describes how Menaḥem ben ‘Ami’el will appear in the month of Nisan near the Valley of ’Arb’el. All the sages of Israel – those amongst the rabbinic leadership who have survived the tribulations of the Day of the Lord and Gog and Magog – will go to meet him. Menaḥem ben ‘Ami’el will announce his identity as the Messiah sent by God to deliver Israel from the nations of the earth led by Armilos.
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