Mothering Rituals a Study on Low Caste Women of Kolkata
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Riikka Uuksulainen MOTHERING RITUALS: A STUDY ON LOW CASTE WOMEN IN KOLKATA Academic dissertation to be publicly discussed, by due permission of the Faculty of Theology at the University of Helsinki in lecture hall 6, on 26 June 2013, at 12 o’clock noon. HELSINKI 2013 Copyright © Riikka Uuksulainen !"#$% &'() Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. ix List of illustrations .................................................................................................................. x Tables ................................................................................................................................ x Figures .............................................................................................................................. x Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................xii PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Prologue: a feast for the benefit of children ................................................................. 3 1.2 In search of the voice: defining the research task ........................................................ 3 1.3 Introductory remarks on the research data, sources, and method ................................. 5 1.4 Reflections on the niche .............................................................................................. 6 Ethnographic study .................................................................................................. 6 Ritual study .............................................................................................................. 9 Study on popular Hindu religious traditions ........................................................... 11 Study on women and religion ................................................................................. 14 Societal contribution .............................................................................................. 14 1.5 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................... 15 1.6 Tools for the reader: overview of the thesis ............................................................... 16 PART II: RITUAL STUDY – THEORIES AND METHODS 2 Reciprocity of gifts in the ritual context ........................................................................... 21 2.1 Given by god (in return) ........................................................................................... 21 2.2 Distinguishing the sacred .......................................................................................... 22 2.3 Remarks on the theories of gift ................................................................................. 23 2.4 Notions of gift in India.............................................................................................. 26 2.5 Reciprocated gift ...................................................................................................... 30 2.6 Gift-giving and exchange in the ritual context ........................................................... 32 Material gifts ......................................................................................................... 32 Immaterial gifts ...................................................................................................... 34 3 Fieldwork in three Kolkata neighbourhoods: phases of the ethnographic process ............. 37 3.1 Identifying the preconditions of the research and the pre-understanding of the researcher ................................................................................................................. 37 3.2 Cooperation with the Lutheran World Service India (LWSI) ..................................... 38 3.3 Entrance: recording observations in the fieldwork diary ............................................ 41 3.4 Constructing the list of questions .............................................................................. 43 v 3.5 Conducting the interviews ........................................................................................ 45 3.6 Materials supporting the ethnography ....................................................................... 48 3.7 Evaluating the ethnographic data, fieldwork, and researcher’s influence on them ...... 49 3.8 Approaching the analysis .......................................................................................... 53 PART III: MOTHERS AND MOTHERING RITUALS 4 Research sites and women interviewed ............................................................................ 59 4.1 Three communities representing different cultures and backgrounds ......................... 59 Janbazar ................................................................................................................. 60 Harijan Basti .......................................................................................................... 66 Ganti ...................................................................................................................... 68 4.2 Kolkata and the influence of the urban environment on immigrant communities ....... 71 4.3 Socio-demographic description of the thirty-two interviewees .................................. 74 Age ........................................................................................................................ 74 Marriage ................................................................................................................ 75 Children ................................................................................................................. 78 Family planning ..................................................................................................... 80 Literacy and education ........................................................................................... 81 Employment .......................................................................................................... 85 Widowhood ........................................................................................................... 89 4.4 Position of women within family and community in light of the fourfold structure of human goals (puru̠rtha) ..................................................................................... 90 4.5 Low caste: does it exist? ........................................................................................... 92 Origin of the caste division .................................................................................... 92 What are low castes? .............................................................................................. 97 Untouchables: despised but necessary for the whole ............................................... 99 4.6 Special characteristics of the interviewees’ religious background ............................ 102 Practitioners of popular Hinduism ........................................................................ 102 VaiȒǶava, Uaiva, and Ukta influences .................................................................. 103 5 Types of mothering rituals ............................................................................................. 109 5.1 Ritual practices performed in hope of offspring ...................................................... 109 5.1.1 Aiming at becoming pregnant ....................................................................... 109 Vows, promises, gifts, and fasts: remarks on terminology .......................... 111 Brata – a vow for fulfilment of desire ...................................................... 111 Conditional promise of nasika and its relation to brata and < ......... 114 Some implications about the practice of giving nasika ........................ 116 Assistance from a variety of deities ............................................................ 119 Sacred trees and fertility ............................................................................. 122 MȑȒȜQ: Bengali goddess of fertility and children ................................... 126 Worship with a statue: the God Krtikeȸa .................................................. 134 SantoȒ M: the movie ‘mother of satisfaction’........................................... 136 vi Religious feasts mark an auspicious time to communicate the wish of offspring to deities ..................................................................................... 140 5.1.2 Difficulties in becoming pregnant ................................................................. 141 Fear of infertility ........................................................................................ 141 The question of belief: trust in the doctor or deity ...................................... 144 Baths, amulets, and treatments ................................................................... 146 5.1.3 In hope of a son ............................................................................................ 149 Favouring the male child ............................................................................ 149 Practices pursuing the birth of a son ........................................................... 153 5.2 Birth rites...............................................................................................................