978 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING

Asia and the Far East held at Bangkok, Thai­ raphy and Projection for Military Photo Inter­ land, October-November 1961. pretation." PHOTOGRAMMETRTC ENGINEERING, Wilson, R. c., 1962. "Surveys Applicable to Ex­ Vol. XXVII(3): 450-460. tensive Forest Areas in North America." Pro­ Woo, H. W., 1962. "Vela-Uniform-Task VII On­ ceedings of the Fifth World Forestry Congress held Site Inspection." Proceedings of the Symposium at Seattle, Washington, September 1960, Vol. 1: on Detection of Underground Objects, Materials, 257-263. and Properties held at Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, Winterberg, R. P., 1961. "Additive Color Photog- March 1962, p. 250.

Human Factors in Image Interpretation*

ROBERT SADACCA, U. S. Army Personnel Research Office, Washington 25, D. C.

REPORT TO SUBCOMMITTEE III PHOTO INTERPRETATION COMMITTEE 1962-63 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY 27 MARCH 1963

VEN a cursory survey of human factors E problems in image interpretation leads to the conclusion that the problems involved are manifold and extremely complex and that a broad, integrated program of research needs to be implemented. Today, interpreters are not only confronted with the problems of interpreting relatively large-scale, conven­ tional black-and-white photographs, bu t they are also required to interpret small-scale and degraded photographs as well as radar, and infrared imagery. In addition, recent techno­ logical developments have increased the capacity of reconnaissance systems to obtain and process imagery at a rapid rate. The imagery obtained through this increased capacity and variety of image sources is ulti­ mately placed before image interpreters who are asked to extract information to be used in important decisions. ROBERT SA DACCA Yet existing knowledge about the basic ceptual set, background information, stimu­ psychological factors operating when inter- Ius quality, and personality variables on the preters examine reconnaissance imagery is speed, accuracy, and completeness of inter­ severely limited. Relatively little is known preters' final decisions? These are human concerning the perceptual and cognitive factors questions; unfortunately, they are not processes that occur when interpreters search easily answered. imagery and make critical decisions concern- Image interpretation is an extremely com­ ing the presence or absence of significant plex process. Impinging upon an interpreter's objects. What clues or target signatures do performance are factors related to his back­ interpreters use? What inferential processes ground, training, aptitudes, interests, and do they employ? \;\That are the effects of per- personality, as well as his momentary state of * Presented at March 24-30, 1963 ASP-ACSM Convention, Hotel Shoreham, Washington, D. C. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect official De­ partment of Army policy. EDITOR'S NOTE: The Abstract for this paper is on page 482 of the 1963 YEARBOOK. HUMAN FACTORS IN IMAGE INTERPRETATION 979

motivation and fatigue. Factors related to must be clearly delineated and the efforts of amount, quality, and content of the input interested researchers must be pooled and imagery, time available for viewing the coordinated. Some concrete suggestions along imagery, the kinds of instruction and target this line will later be made. information the interpreter has received, and the techniques and equipment he uses in Research in the first area, identification of examining the imagery also play major roles basic human factors in image interpretation, in determining performance. Performance should have as its ultimate objective the itself can be measured in a variety of ways­ improvemen t of interpreters' productivi ty number of correct identifications, number of through the optimal use of their talents, skills, errors, per cent accuracy, per cent complete­ and abilities. Unfortunately, most of the ness, rate or speed of information extraction. psychological research into perceptual and And, of course, the task of the interpreter can cognitive processes that has been conducted vary. The task may consist of detection, to date is only indirectly related to image identification, location, and mensuration, or interpretation per se. Generalization from a combination of these basic functions. The these more theoretical studies to the prob­ task may also include functional and traffic lems of operational interpreters cannot be analyses, damage assessment, and depth made easily. There are several notable ex­ determination to name a few. ceptions, however. On the theoretical side, there is the extension of Tanner and Swet's The manifold problems can be summarized auditory signal detection theory to the prob­ in two broad human factors questions: (1) lems of visual detection (1954). Their basic What are the skills, abilities, and techniques ideas of optimizing performance, taking into necessary to extract information from con­ consideration signal and noise distributional ventional and newer types of imagery? (2) probabilities, along wi th the value of correct How can available human resources be utilized detections and correct rejections and the cost to cope with the ever increasing variety and of false alarms and incomplete identifications, amount of imagery while maintaining ac­ can be applied to the problem of image inter­ ceptable standards of speed, accuracy and pretation. completeness? In order to answer these two broad ques­ In an experiment recently conducted by the tions, an integrated program embracing the Army Personnel Research Office, the effect on following research areas is needed. performance of varying the value of correct 1. Identification of basic human factors in and incorrect identifications was explored. image interpretation Three matched groups of interpreters were 2. Interpreter viewing techniques for near given the same imagery, but each group was real-time and multi-sensor imagery given different information about the relative 3. Team approaches to image interpreta­ importance of identifying all targets and of tion avoiding errors. ApP3.rently emphasis on 4. Image interpreter functions in advanced accuracy, in the situation where there was an equipment configurations ammunition shortage, significantly reduced 5. Techniques for selecting image inter­ the number of erroneous identifications with­ preters out reducing the number of correct identifi­ 6. Training techniques for image inter­ cations made (see Table 1). preters Considerable research in the basic factors Before rapidly summarizing some of the area has been directed toward study of the latest research being conducted or planned in relationship of such physical characteristics these areas, it should be emphasized that the of imagery as image scale, contrast, granu­ research to date represents only a promising larity, and sharpness to the usefulness of beginning. And, unfortunately, it is basically imagery for the extraction of information. an uncoordinated beginning. There has not Research in this area has suffered from the been sufficient communication or integration limited range of physical variables studied, of research findings and plans to enable re­ the artificiality of the imagery employed, the searchers to build upon the efforts of each lack of experimental controls utilized, and other. This is not surprising. The problems inadequate performance criteria. Recently, are complex and researchers tend to bite off however, the Cornell Aeronautical Labora­ what little they can chew in a reasonable tories and the Military Products Group of period of time. However, if substantial Minneapolis-Honeywell, both under contract progress is to be made, not only must duplica­ to the Air Force's Rome Air Development tion of effort be avoided, but problem areas Center. have initiated more comprehensive 980 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING

100 Research in the second major human fac­ tors research area, in terpreter viewing tech­ 80 Probability niques for near real-time and multi-sensor of Frame imagery, should be closely tied in with re­ Selection Go search in the basic factors area. True, unique problems arise in the rapid scanning and detection of objects in near real-time and in 20 the integrative viewing of imagery from several sensors. But many of the basic prob­ 15 lems involved are identical to those present in

Number of Targets Per Print the interpretation of photographic imagery under conventional conditions. Significant FIG. 1. Screening efficiency within research in near real-time viewing has recently 10 seconds by target density. begun. The Applied Psychology Corporation, under contract to the Rome Air Development studies in this area. The principal objective of Center, is studying the effects on interpreter the Cornell study is to determine how physical accuracy and completeness of viewing times, image variables can best be combined into a measured in seconds, and various work-rest summarv measure which maximally predicts cycles. The effects will be studied across interpreter performance. The goal of the imagery varying in scale, resolution, contrast, Minneapolis-Honeywell study is to deter­ and target density and detail. Preliminary mine the accuracy and speed with which results indicate that the number of targets selected objects of mili tary significance can be and features correctly identified increase as a identified at various levels of ground resolu­ function of logarithmic increases in the tion and contrast. These studies are about amount of viewing time. half completed. Preliminary results from the Minneapolis-Honeywell study indicate that The Army Personnel Research Office has the physical variable, contrast, may be rela­ also initiated a series of studies in real-time tively unimportant in determining usefulness interpretation and screening efficiency. Figure of imagery in the range of contrast normally 1 shows an example of the research findings found in aerial photos. obtained in screening efficiency. In a 10­ second viewing period, the probability that a Time does not permit even a summary of print will be selected for further study is seen all the other research that has been conducted to be asymptotic with regard to the number in the basic factor area. However, the WOl'k of of targets actually on the print. Baker, Morris and Steedman (1960) on target recognition in complex displays deserves to be The most extensive research in the third men tioned, as do the studies of Enoch and human factors area, team approaches to Fry on visual search techniques, and the more image interpretation, has been conducted by applied studies of Kraft (1962) of Boeing on the Army. Data were recently collected from comparative cover viewing techniques and approximately 175 interpreters working under the Army studies on the validity of inter­ 10 team methods involving variations in preters' feelings of certitude or confidence team size, procedures for examining prints, and the impact of suggestive information. and amount of communication among team (Sadacca, et aI., 1961, 1962). members. Team members worked together over a 2!-day period. The data from this

TABLE 1 experiment are currently being analyzed. Data from previous experimentation have ErFEcl' OF MILITARY SITUATION ON PERFORMANCLC indicated that substantial improvement over individual interpretation can be achieved by Milital'y Situation Mean Mean pooling the efforts of a number of inter­ Rights Wl'ongs* preters. The principal advantage appears to Airborne Drop be in the reduction of erroneous iden tifica­ (Completeness) 20.1 22 .4 tions. If one interpreter makes an erroneous Armored Attack identification, the chances are that a second (I ntermediate) 16.7 13 .7 interpreter will not agree with him, whereas Ammunition Shortage agreement is much more likely if an identified (Accuracy) 19.3 9.5 object is really there.

* Mean wrongs significantly different (P <.01) The fourth research area, image inter- HUMAN FACTORS IN IMAGE INTERPRETATION 981

preter functions in advanced equipment con­ These possibili ties will be explored as ti me figurations or facilities, calls for a continual permits by the Army and hopefully by other reappraisal of the techniques used by inter­ researchers. preters and the role they play in information processing systems. Effective systems engi­ The area of training research has, perhaps, neering and equipment design depend on data received the least attention. The Rome Air that define the capabilities of the human Development Center, however, is currently component. Evaluation of interpreter func­ considering additional research in this im­ tions within entire configurations of displays, portant area. The Data Systems Division of comparative viewers, computers, and rapid RCA, under contract to Rome, has just access files can be accomplished through ex­ initiated a study into the feasibility of train­ perimentally varying the number and kinds ing interpreters in rapid screening and recog­ of personnel utilized within the system, wQI-k nition techniques. Various presentation rates flow procedures and techniques, imagery and reinforcement schedules will be studied input loads, and required information output using imagery varying in scale and target rates. Research in this vital area is currently distribution. Various viewing distances will being planned by both the Air Force Systems also be compared. Command at 'Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and by the Army Personnel Research As indicated earlier, there is great need for Office. The Systems Support Depat-tment of more coordination and communication among Nortronics (1962) is also considering problems researchers in these areas. This is especially in this area. true among researchers engaged in private or in-house research. The Photo Interpretation Two comprehensive studies have been Committee may be able to serve in this re­ concerned with the selection of image in ter­ gard. If the Committee, under the American preters. The first, conducted by Meyer and Photogrammetric Society's auspices, could Miller (1960) on Air Force image interpreter prevail upon the research groups engaged in trainees, identified several promising aptitude human factors studies to send periodic sum­ tests and Airman Classification indexes. Ina maries of their research plans, progress, and recently completed study, the Army Per­ findings, to Society headquarters, a central sonnel Research Office administered an 8-hour file of ongoing research could be established. experimental battery of spatial, perceptual, Investigators wishing to build upon the re­ reasoning, memory, and vision tests to Army search of others could visit the file, or for a fee interpreter trainees. As a result of an exten­ have the file reproduced and sent to them si ve validi ty analysis, a four-test selection battery is being recommended for operational The Committee could help solve another use. The battery, which takes two hours to research problem by setting up an imagery administer, consists of two spatial and per­ exchange service. One main obstacle to re­ ceptual tests, a test of reasoning ability and a search on image in terpretation is the ex­ test of general knowledge of science, military tremely difficult task of obtaining imagery of tactics, and photographic techniques. In both sufficien t scope, variety, or represen tativeness. the Army and Air Force studies, vision tests More than one-third of a researcher's effort of acui ty and depth perception failed to cor­ can easily be expended in searching, often relate significantly with the performance unsuccessfully, for suitable imagery. Re­ measure and school grade criteria used. Ap­ searchers wishing to participate in the imagery parently, the ability to extract useful informa­ exchange would send to the Society head­ tion from imagery involves higher order cogni­ quarters complete sets or representative tive functions than the ability to see fine samples of imagery used in their own studies detail, although, of course, there must be along with descriptions of the kinds of objects some minimal acuity standards. located on the imagery and an indication of the samples of interpreters to whom the There is need for research in selection imagery has been administered. Researchers beyond the initial training phase. The pos­ who are looking for imagery could study the sibility of achieving differential classification material and write to the original supplier of of interpreters into target area specialities­ the imagery in order to borrow the desired for example, strategic vs tactical-should be master negatives or positive transparencies explored. Also, special aptitudes may be or to obtain library print and film can num­ needed to extract information from multi­ bers. There would, of course, have to be safe­ sensor displays or to detect targets in rapid guards-and probably a fee-but I do think screening or in near real-time interpretation. this could be done without too much expendi- 982 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING tUfe of effort on the part of the Committee or 15. Baker, C. A., Morris, D. F., and Steedman, W. C. "Target Recognition on Complex Society. Displays," Human Factors, vol. 2, pp. 51-61. 1960. In summary, although much noteworthy 16. Beck, L. H. "A Theoretical Evaluation of an research has already been accomplished and is Experimental Visual Stereo-Enhancer for Aerial Use," Optics and Vision Group, Uni­ now planned or already under way, the study versityof Michigan, Vision Research Labora­ of the complex human processes occurring tories, Ann Arbor, Michigan. August 1955. when image interpreters examine aerial 17. Bennett, C. A., Winterstein, S. H. Taylor imagery is really only beginning. By acting in ]. D:, .and Kent, R. E. "A S~udy ~f Imag~ Quahtles and Speeded IntrinsIC Target Rec­ a coordinative capacity, the PI Committee ognition: Final Report," IBM No. 63-535-1, may be able to greatly facili tate and expand Owego, New York. 5 February 1963. future research efforts. 18. Bevan, W. "Perception: Evolution of a Con­ cept," Psychological Review, vol. 65, pp. 34­ BIBLIOGRAPHyl 55. 1958. 19. Binder, A. "A Statistical Model for the Proc­ 1. Adams, O. S., Fitts, P. M. Rappaport, M., and Weinstein, M. "Relations among Some ess of Visual Recognition," Psychological Re­ Measures of Pattern Discriminability " Jour­ view, vol. 62, pp. 119-129. 1955. 20. Birnbaum, A. H. "Human Factors Research nal of Experimental Psychology, vol.'48, pp. in Image Systems-Status Report," U. S. 81-88. 1954. Army Personnel Research Office Publication 2. Alluisi, E. A. 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Technical Aspects of Air Photo Interpretation in the Soviet Union*

DIETER STEINER, Dept. of Geography, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago 37, Ill.

ABSTRACT: The present article reviews some technical aspects of air photog­ raphy and air photo interpretation in the Soviet Union, taken from the Russian literature concerned with the subJect and published afte-r World War I I. The most important technical means involved in the whole process of air photo interpretation are briefly outlined in the introductory section. In the two follow­ ing sections the properties of the equipment used in air photography, such as cameras, lenses, films, and filters and their suitability for d~tferent surveying and interpretation purposes are dealt with in detail. The information presented in this paper may a.tford a contribution to a better knowledge of Soviet photo interpretation and to a basis for comparing its status with the one in western countries.

INCE the article by Troll" Fortschritte der very little has become known about the S wissenschaftlichen Luftbildforschung." further development of Russian air photog­ which appeared in 1943 and contained a sec­ raphy and interpretation methods and tech­ tion on photo interpretation in the USSR, niques. For example, in PHOTOGRAMMETRIC * Presented at March 24--30, 1963 ASP-ACSlVI Convention, Hotel Shoreham, \II'ashington, D. C.