International Journal of Police Science & Management Volume 12 Number 2

Improving regional policing: a review of protective services. Undertaking an audit of a method of analysis using soft systems methodology

Brian Wilson and Kees van Haperen† (Both) Koios Group, 1–5 Stud Offices, Redenham Park, Redenham, Andover, SP11 9AQ. †(Corresponding author) Tel: +44 (0)7787522196; Fax: + 44 (0)1264774009; email: [email protected] Received 5 June 2009; revised and accepted 12 October 2009 Keywords: protective services, strategic review, regional review, micro- analysis, problem structuring, soft systems methodology, audit

Kees van Haperen is a founding member and of business analysis known as soft systems Managing Director of the Koios Group and has methodology (SSM). This development was been Chairman of the Board since February driven by the action research programme carried 2004, whilst continuing his involvement with out in that department, in which his particular ‘Strategy and Change’ consultancy assignments. interest was the application of SSM to informa- He has over 15 years of experience in strategy- tion and organisation-based analysis. The work making, management of change and programme appeared in the book, Systems: Concepts, management for a wide spectrum of public and Methodologies and Applications. He has over 35 private customers. After a decade as an officer in years of experience of tackling organisation- the Royal Netherlands Air Force and a period of based problems of various kinds and has under- involvement with decision-making and organisa- taken projects in the pharmaceutical industry, the tional learning in crises, his more recent engage- Met Office, the Office of Government Com- ments have been concerned with making sense merce, (OGC), the Ministry of Defence (MOD), of complexity and uncertainty in stakeholder-rich the National Health Service (NHS) and a variety situations. His work has focused on defining of other organisations in both the private and common purpose and desired outcomes, and public sector. He has been involved with various implementing all means required to achieve policing-related projects including with the West these. In addition, his work has concentrated on Police and with the Thames Valley exploring how to improve business performance Police and also with a regional project with the by doing things differently eg, through the intro- three Yorkshire forces and Humberside Police. duction of innovative and collaborative working practices and technologies. Brian Wilson left the world of nuclear power ABSTRACT engineering and control systems design in 1966, This paper illustrates how soft systems method- to become a founder member of the Department ology (SSM) was used in undertaking an audit International Journal of Police of Systems Engineering at the University of Lan- of an analysis method — Micro-Analysis — for Science and Management, Vol. 12 No. 2, 2010, pp. 206–219. caster. During his time at the University he was improving effectiveness and efficiency in a particu- DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2010.12.2.163 involved in the development of a particular form lar area of policing known as 'protective services'.

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The authors were asked to support the Regional create larger forces ceased. Instead, Tony Project Director tasked with exploring options for McNulty, the then Minister responsible for collaboration between Police, policing, was exploring ways to improve Police, West Yorkshire Police and effectiveness and efficiency of the forces Humberside Police. SSM was used to develop a through intensive collaboration in a par- reference model relevant to protective services ticular area of policing known as ‘protective which, together with information categories for services’ (McNulty, 2007). each of the SSM activities and conceptual meas- This paper discusses the review of the ures of performance, was used to analyse the analysis method — ie, ‘Micro-Analysis’ — efficacy of Micro-Analysis by comparing and mandated for analysing threats, and the contrasting information content. The paper further availability and suitability of policing assets explains the importance of the use of other in the context of these threats. Although the techniques and tools to overcome the information ‘Micro-Analysis’ method is based on infor- richness and to meet the need for flexibility of mation from each individual force, it should data representation. Finally, the paper reflects on look at implications for the forces in a the deliverables and achieved outcome of the regional context. In short, the approach project and suggests some further application of seeks to determine whether excess capabil- the approach. ities within forces exist and whether these could be used to overcome shortfalls in the INTRODUCTION area of other forces. Early in 2007, the authors were invited A review of policing in England and by a representative of West Yorkshire Police has been on the political agenda for some to assist in the analysis of four forces in the time. In November 2003, the then Home region covered by Yorkshire and Humber- Secretary David Blunkett hinted at a poss- side. Early views of the proposed Micro- ible restructuring of policing in England Analysis method had raised some concerns and Wales which could see smaller forces giving way to larger, ‘strategic’ forces. In about how consistently it could be applied November 2005, the then Home Secretary in isolation by individual forces. For Charles Clarke announced restructuring instance, it was feared that the definition of proposals reducing the number of police what comprises each protective service and forces in England and Wales from 43 to 12 the 'how' of its delivery would differ from (British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC], force to force, and without a clear defini- 2005). tion of purpose and activities associated These plans have had varying degrees of with each area, the responses would lack support among police officers’ organisa- consistency, thus preventing aggregation tions. In August 2004, the Police Super- and meaningful interpretation. intendents Association stated its belief that One of the authors had worked with this the existing 43 police forces of England and representative before on a number of other Wales were based on outdated boundaries projects using soft systems methodology and structures and called for reform of the (SSM) (see Wilson, 2001). It was suggested police service in its official response to that, in this situation, the early stages (and government plans. However, the Associ- possibly later ones) could be better ation of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) did informed by the application of SSM as well. not favour such moves (BBC, 2004). An acceptable definition of what constitute Finally, in June 2006 the efforts to merge ‘protective services’ would enable the iden- forces were called off and the attempts to tification of required activities, which could

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then be used by forces to guide their assess- The protective services assessment was to ments, thus providing consistency and a involve evaluating the viability of the common language. Forces would then be option to support the delivery of protective able to make an assessment of all the avail- services to nationally accepted standards. It able 'assets' to support the service area was advised that an expert panel of senior within their force (irrespective of 'how' they managers with professional knowledge in would be delivered locally). the seven service areas should undertake this This paper will firstly give a brief over- assessment. The seven service areas are view of the issues surrounding the policing defined by ACPO and subject to national review and will focus in more detail on the assessment by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of particular aspects of ‘protective services’. Constabulary (HMIC), namely: This is followed by an explanation of the SSM approach, the development of a con- ● serious and organised crime ceptual model which was used as a frame- ● major crime work for analysis, together with the use of ● civil contingencies and emergency information categories to evaluate the planning Micro-Analysis approach. Since an analysis ● critical incident management of this type across four organisations pro- ● counterterrorism and allied matters vides a rich source of information, views ● public order and perspectives, it is believed that, without ● strategic roads policing. some expert software tools, analysis is ren- dered too complex to structure problems The HMIC report, Closing the Gap (HMIC, effectively. To organise the depth of infor- 2005) detailed the case for major change in mation, the authors decided to use a the delivery structures for the police ser- modelling software known as MooD,1 and vice, concluding: applied system engineering principles. A section has been included on the use of The police service needs not only to deal software tools and modelling principles. effectively with volume crime, the cur- Finally, the paper reflects on the work to rent performance focus, but also have date and the benefits that have arisen from demonstrable readiness to tackle com- the audit and application of SSM. plex, volatile threats to individuals, neighbourhoods and businesses. This implies a major development in capabil- BACKGROUND PROTECTIVE ity and to achieve this change must be SERVICES AND THE FOUR FORCES made not only to the structure, but the In October 2005, following David whole configuration of policing at this Blunkett’s earlier suggestions, the Home level. Office finally set the police service on course for 'voluntary' regional mergers in At the end of 2006 and early in 2007, it was order to bridge a perceived gap in its ability still perceived that the provision of services to provide what are termed 'protective needed to improve in all areas so that there services'. In brief, these are the police would be sufficient capability to respond in specialisations that are above and beyond all parts of the country. In 2005 the the day-to-day services provided to local intended solution had been for forces to communities — things that not all forces merge into sufficiently large bodies to be have the ability to provide (or the need to relatively self-sufficient in the protective provide). services. The plug was pulled on mergers in

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June 2006 and in their place came an Sheffield area. There are four crime and encouragement to 'collaborate' in order to disorder reduction partnerships in South bridge the gaps. Not much had happened Yorkshire: three are in line with districts, since, although some work within the while the Sheffield partnership covers two Yorkshire and Humberside region had pro- districts. North Yorkshire Police covers gressed to start to work on two of the England’s largest county, with an area of protective service areas to see how they 7,700 square kilometres. It has a population could be better joined up. of 765,000 people. The force comprises In February 2007, Tony McNulty sent three area command units aligned to the out a request for each force to submit an local government structures of North - assessment of each of their protective ser- shire and the unitary authority of York vice areas so that he could determine the (HMIC, 2006). best option for service provision (eg, locally, regionally or nationally etc). He argued that there was a powerful drive for joint work- SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY ing, but warned that in addition to those SSM was developed to tackle organisation- threats which should be addressed on a based problem situations that are highly cross-border basis, some authorities and complex and subject to the multiple inter- forces might not be able to meet their pretations or perceptions of the people protective service needs without fundamen- involved. Thus it is essentially an approach tally changing their business processes. To for structuring messy, uncertain and help with the analysis, a decision had been ambiguous situations so that other ap- made to employ an assessment model devel- proaches and techniques can be brought to oped by North Yorkshire Police referred to bear to arrive at ‘solutions’ that are capable as 'Micro-Analysis'. of implementation within the cultural Each of the four forces in the region is environment specific to the situation very different, and their characteristics (Checkland, 1980; Checkland & Wilson, range from highly urbanised policing to 1981; Wilson, 1990, 2001). policing in rural areas. Humberside has a Essentially, SSM makes a conscious dis- population of almost 900,000 people and tinction between the messy and complex has four operational commands aligned bit of the ‘real world’ (which is the subject with unitary authorities and local crime and of some form of investigation) and a refer- disorder reduction partnerships. West York- ence (conceptual) model, which is used to shire forms the largest conurbation in the structure the investigation. The reference Yorkshire and Humberside region, with a model is a systems model, in which the diverse population of 2.1 million people, 11 activities could be undertaken by people per cent of whom are from black and and which can be argued to be coherent. It minority ethnic backgrounds. There are 10 is derived by, first of all, defining a purpose territorial divisions within West Yorkshire, (or purposes) relevant to the bit of the real which are aligned to the five local authority world of interest and by then describing and crime and disorder reduction partner- ‘what’ must be done to achieve the purpose ships. South Yorkshire has a population of (or purposes). The translation of the defined approximately 1.3 million people, of whom purpose into the activities (ie, the ‘what’ 5 per cent are classified as belonging to a must be done) uses logic only and leads to a non-white minority ethnic group, the defensible model of a purposeful activity majority of whom are resident within the system, which can be shown also to be

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coherent. This becomes a very powerful ● Transformation (T) — the core trans- device for investigating situations which can formation system that characterises the be anything but coherent. As the reference specific enterprise (see example below) model is explicit, it forms part of the com- (eg, a system to identify and apprehend plete audit trail for the investigation provid- those who violate the law) ing total defensibility of the approach. ● Support (S) — a set of support systems Other developments have also enabled that facilitate the activities of the the basic concepts of SSM to be applied to a enterprise wide variety of situations such as the speci- (eg, a system to match human resource fication of information requirements to capabilities to requirements) support organisation-based areas of activity, ● Linking (L) — a set of linking systems performance information specification, and that provides the necessary interfaces strategic review, together with the use of an between the enterprise and its ‘enterprise’ concept with particular rele- environment vance to the initial analysis stages leading to (eg, a system to deploy police resources an ‘information architecture’ for an entire within a community in order to provide organisation. community well-being) ● The application described here is of the Planning, Monitoring and Control (P, nature of a strategic review but is related to M, C) — a system to provide the adapta- an exploration of opportunities for collab- tion required by the enterprise (through orative working within ‘protective services’ planning, monitoring and control) to across the Yorkshire region, involving the cater for internal and external changes police forces of North, West and South (eg, a system to assemble and execute development plans for the provision of Yorkshire together with the Humberside police services to meet the changing Force. Within the North Yorkshire Police, a threats within a community with a per- method of analysis had been pioneered — formance that achieves community known as ‘Micro-Analysis’ — which aimed expectations). to match police assets to threats. As part of the current work, it was required that an A fifth element — Knowledge Base (K) — independent challenge of Micro-Analysis is sometimes added as a system to provide should be undertaken and the use of SSM the information and knowledge support to was seen as an appropriate vehicle for the entire enterprise. mounting this challenge. Definitions of purpose (known as root definitions) were developed for each of the above elements and for the police review a THE OVERALL APPROACH total of nine were used. These were formu- The development of the reference model to lated during workshops attended by repre- be used in a review of this kind is based sentatives of all four forces. One of them upon a simple, but well ‘tried and tested’ has been included as an example and is concept for any enterprise (Wilson, 2001). shown below. The authors have been widely using it in SSM-based strategic review and change T — A system operated by police in management projects as an aid to capture Yorkshire and Humberside in association the extent of the organisational richness and with partners and others as appropriate, diverse viewpoints. The concept consists of to establish and maintain community four elements. well-being (perceived and actual) in

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terms of security of people and property existing IT systems in order to define (both permanent and transient), by seek- ‘information gaps’ and duplications/ ing to prevent various degrees of unlaw- inconsistencies. ful and anti-social activity exhibited by The above analysis is concerned with the groups and/or individuals, together with ongoing activities that need to be in place other potential disruptions, but identify- in order to achieve the defined purpose of ing and apprehending those who violate regional policing. The model is generic in the law and delivering them to the the sense that it represents the delivery of appropriate judicial authorities, while those services required to provide commu- meeting social expectations and local and nity well-being over time and recognises national economic requirements and act- the changes that occur to the community ing within the accepted norms of behav- and the threats placed upon it. Comparison iour and local constraints. of this model against current police activity in the provision of protective services across The reference model was developed from the region will lead to those strategic these nine definitions and resulted in about changes that could form the basis of 250 activities, connected together by logical implementation plans both within indi- dependencies. Since a model of this com- vidual forces and through collaborative plexity is difficult to demonstrate to the arrangements. workshop attendees, it is initially broken Micro-Analysis, on the other hand, is down into subsystems which can be used to only concerned with a snapshot of the explain the model structure. This repre- current state of match between available sentation is given in Figure 1, where each police assets of various kinds and the cur- subsystem is connected to others by the rent and potential threats that the region major deliverables. may face in the near future. Thus the two The 17 subsystems are concerned with analyses are different in kind and this makes all those activities that are necessary to comparison of the two approaches difficult. achieve the set of purposes defined by the This difference becomes even clearer when ‘Enterprise’ model (Figure 2). The activities mapping the scope of Micro-Analysis onto define what has to be done and each one of the SSM model.2 these can be used to explore how they are Micro-Analysis can be represented by the currently done, by whom and by using following major stages: what support information. Since the model is independent of any organisational ● questionnaires are derived and used to arrangements, each individual force can be assemble information about current assets mapped on to the model as well as the within a force which are used to supply region as a whole. protective services Thus the review can be carried out by ● an assessment of threats is produced in assessing how well each activity is currently the form of threat matrices and these performed in terms of its efficacy and its represent the demand for protective efficiency. Current gaps, inefficiencies and services potential for improvements form the basis ● an evaluation of the relationship of of the strategic review leading to the demand to service availability is carried options for change within each force or out using professional judgement in options for collaboration amongst forces. order to assign a priority ranking to any The information to support each activity gaps or imbalances in the abilities to can also be derived and compared against supply protective services

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Figure 1 High level model: Conceptual capabilities relevant to protective services

● options for change are then identified, as Thus the deliverables of Micro-Analysis strategic options, to realise in-force match the potential deliverables using SSM, improvements in efficiency or cross-force except that the deliverables from SSM could opportunities for collaboration. be both improvements in effectiveness as

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Figure 2 The Enterprise Model

well as improvements in efficiency. Thus, protective services as well as the informa- one way of undertaking comparison of the tion categories required to support the two approaches could be in terms of a remaining police activity. Extraction of the comparison of deliverables. However, this is ‘protective services’ requirement, (termed somewhat time- and resource-consuming. information categories) and comparison of A more immediate comparison was there- this with the information collected from the fore sought which could give some early questionnaires, (termed information prod- indication of the scope and robustness of ucts) would give an immediate assessment the Micro-Analysis method. of the comprehensiveness of Micro- Micro-Analysis is driven by the informa- Analysis. Robustness can be assessed in tion derived from the questionnaires and terms of the ongoing and adaptive provision threat matrices. This information is of protective services versus the one-off manipulated through defined algorithms to assessment carried out within Micro- identify, risk assess and develop options to Analysis. respond to gaps (or imbalances) between This is the method of comparison used assets and threats. The use of questionnaires and findings are discussed below. A full makes it possible to undertake comparison comparison and assessment of Micro- with the information required to undertake Analysis was undertaken as illustrated in the activities in the reference model. The Figure 3. information categories needed to support The right-hand side of Figure 3 shows the reference model define the total the process used by Micro-Analysis and is requirements for the ongoing provision of relatively straightforward:

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Figure 3 Overview of the audit approach

● questionnaires are constructed and used high-level options it identifies. The left- to identify the ‘assets’ used by the force to hand side of Figure 3 and the connecting ‘supply’/provide protective services arrows can be described as follows: ● threat matrices are used to collect and assess information about the likely ● the SSM reference model (derived from threats/demand for protective services agreed statements of the purpose of ● professional judgement is used to evalu- policing in the Yorkshire and Humber- ate and compare assets and threats for side region) is used repeatedly for various each constituent element of protective comparisons of what is happening in services and to assign a numerical value protective services and what needs to to classify the significance of any gaps or happen for the police forces to achieve imbalances. These gaps are further ana- their purpose. Two comparisons relevant lysed and prioritised through the identi- to the audit are: fication of risk ● comparison of information categories high-level options for change are identi- (ICs) required to undertake activities fied to address gaps (and hence improve in the reference model with the infor- efficiency) through in-force improve- mation products (IPs) derived by ments and/or cross-force collaboration. Micro-Analysis through use of its asset questionnaires and threat matrices The left-hand side of Figure 3 and the use of the reference model to create a arrows connecting the two sides shows how systems dynamics model that can be the SSM-based approach is (and can con- used to explore the cause–effect inter- tinue to be) used to underpin the audit and relationship of different threats and provide an independent challenge to the of the use of different assets to meet process used by Micro-Analysis and to the these threats (note: this comparison

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is currently proposed rather than encouraged its suppliers to embed this completed) thinking in a capability management ana- ● differences between what is happening lysis process, and within the MoD this is and what needs to happen are assessed to supported by a suite of tools of which identify strategic options for change that MooD forms a part. In anticipation that the are both desirable and feasible. analysis of protective services should ultim- ● strategic options for change identified ately address the capabilities of the four through use of the SSM reference model forces more holistically, it was felt that the are compared with and used to challenge, initial stages should enable expansion and underpin and/or extend the high-level flexible manipulation. options for change identified through Because MooD does not ‘calculate’ any- Micro-Analysis. thing, MS Excel was used for more quanti- tative analysis. Where in Figure 5, ICs were USE OF SPECIALIST TOOLS AND mapped to IPs, this mapping was exported PRINCIPLES to MS Excel to determine the degree of mapping of each activity. Similarly, the It was clear at the outset of the project that measures of performance can be linked to it needed to be possible to create various real data sources and combined in MooD to representations of the models and different mappings on top of them. After all, we were create performance dashboards for analysis. dealing with four organisations, each with probably its own views of protective ser- vices and Micro-Analysis. Moreover, it was OUTCOMES OF THE APPROACH decided early in the project that the con- The Micro-Analysis approach, pioneered by ceptual model ought to support both North Yorkshire Police (NYP), seems to a performance-based as well as an provide a practical and achievable mechan- information-based review. An SSM model ism to assess a force’s protective services as derived for this work tends to comprise capacity. The authors found that it had 250–300 activities, each with between four enabled NYP to realise significant benefits. and eight information categories and as The authors nevertheless observed a num- many measures of performance. Traditional ber of shortcomings with the Micro- tools such as MS Word and MS Excel do Analysis approach. not provide the flexibility to develop rela- tionships between the various artefacts and ● objects that can be explored in a variety of It is mainly concerned with identifying ways. It was therefore necessary to use a numbers of assets and levels of threat and data base tool known as MooD which has tackling the apparent imbalance between been used for SSM modelling for almost 10 them. Consequently, it only needs and years. uses a limited set of information. This data base was structured so as to ● It enables forces to identify high-level organise the information effectively (see options for change; however, it is not Figure 4).3 This structure is better known necessarily the case that these options as an enterprise or business architecture. would be sustainable. If forces require The UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) uses more detailed options, a more compre- this approach for most of its capability hensive analysis and assessment will be projects which have a significant informa- required. Micro-Analysis provides the tion system component. The MoD has foundation for this additional work.

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Figure 4 An overview of the structure of the data base Wilson and van Haperen

● One particular limitation of the process is explicit view of assets, threats and risks that it has not been designed to assess or and their implications for organisational improve the performance of activities performance to: related to protective services. ● The practical approach adopted by identify alternative ways to meet increased efficiency targets Micro-Analysis means that it relies upon informal collection of information and support communications with the Home Office around expectations and the extensive use of professional judge- plans. ment. Consequently, it is unlikely to be repeatable and will almost certainly not What has been delivered? be defensible. ● There is no agreed statement of the The application of SSM in this project has benefits of using Micro-Analysis. resulted in the delivery of a ‘reference model’ for policing in the Yorkshire and Humberside region. This model identifies Following the application of the SSM the activities that need to be undertaken to framework, a number of recommendations achieve the purpose of policing as defined were made that could lead to further by the Joint Regional Project Team and enhancements and defensibility of the provides the basis for the work supported by Micro-Analysis approach. the consultancy. The activities in the model also define logical information needs, ● Assess and improve the quality of infor- which enabled a comprehensive assessment mation (authorised sources etc). of information collected by Micro-Analysis ● If Micro-Analysis is to become a repeat- on assets/resources and threats. Further able process and provide sufficiently deliverables include a list of criteria that can robust options for change: be used to measure the performance of activities in the reference model and an it needs to be further developed so audit of the use of Micro-Analysis to assess that it uses more explicit analysis (eg, protective services. The team has also what-if analysis, systems dynamics strived to achieve a transfer of skills in the models) and is less reliant on pro- development and use of the reference fessional judgement model to a small group of representatives of its current focus on assets and threats each force. However, due to time pressures, needs to be supported by an explicit the force representatives were primarily assessment of the processes involved in focused on the completion of steps of the deploying assets to meet threats Micro-Analysis approach. Consequently, the it needs to be supported by a database interaction was not as intensive as planned and/or knowledge-base that enables and skill transfer has been minimal. relevant data and commentary to be However, it is perhaps more important to stored in a structured way that is easy determine the value that the SSM approach to analyse, track over time and report has added to Micro-Analysis. It could be it needs to be supported by an explicit argued that the results depicted in Table 1 strategy to plan and realise benefits. have been achieved. It has been suggested that the SSM arte- ● Use Micro-Analysis as the first step facts could be further used to support the towards a more comprehensive and implementation of in-force and regional

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Table 1: Achievements

Key output of Micro-Analysis Value that will be added through use of SSM approach (to date)

Stock-take of assets/resources associated with Increased confidence in the accuracy of data on protective services assets/resources Identification and prioritisation of threats/risks Better understanding of the relationship between resources, threats and risks High-level options for change Provides a robust approach to the development of specific options for change and thus ensures that high-level options identified by micro-analysis are fit for purpose

change programmes by setting the context and threats. However, these are the subjects for change, enabling the prioritisation of for future papers. projects and providing a structure to man- age and realise benefits. It could also pro- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vide a route-map that enables the four The authors wish to acknowledge Paul forces to achieve the Regional Chief Ader’s participation and contribution to the Constables’ new vision for policing in the project, in particular his detailed review of region. the Micro-Analysis stages, and Edd Raff for However, it could be argued that the his assistance in building the SSM artefacts true value of an SSM approach is in the in the enterprise architecture repository. degree of working with problem owners. Therefore, the amount, if any, of additional consultancy will depend on the number of NOTES dedicated resources that individual forces (1) MooD Business Developer is a database can commit to the work and the ability of toolset that enables object oriented these resources to own and further develop design and knowledge mapping devel- the work completed to date. If sufficient oped by the Salamander Organisation; competent resources are committed, the see www.tsorg.co.uk for more detailed additional consultancy should be ‘light- information. touch’ and, perhaps, limited to skills trans- (2) Graphic representations of this process fer, facilitation and quality assurance. are available from the authors on It is expected that further work will be request. undertaken using the reference (conceptual) (3) The enterprise architecture repository model and measures of performance to ana- used for this project was developed lyse performance in areas relevant to pro- using the Salamander Business Architecture. tective services in each of the forces. Furthermore, it has also been suggested to use system dynamics to support the identi- REFERENCES fication of options for change through the British Broadcasting Corporation. (2004, analysis of cause and effects between assets August 15). Senior police back national force.

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Retrieved February 12, 2007 from http:// Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary. news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3566448.stm (2005). Closing the gap. : The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005, Stationery Office. November, 10). Plan to cut police forces to 12. McNulty, T. (2007, 14 February). Police Retrieved February 12, 2007 from http:// Reform and Protective Services [Letter to news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4426106. All Chairs of Police Authorities and All stm Chief Officers]. Checkland, P. B. (1981). Systems thinking Wilson, B. (1990). Systems: concepts, systems practice. Chichester: John Wiley. methodologies and applications (2nd ed.). Checkland, P. B., & Wilson, B. (1980). Chichester: John Wiley. Primary task and issue based root Wilson, B. (2001). Soft systems methodology, definitions in systems studies. Journal of conceptual model building and its contribution. Applied System Analysis, 7, 51–54. Chichester: John Wiley.

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