Micología Aplicada International ISSN: 1534-2581 [email protected] Colegio de Postgraduados México

Zamora Martínez, M. C.; Nieto de Pascual Pola, C. Studies of tricholoma magnivelare in México Micología Aplicada International, vol. 16, núm. 1, january, 2004, pp. 13-23 Colegio de Postgraduados Puebla, México

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International Seminar on Ethnomycology

STUDIES OF TRICHOLOMA MAGNIVELARE IN MÉXICO

M. C. ZAMORA-MARTÍNEZ AND C. NIETO DE PASCUAL-POLA

Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Conservación y Mejoramiento de Ecosistemas Forestales, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP), Av. Progreso No. 5, Viveros de Coyoacán, México, D. F. 04110, E-mail: [email protected]

Presented in Oaxaca, México, August 26, 2003

ABSTRACT

A brief review on Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck)Redhead in México, from 1989 to 2002, is presented. Emphasis is made on the research work carried out in the States of Hidalgo, México, Oaxaca, and Veracruz, where this mushroom species is mainly harvested. Most of this information is now scattered in local publications. The following studies are covered: 1) Taxonomy; 2) Ecology; 3) Distribution; 4) Production and trade; 5) Propagation and conservation; and 6) Research needs.

Key words: Tricholoma magnivelare, pine white mushrooms, wild mushrooms, matsutake mushroom, México.

INTRODUCTION commercial gathering is an important source of income for peasants who live in forest During the rainy season in México (June to areas. In addition, it is a forest product of September), wild mushroom harvesting is temperate ecosystems that yields one of the an alternative source of income for highest economic benefits in the country23. households near to temperate and temperate- The most productive Méxican States for cold forests. Mushroom harvesting increases pine white mushroom are Hidalgo, family income and might even become the Veracruz, México and Oaxaca. Harvesting main economic source, due to its high local in these States is done on a regular basis, profitability. according to officials who keep careful Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck) control. There are other States where the Redhead, known as “matsutake” or “hongo pine white mushroom grows naturally and blanco de ocote” (pine white mushroom), is exploited; however, no reliable data or isM ICOLa non-wood,. APL. INT. , forest16(1), 2004,product PP. 13-23whose records are available. 14 M. C. ZAMORA-MARTÍNEZ AND C. NIETO DE PASCUAL-POLA

T. magnivelare also has ecological import- distribution18,27,28; the chain of production15; ance, as it establishes symbiotic relationships ecological aspects11,27,28,30; natural producti- (ectomycorrhizal) with tree roots, particularly vity8,28; and attempts for strain isolation1,28. from Pinus teocote Schlecht. et Cham. and P. Collecting and management practices have douglasiana Martínez27,28. improved since T. magnivelare began to be Regular commercial harvest, since 1987- commercialized, mainly in those States 1989, brought about development of research showing the highest natural production: for sustainable management of T. magnivelare Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and México. (e.g., taxonomy, ecology, socioeconomic Official regulations have also been established studies). Governmental authorities were for mushroom harvesting through the Norma encouraged to establish links with research Oficial Méxicana 010-RECNAT964; and for institutions in order to generate fundamental mushroom species subjected to special information and regulations for commercial protection through the Norma Oficial harvesting and marketing. The first integral Méxicana de Ecología 059-ECOL-20016. The cooperative agreement was signed in latter regulation based on the risk assessment Coatepec, Veracruz [October 16, 1989: method developed in México and applied to a “Coordinación y concertación para el fungal species5. aprovechamiento racional del hongo blanco (Tricholoma magnivelare)”] by Federal and State governmental authorities, two Japanese TAXONOMIC STUDIES companies, peasants, and the Instituto de Micología Neotropical Aplicada (IMINAP, Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck)Redhead A.C.)27. Several other Méxican institutions Synonyms: Agaricus magnivelaris Peck Agaricus ponderosus Peck also became involved: the Instituto Nacional Armillaria arenicola Murrill de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bióticos Armillaria magnivelaris (Peck)Murrill (INIREB, now the Instituto de Ecología, A. Armillaria ponderosa Saccardo C.); the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Tricholoma ponderosum (Sacc.)Singer Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Tricholoma murrillianum Singer Querétaro; the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y The first record of T. magnivelare in México Pecuarias (INIFAP); and more recently the is not yet clear. Montoya-Bello et al.17 presum- Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Puebla. ably recorded T. magnivelare as T. In this way, several researchers started to ponderosum, according to Villarreal and work with an edible mushroom species eaten Pérez-Moreno27. These latter authors made a occasionally, but increasingly important in thorough study of T. magnivelare, the white the economy of the rural family. This paper pine mushroom, including micro and deals with a general review on the studies macroscopic characters from fruit bodies carried out by these institutions. collected in the State of Veracruz. Relevant information about the biology of this species was also reported, such as the ontogenic CURRENT SITUATION development, ecology, and distribution. Further taxonomic studies are needed, as At present, after 15 years of research (Table morphological variation (size, texture, colour, 1), important and useful information is now odour) has been observed in fruit bodies from available about T. magnivelare: geographic different Méxican regions. The influence of

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Table 1. Research work on Tricholoma magnivelare in México carried out during the period 1989- 2002.

Taxonomy First report of T. ponderosum (Sacc.) Singer, from material collected at the “Cofre de Perote” region, State of Veracruz17 First report of T. magnivelare from carpophores collected at the regions of “Cofre de Perote” and “Huayacocotla”, State of Veracruz27 Geographic distribution Potential distribution in the State of Hidalgo through Geographic Information Systems (GIS ARC/INFO) using digital data for soil, altitude, rainfall and average temperature18 Definition of the species status through the Risk Assessment Method (MER), including potential areas of distribution6 Ecology Description of the habitat of T. magnivelare in the regions of “Huayacocotla” and “Cofre de Perote”, State of Veracruz27 Description of the habitat and estimation of carpophore yield in the State of Hidalgo30 Correlation of ecological variables associated to the pine white mushroom8,9 Experiments on soil moisture before and after fruiting, modification of the litter amount, canopy density, and the intensity of harvesting in the State of Oaxaca3,7,12,16 Mushroom trade General description of harvesting and trade in the regions of “Cofre de Perote” and “Huayacocotla”, State of Veracruz27 Exploitation data in México and a proposal for the sustainable management based on a theoretical agroforestry model26 Trading of the pine white mushroom in the State of Hidalgo20 Exploitation assessment of the pine white mushroom and its socio-economic impact in the State of Hidalgo (1992-1997)14 Cost/benefit ratio from harvesting T. magnivelare in the State of Hidalgo25 Socioeconomic aspects Proposal of the Rural Household System model to understand the traditional management of matsutake mushrooms in the State of Oaxaca. Mushroom processing was also studied in order to develop marketing strategies by rural communities15 Propagation Attempts to isolate T. magnivelare from carpophores collected at Perote, Veracruz1 Regulations Use of the Risk Assessment Method (MER) to define the status of T. magnivelare as a species subject to special protection4 the habitat on the fruit-body morphology can Harvesting areas known in México. At also be assessed (e.g., associated pine species, present, according to available records, T. litter thickness, slopes, type of vegetation). The magnivelare is harvested commercially in use of molecular tools will provide the States of Durango, México, Hidalgo, fundamental evidence to determine the Michoacán, Puebla, Oaxaca and Veracruz. taxonomic position of Méxican wild However, trading companies have also populations from the pine white mushroom. reported the States of Colima, Morelos and Tlaxcala (Fig.1).

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES Potential distribution in México. It has been estimated that there are around 119 million The distribution of T. magnivelare is apparently hectares covered by pine-oak forests in limited to America, with abundant populations México (Fig. 2). Accordingly, it is possible in Canada and the United States, where fruit to assume that the pine white mushroom can bodies occur from September to December13. be found in the following mountainous MICOL. APL. INT., 16(1), 2004, PP. 13-23 16 M. C. ZAMORA-MARTÍNEZ AND C. NIETO DE PASCUAL-POLA regions: 1) The “Sierra Madre Occidental” (highlands of “Sierra de Tamaulipas”, (States of Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, western side that belongs to the States of Colima, Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, and isolated Guerrero); 2) “Sierra Madre Oriental” clusters in Guanajuato and Querétaro); and 3) “Sierra Madre del Sur” (State of Chiapas). There are, unfortunately, very few herbarium specimens supporting the occurrence of pine white mushrooms in the pine-oak forests throughout the country. Despite the lack of thorough ecological studies, Moreno et al.18 suggested 126,846 potential hectares for the natural occurrence of T. magnivelare in the State of Hidalgo. This estimation was made by overlapping and reclassification analysis with Geographic Information Systems ARC/INFO of soil digital data, altitude, rainfall, and average temperature. By contrast, local forest authorities reported only 5,525 ha under Fig. 1. Known distribution of Tricholoma exploitation in 199921. Table 2 shows the magnivelare (Peck)Redhead, including the pine-oak forest areas where the pine white States of Durango (Santiago Papasquiaro), mushroom is harvested in several States. México (Valle de Bravo), Hidalgo (14 southern Municipalities), Michoacán (Hidalgo), and Oaxaca (Sta. Catarina Ixtepeji, Ixtlán de ECOLOGICAL STUDIES Juárez, Tlaxiaco, Sn. Miguel Mixtepec). Most research work has been carried out in the States of Hidalgo and Veracruz. Villarreal and Pérez-Moreno27 published the first results in 1989 from the regions of “Cofre de Perote” and Huayacocotla, Veracruz. Three years later, Zamora-Martínez and Zamora-Martínez30 began their studies in the south and southeastern regions of Hidalgo. More recent studies were carried out by Gómez et al.9,10,12 in the State of Oaxaca. In these last two cases, permanent sampling plots were established and monitored. In Hidalgo, four 1 ha plots were studied during seven rainy seasons within the period 1994-2000. In Oaxaca, seven 1 ha plots located in three forest regions were assessed, Fig. 2. Area covered by pine-oak forests in as well as twelve 100 m2 circular subplots at Mexico (Data from the laboratory of Ixtlán de Juárez in Oaxaca during three Geographic Information Systems, CENID- successive years8,11. COMEF, INIFAP, México, D.F.).

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Table 2. Pinus–Quercus forest areas where T. However, mushroom yield and quality seem magnivelare is harvested in several States of to be not very good9,10,28. México (data from the laboratory of Geographic Fungal taxa associated to the pine white Information Systems, CENIF-COMEF, INIFAP, mushroom in permanent sampling plots México, D.F.). from the States of Hidalgo and Oaxaca have been identified (Table 3). A great diversity of 65 species have been recorded, some State Pinus - Quercus of which are even more abundant than T. forest area (ha) magnivelare9,10,31. This is the case of Boletus edulis Bull. ex Fr., Boletus spp., Hidalgo 126,846 Amanita rubescens Pers.:Fr., and Hydnum México 358,933.52 imbricatum L. Michoacán 954,566.32 Puebla3 195,679.37 Habitat. T. magnivelare is an ectomycorrhizal Tlaxcala 12,269.84 species associated to the following tree Veracruz 60,393.30 species: Pinus teocote, P. douglasiana, P. patula, Quercus scytophylla, Q. crassifolia, Q. laurina, Q. rugosa, and Q. conzattii Trel. Data indicated that T. magnivelare grows Fruit bodies appear in complete or at an altitude ranging from 2000-2900 m, incomplete rings having an average radius being more abundant between 2300-2600 m28. of 2-3 m. Solitary carpophores can also be It can be found preferably on slopes from 45- found within the same stands. The number 70%27,28,30, in soils belong to the following of mycelial colonies per hectare varies from types: cambisol, regosol, eutric, humic and 3-7 where abundant carpophores occur8,10,27. ortic andosol27. Most soils show medium texture,4 2-3 cm litter thickness, and frequently Reproductive phenology. The pine white rocks28,30. Predominant climate in production mushroom has a short fructification period sites is semiwarm subhumid, and temperate during July to October. A longer period subhumid with summer rain. The average during June to October has also been annual temperature varying from 10-18 C, observed in the region “Mixteca Alta”, State with 600-2500 mm of annual rainfall8,10,27,28,30. of Oaxaca. In general, carpophore produc- The common type of vegetation is the tion occurs 6-10 days when the rainfall Pinus-Quercus forest, where the most accumulation exceeds 35 mm10,27,28. abundant conifers are: Pinus teocote Schlecht Carpophore production can continue until & Cham. and P. douglasiana Martínez, which November or December, varying according may be associated with Quercus laurina to climatic factors (temperature and rainfall). Humb. et Bonpl., Q. crassifolia Née, Q. However, the highest production occurs rugosa Née, and Q. scytophylla Liebm. around August and September, which means Sometimes, T. magnivelare grows in pure a peak period of 45-60 days9,10. These stands of species mentioned, or in some cases periods are earlier than those reported for where the following species are dominant: Korea (starting at the end of August), and Pinus leiophylla Schiede & Deppe, P. patula Japan (starting at the end of September to var. longepedunculata Loock ex Martínez, P. October). In North America, carpophore rudis Endl., P. oaxacana Mirov., and Abies emergency lasts longer, as it starts in mid religiosa (H.B.K.)Cham. & Schlecht. August and ends between November and

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Table 3. Edible mushroom species recorded in the stands growing associated to Tricholoma magnivelare.

Agaricus silvicola (Vitt.)Sacc. Hygrophorus russula (Schaff. : Fr.)Quél. Agaricus silvaticus Schaeff. ex Secr. Hygrophorus aff. niveus Fr. Amanita caesarea (Scop.: Fr.)Pers. Laccaria amethystina (Bolton: Hook.)Murrill Amanita citrina (Schaeff.: Fr.)S. F. Gray Laccaria bicolor (Maire)Orton Amanita rubescens Pers.: Fr. Laccaria laccata (Scop.: Fr.)Berk. & Broome Amanita vaginata (Bull.: Fr.)Vitt. Lactarius deliciosus (L.: Fr.) Gray Boletus aff. edulis Bull. ex Fr. Lactarius piperatus (L.: Fr.) Gray Boletellus russelli (Frost.)Gilb. Lactarius salmonicolor5 R. Heim & Leclair Cantharellus cibarius Fr. Lactarius volemus (Fr.)Fr. Clavulina cinerea (Fr.)Schroet. Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. Clavaria spp. Morchella spp. Clavariadelphus occidentalis (Quél.)Donk Mycena spp. Clitocybe gibba (Pers. ex Fr.)Kumm. Ramaria flava (Fr.)Quél. Clitocybe odora (Bull.: Fr.)Kumm. Russula brevipes Peck Collybia dryophila (Bull.: Fr.)Kumm. Russula cyanoxantha Schaeff.: Schwein. Cortinarius spp. Russula emetica Schaeff.: Fr. Gomphus floccosus (Schw.)Sing. Russula aff. queletii Fr. Helvella crispa Scop.:Fr. Suillus brevipes (Peck)Kuntze Helvella lacunosa Fr. Suillus granulatus6 (L.: Fr.) Kuntze Hydnum imbricatum L. ex Fr. Tricholoma flavovirens (Pers.: Fr.)Lund. & Nannf.

December2. The emergence of fruit bodies not production reached only nine tons. The only depends on the habitat, but also on the decrease in the natural production of T. microhabitat. In four monitoring plots, located magnivelare has also been observed from plots in the State of Hidalgo, the authors have in the State of Hidalgo in other wild edible observed basidia production beginning when mushrooms (Table 5), such as Amanita soil moisture exceeds 25% at 30 cm deep. rubescens (15%), Boletus edulis (70%), Boletus spp. (85%) and Russula brevipes (100%). Thus, the fruit-body production PRODUCTION AND TRADE during rainy seasons of seven years (1994- 2000), in four plots located at the south and The natural production of T. magnivelare, southeastern regions from the State of Hidalgo, commercialized in México, has varied from showed that the natural production of T. about 2 tons in 1991 to 31 tons in 1995 (Table magnivelare in the plots decreased 83.7% 4). After 1995, the national production from 1995-1997. In a forest of Pinus decreased due to adverse climatic conditions montezumae Lambert, located in the volcano (e.g., “El Niño”) during 1996-1997. Similar “La Malintzin”, State of Tlaxcala, the total data have also been previously reported by estimated production of 35 mushroom species Martínez-Carrera et al.15 During 1996-1997, per hectare varied from 10.76 kg (24 species) the natural production decreased 50-75% in in 1997 to 6.62 kg (13 species) in 1998. A some plots monitored in the State of Oaxaca9, reduced rainfall was recorded during the same while 83.1% in plots from the State of Hidalgo period32. (Table 5). In 1999, the total national

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Table 4. Economic value of Tricholoma have been estimated at 2.5 kg/ha/year during magnivelare harvested commercially and three years11. These data are low in exported from México (SEMARNAT: Secretaría comparison with Japan, whose production de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, was estimated over 100 kg/ha/year under 40- Dirección General Forestal). 50 year-old trees19. However, data are similar between both countries when older Year Value (U.S.D.) Weight (Tons) tree stands are compared (ca. 70 years). In 1994, Neda19 reported production of 12 kg/ 1995 1,487,120 31.00 ha/year in Japan, which is close to that 1996 2,496,446 19.291 obtained in México (10.6 kg/ha/year). 1997 471,700 10.00 Higher matsutake production is reached in 1998 2,178,248 39.687 forests from Buthan where trees are 40-50 1999 254,000 9.00 years old, declining gradually after 60 years 2000 281,540 6.23 old. The mycelium seems to stop growing when host trees are older than 80 years. Table 5. Estimated natural production (kg/ha) According to data recorded during ten of edible fruit bodies from Tricholoma years (1992-2002), the production units of T. magnivelare and other edible mushrooms in four magnivelare in the State of Hidalgo can be monitoring and production plots in the south and grouped as follows: 1) Low production (0.205 southeastern regions from the State of Hidalgo, kg/ha/year), 2) Medium production (0.306 kg/ México. ha/year), and 3) High production (1.054 kg/ ha/year). Suitable environmental factors, such Year T. magnivelare Other species as mean temperature (>11.8 C) and rainfall (>92 mm/month), increase the production of 1995 11.76 -- the pine white mushroom, particularly in areas 1996 11.3 19.81 of medium production. 1997 1.92 11.4 Mushroom commercialization has also 1998 0 9.69 diminished because smaller amounts of fruit 1999 4.58 3.41 bodies are harvested and sold, as a result of 2000 0.2 6.84 the low prices offered by private companies. 2001 3.86 -- In the States of Hidalgo and Oaxaca, peasants have organized in order to improve company Studies on the natural production of T. prices for the pine white mushroom, to get magnivelare have been made in the States of higher incomes, and to take care of forest Veracruz, Hidalgo and Oaxaca. Data from one regions where the mushroom grows9,14. In rainy season indicated about 56 kg per day. 1995, harvesters from three “ejidos” However, further data from seven years in the (communal lands) of the State of Hidalgo State of Hidalgo showed an average established the organization called production of 1.398 kg/ha, which is in “Notehuitz”. In comparison with other agreement with records of mushrooms States and regions in México, this commercialized14,33. organization made arrangements to get the During two rainy seasons, from 1995 and highest local sale price for first class 1996, T. magnivelare yields in two plots mushrooms from private companies in 1995 were reported as 2.7 and 10.6 kg/ha/year, (USD $75.00/kg, high quality mushrooms). respectively. In the State of Oaxaca, yields They also established a mushroom gathering

MICOL. APL. INT., 16(1), 2004, PP. 13-23 20 M. C. ZAMORA-MARTÍNEZ AND C. NIETO DE PASCUAL-POLA and packing center in one of the “ejidos”. into three commercial categories by private Despite yearly variations mushroom prices companies28: 1) First class or “button”, paid to harvesters have improved in these closed carpophore larger than 7 cm, free of “ejidos,” and formal badges were given to insects and without spots; 2) Second class, nearly one thousand pickers of the pine cap partially opened, opened but convex or white mushroom. flat, or a damaged button (particularly from Villarreal26 provided information about the the cap), carpophore free of insects, exploitation of the pine white mushroom in complete and spotless; and 3) Third class, México, and made a proposal to achieve its cap opened, flat, margins raised slightly, sustainable management based on a theoretical convex, or partially opened with incomplete agroforestry system. It was considered that the cap, free of insects29. massive harvesting of this species and lack of The low average prices paid to harvesters appropriate management techniques led to a after 2000 is one of the reasons why several decrease of wild populations. This is primarily “ejidos” stopped mushroom harvesting22. At true in regions where there is a poor tradition the end of the 20th century, the first class for mushroom gathering, and the pine white carpophores were paid at USD $45.00-50.00 mushroom is harvested by untrained peasants per kg in the State of Oaxaca15, 21. In 2003, working for attractive incomes. Villarreal’s prices paid to harvesters varied from USD approach to mushroom harvesting needs $27.19-33.99 per kg of first class mushrooms. further studies of ecological impact in other Valenzuela and Zamora-Martínez25 regions. determined the economic importance of In 1997, the pine white mushroom mushroom harvesting to peasants as an harvest was 10 tons with an economic value average benefit/cost ratio of 1.48 for the State of USD $471,700. That was 3.37% of all of Hidalgo, showing that this activity carried income obtained from forests at the national out by local forest harvesters is profitable. level. In 1999, the national production again decreased to 9 tons with an economic value of USD $254,00033. Although this decrease PROPAGATION AND CONSERVATION may be attributed to low prices in the international markets, peasant families still In vitro studies are difficult as T. magnivelare get important income (Table 4). In general, is an ectomychorrizal fungus. Andrade1 exports of the pine white mushroom vary, carried out several attempts using carpophores ranging from USD $2,496,446 (1996) to from the region of Perote, State of Veracruz. $281,540 (2000). At present, Méxican exports only represent 0.25% of the Japanese matsutake market. México’s share REMARKS AND PROSPECTS may increase, if suitable strategies are followed. It has been estimated that only Important information about T. magnivelare 48% of the total potential area is subjected in México has already been generated on the to mushroom harvesting24. biotic and abiotic aspects affecting the natural In 1999, the average price paid to productivity. However, most studies have been harvesters for the pine white mushroom was carried out in the States of Hidalgo and USD $22.50 per kg. This price is less than Oaxaca, whose yearly production is high. In private companies report to Méxican the rest of the country, there is little research, customs (Table 4). Mushrooms are grouped peasant organization, or surveillance by

MICOL. APL. INT., 16(1), 2004, PP. 13-23 STUDIES OF TRICHOLOMA MAGNIVELARE IN MEXICO 21 governmental authorities around the pine that effort, the first class product ranged white mushroom. Socioeconomic research is from USD $25.26–27.10 per kg. In the State scarce, such as the profitability of mushroom of Oaxaca, the organization of harvesters is harvesting14,20,24,25,33. The first thorough study still at the community level. was made by Martínez-Carrera et al.15 in order In the short term, it is necessary to to understand the context in which mushroom develop research on ecology, biology and gathering and/or cultivation can be carried out socioeconomy in all regions where T. in rural communities of indigenous people magnivelare is being harvested. Monitoring and/or peasants. They developed the rural techniques can be standardized, as well in household system (RHS) model, a concept relation to the size and sampling plot used to assess the rural household unit and its numbers in order to compare results among affairs regarded as a system, which permits to regions. It is also important to convince study: 1) Socio-economic conditions of the governmental authorities, traders, and community; 2) The level of organization of mushroom harvesters about the relevance RHSs in the community; 3) The potential of monitoring mushroom production during capacity of a RHS to perform the gathering of a period of at least five years. wild mushrooms and/or the cultivation of It would be valuable to determine the edible mushrooms, as well as their processing; carrying capacity and the effect of 4) The relative importance that these activities harvesting on the size and yields of the (mushroom gathering, cultivation, and mycelial colonies from T. magnivelare. processing) may reach within the RHS, Research work is needed on the impact of community, and/or region; and 5) The diverse forestry practices, such as bush, herb potential level of RHSs for undergoing and tree thinning, as well as the impact of extension work and/or technology transfer. soil moisture and litter thickness on the Ecological and socioeconomic research productivity of T. magnivelare. Mychorrizal have provided fundamental information to induction of Pinus seedlings can be social organizations for: 1) Negotiating with developed using spore and mycelial private companies for the minimum inoculum. Studies at the molecular level mushroom prices to be paid to harvesters; 2) would help to understand the mechanisms Defining seasons to harvest mushrooms in of activation and inhibition of symbiosis, coordination with governmental authorities; spore germination, mycelial development and 3) Having control on mushroom and carpophore formation, as well as in situ gathering in communal forests. identification and relationships with other In recent years, State committees in ectomycorrhizal fungi. Oaxaca and Hidalgo have been established The organization of harvesters must be in order to follow all activities related to the promoted at a regional level for commercial- pine white mushroom. In 2003 the Forest ization of the pine white mushroom in order National Commission (CONAFOR) and the to improve mushroom prices, conservation, state authorities of Hidalgo began the quality controls, and postharvest integration of a productive chain, in order management. Martínez-Carrera et al.15 to directly export the pine white mushroom. studied several alternatives for processing This included the training and organization matsutake mushrooms. However, these of the “ejidos” within a regional group of mushrooms are now normally sent to the harvester-exporters. The local mushroom fresh market, so new market segments need price increased nearly 100% as a result of to be found.

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NOTES hongo blanco de ocote. Technical Leaflet (Folleto Técnico Forestal No. 10). INIFAP, SIBEJ- CONACYT, SEMARNAP, Oaxaca, México. 23 pp. 1 Andrade, M. R. L. 1993. Aislamiento y obtención de micelio 11. Gómez, M., M. Zamora-Martinez and J. F. Castellanos. activado del hongo blanco Tricholoma magnivelare 2000. Requerimientos ecológico silvícolas y de (Peck) Redhead. Pp. 35. In: Memorias del I Symposium manejo para el aprovechamiento del hongo blanco: sobre Hongos Comestibles en México. INIFAP- caracterización ecológica. Final Technical Report. Sociedad Méxicana de Micología. México, D. F. INIFAP-CONACYT, Oaxaca, México. 36 pp. 2. Anonymous. 1995. Botanical Forest Products in British 12. Gómez, M., J. F. Castellanos, M. C. Zamora-Martínez, M. A. Columbia: An Overview. British Columbia Ministery Cano, E. Bravo, G. Rodríguez and M. Valdés. 2002. of Forest, Integrated Resources Section. Victoria, Factores limitantes para la conservación del hongo British Columbia. 51 pp. blanco de ocote en Oaxaca. Pp. 173-177. In: Memorias 3. Chávez, F., M. Gómez, G. Rodríguez, H. León and M. del VII Foro Estatal de Investigación Científica y Vázquez. 2002. Método sencillo y no destructivo para Tecnológica. CONACYT-SIBEJ, Oaxaca, México. estimar biomasa de basidiocarpos en Tricholoma 13. Hosford, D., D. Pilz, R. Molina and M. Amaranthus. 1997. magnivelare. Pp. 36. In: Memorias del XIII Congreso Ecology and management of the commercially Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico harvested American matsutake mushroom. Gen. Agropecuario. DGTA, ITA. Jalisco, México. Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR–412. USDA, Forest Service, 4. Diario Oficial de la Federación. 1996. Norma Oficial Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland. 68 pp. Méxicana NOM-010-RECNAT96, que establece los 14. Iturbe, J. 1998. 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