CHAPTER 1 Crime and Victimology

NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION© Peyker/Shutterstock.

OBJECTIVES • To define© Jones victimology & Bartlett and criminology Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC • To describeNOT FOR victims SALE of crime OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • To describe trends in crime and victimization • To outline the costs and consequences of criminal victimization

© JonesKEY & TERMS Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORCold SALE case OR DISTRIBUTION National CrimeNOT Victimization FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Crime victim Survey (NCVS) Crime victims’ rights Repeat victimization Criminology Victimology © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Double victimization NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CASE © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The NovemberNOT FOR 2, 2007 SALE murder ofOR British DISTRIBUTION exchange Rudy Guede, described as a drifterNOT, wereFOR also SALE con- OR DISTRIBUTION student Meredith Kercher in Perugia, Italy, set victed for the murder. The prosecution’s theory into motion an investigation that resulted in the was that the victim was forced to participate in a arrest, trial, and conviction of her roommate, sex game, fueled by drugs, which spiraled out of Amanda Knox, an exchange student from Seattle, control. Testimony focused on telephone records, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Washington. Knox’s boyfriend, university student text messages, DNA evidence, bloody fingerprints, NOT FORRaffaele SALE Sollecito, OR DISTRIBUTION and a neighbor of Kercher, and shoeNOT prints. FOR However, SALE 23-year-old OR DISTRIBUTIONKnox, who

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© Jones & Bartlett Learning,investigator LLC s inexperienced in working© Jones homi &- Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONcide cases. Knox and Sollecito bothNOT asked FOR for SALE OR DISTRIBUTION attorneys but were denied counsel. The prosecution failed to establish motive or intent for the rape and murder. Knox could barely speak © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC or read Italian.© She Jones was interrogated& Bartlett for Learning, 41 LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION hours over 4 days,NOT did FORnot even SALE realize ORthat sheDISTRIBUTION was a suspect in the case, was pressured into signing a confession that wrongly accused her employer, and held a naive belief in the Italian justice system. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesBoth &she Bartlett and Sollecito Learning, continued LLCto plead FIGURE 1-1 The Amanda Knox Case. their innocence despite serving 4 years in NOT FOR SALE ©OR Antonio Calanni/APDISTRIBUTION Photos. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION prison. In October of 2011, the Idaho Innocence served 4 years of a 26-year prison sentence, con- Project, a nonprofit focused on correcting and sistently denied any involvement in the murder preventing wrongful convictions, helped to (FIGURE 1-1).© An Jones appeal &of BartlettKnox’s conviction Learning, prove LLC Knox and Sollecito’s innocence© Jones via DNA & Bartlett Learning, LLC testing. The appeal process for both Knox and began in 2010.NOT Independent FOR expertsSALE claimed OR DISTRIBUTION that NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the collection of evidence fell below international Sollecito was favorable, and they were acquitted standards and that because of the errors made by of the murder charges. The defense said the evi- police during the original investigation, the evidence unequivocally pointed to a single attacker, dence against Knox and Sollecito should not be Guede, a drug dealer who fled toGermany after © Jonesadmissible & Bartlett(Vargas & Natanson, Learning, 2011). LLC the murder. He© wasJones arrested & Bartlett there, brought Learning, LLC NOT FORThis caseSALE raises OR three DISTRIBUTION important points with back to Italy, andNOT tried FORand convicted SALE of OR the killDISTRIBUTION- respect to the field of victimology. First, who are ing. His conviction was upheld on appeal, and he the victims? Clearly, Meredith Kercher was a remains in prison. rape-murder victim. But what about the status After the acquittal, Amanda Knox returned of Knox and Sollecito, who denied the prosecu- to her home in Seattle, Washington. The case, © Jones & Bartletttion’s Learning, theory and LLChave steadfastly maintained © oneJones of the & most-watched Bartlett Learning, trials in Italy, LLC tapped NOT FOR SALE theirOR innocence?DISTRIBUTION Second, forensic evidence, if NOTinto anFOR intense SALE debate OR over DISTRIBUTION Italy’s justice system present, is critical to link a person to a crime. (Donadio & Povoledo, 2011). Did the strength of the evidence in this case Once back in Seattle, Knox continued her justify their conviction? Third, this case involved studies at the University of Washington where the trial of an© JonesAmerican & citizen Bartlett in a Learning,foreign she LLC majored in creative writing. Her© Jones days as &a Bartlett Learning, LLC jurisdiction. HowNOT might FOR differences SALE OR between DISTRIBUTION student did not last long however,NOT as she FOR was SALE OR DISTRIBUTION international justice procedures and Ameri- soon ordered back to the Italian court for the can law procedures have influenced the case? murder of Kercher. The court of appeal had The lack of physical evidence, specifically DNA, overturned the previous acquittal and a new to implicate Knox and Sollecito in the murder trial started in late September of 2013. A piece © Joneswas not & the Bartlett only problem Learning, with this case.LLC Many of evidence was© found Jones on a kitchen& Bartlett knife, whichLearning, LLC NOTcomplained FOR SALE of incompetent OR DISTRIBUTION police work and was believed toNOT be the FOR murder SALE weapon—one OR DISTRIBUTION

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that allegedly© Jones contained & Bartlett a minuscule Learning, amount LLCbecause there were no “biological© Jones trac &es Bartlett that Learning, LLC of Knox’sNOT DNA FOR on the SALE handle. OR Once DISTRIBUTION again, the could be attributed to themNOT in the FOR room SALEof the OR DISTRIBUTION court concluded that she was guilty. As a result, murder or on the body of the victim, where in con- she was sentenced to 28.5 years in prison, while trast, numerous traces were found attributable to Sollecito received 25 years. Guede” (Vargas & Natanson, 2011). © Jones & BartlettIn an interesting Learning, turn ofLLC events, Italy’s Sinc©e returningJones &home Bartlett for a second Learning, time, LLC NOT FORSupreme SALE Court OR again DISTRIBUTION overturned the convictions Knox, nowNOT 29, has FOR shared SALE much ofOR her DISTRIBUTIONjourney in in the spring of 2015. In September 2015, the del- her memoir, Waiting to be Heard: A Memoir, which egate Supreme Judge, Court adviser made public has since become a best seller. She is working the reasons for the absolution. First, the evidence as a freelance journalist and has attended did not demonstrate the presence of either Knox a number of Innocence Project events—the © Jones & Bartlett Learning,or Sollecito atLLC the crime scene. Second, they could© Jones same & Bartlettorganization Learning, that helped LLCprove her own NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONnot have “materially participated in the homicide”NOT FORinnocence SALE (Carter OR, 2017).DISTRIBUTION

The unsettling reality regarding crime in the world today is that it is wide- spread, often violent in nature, and completely disregards all moral, legal, and geographic boundaries. No home, no community, and no region in North © JonesAmerica & Bartlett can consider Learning, itself “safe” LLC from the risk of criminal victimization.© Jones & WithBartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORrecent SALE estimates OR of DISTRIBUTIONthe number of crime victims in the UnitedNOT States FOR reaching SALE as OR DISTRIBUTION high as 22 million, including violent, personal, and property crime, it behooves all of us, both individually and collectively, to support emerging efforts aimed at two distinct but related areas: crime prevention and crime victim assistance. © Jones & Bartlett ToLearning, be sure, averting LLC criminal behavior and© victimization Jones & Bartlett through preventionLearning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORis DISTRIBUTIONthe more preferable of the two. However,NOT this wouldFOR SALElikely necessitate OR DISTRIBUTION substantial investments in crime prevention initiatives that not only aim to deter and alter criminal behavior, but also strive to address fundamental root causes of crime (Hastings, 2008). Although there has been increasing support for situational© crimeJones prevention & Bartlett since Learning, the 1970s (especially LLC those programs ori©- Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ented towardNOT victims), FOR SALE rehabilitation OR DISTRIBUTION of offenders and social investments toNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mitigate systemic inequalities have largely fallen out of political favor (Garland, 2001), further cementing the notion that crime is an inevitable fact of life. Given the reasonable assumption that not all crimes are preventable under © Jonesthese & circumstances,Bartlett Learning, it becomes LLC all the more urgent to be© prepared Jones to & assist Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORthose SALEwho are OR victimized. DISTRIBUTION TABLE 1-1 provides data on the numbersNOT FOR of victims SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of violent crime for the years 2005 and 2015.

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TABLE 1-1 Violent Victimization in the United States (National Crime Victimization Survey), 2005 and 2015 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALERate per OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1,000 Percent Rate per 1,000 Percent Persons (12 of Violent Persons of Violent Percent Change 2005 or older) Crime 2015 (12 or older) Crime 2005 to 2015

Violent crime 6,947,800 28.4 100.00% 5,359,570 18.6 100.00% –34.6%

Rape/sexual 207,760 0.8 2.99% 284,350 1.6 8.60% +100.0% assault © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Robbery 769,150 3.1 11.07% 664,210 2.1 11.29% –32.3% NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Aggravated 1,281,490 5.2 18.44% 1,092,090 3.0 16.13% –42.4% assault

Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2016. Criminal Victimization, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv15.pdf. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Despite the general trend of decreasing victimization rates over the past 10 years, a significant number of victims turn to victim assistance programs, mental health centers, domestic violence shelters, and victim compensation programs each year. Research, as well as experience, has shown that these © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC individuals frequently suffer from significant emotional pain and trauma, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONphysical injuries, and/or financialNOT lossFOR as SALEa result ORof their DISTRIBUTION victimization, while “secondary victims”—relatives and close friends of victims—may also endure both mental anguish and economic hardship. Emergency medical care, mental health counseling, social services, financial aid, victim compensation, and law © Jonesenforcement & Bartlett protection Learning, must be readilyLLC available for those injured© Jones as a result & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTof FOR either SALE violent OR or property-relatedDISTRIBUTION offenses. Despite remarkableNOT FORadvances SALE OR DISTRIBUTION made in terms of our understanding of the nature of crime victimization and our awareness of the need for victim support, to date most victim assistance policies and programs are limited in their ability to service the diverse needs of © Jones & Bartlettall Learning,victims. This chapterLLC presents victimology ©as Jonesa discipline & Bartlettas well as providesLearning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORinformation DISTRIBUTION on victims of crime, the costs of victimization,NOT FOR SALE and trends OR in DISTRIBUTION crime and victimization.

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Discipline© Jones of & VictimologyBartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC CriminologyNOT, defined FOR asSALE the scientific OR DISTRIBUTION study of nonlegal aspects of crime, aroseNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION in the 18th century out of concerns about the use of what was perceived to be cruel and arbitrary means of justice. Through the use of scientific methods, criminologists sought to refocus approaches to crime on prevention of criminal © Jonesactivity & Bartlett and reformation Learning, of offenders. LLC Edwin H. Sutherland© defined Jones the & objecBartlett- Learning, LLC NOT FORtives ofSALE criminology OR DISTRIBUTION as the development of general and verifiedNOT principles FOR SALE and OR DISTRIBUTION knowledge regarding the process of law, crime, and treatment (Sutherland & Cressey, 1973, p.3). The etiology of crime and the characteristics of the criminal became the focus of criminological study. Drawing on diverse fields such © Jones & Bartlett asLearning, sociology, psychology,LLC economics, human© Jones geography, & Bartlett and statistics, Learning, pres- LLC NOT FOR SALE ORent-day DISTRIBUTION criminologists use a variety of researchNOT andFOR analysis SALE methods OR DISTRIBUTION to bet- ter understand crime and criminal activity (DeFlem, 2006; Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2016). In contrast, victimology is the study of the victim, including the offender and society.© JonesVictimology & Bartlett is a social-structural Learning, wayLLC of viewing crime, the law,© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the criminal,NOT and FOR the SALEvictim. ORVictimology, DISTRIBUTION which Fattah (2000) characterNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ized as a young and promising discipline as old as humanity itself, did not emerge as a scientific subject for study until after World War II. In the 1940s and 1950s, based on the research of Benjamin Mendelsohn and Hans Von © JonesHentig, & Bartlett victimology Learning, began to LLCemerge as a distinct and viable© Jones field of& studyBartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR(Schafer, SALE 1968). OR Historically, DISTRIBUTION victimology was a branch ofNOT criminology, FOR SALE and OR DISTRIBUTION as such the early criminologists and victimologists focused their analyses and writings on typologies of crime victims, assessing the ways in which a victim may contribute, knowingly or unknowingly, to his or her own victimization. Von Hentig’s work (1946) identified categories of individuals who were prone © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC to becoming crime victims. Marvin Wolfgang’s doctoral dissertation at the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION University of Pennsylvania in the 1950s built on Von Hentig’s theories and led to Dr. Wolfgang’s research conclusions that the majority of criminal homicides in the city of Philadelphia were victim precipitated because the victim either provoked the perpetrator or the victim was motivated by an unconscious desire to commit© Jones suicide & Bartlett (Wolfgang, Learning, 1958). As one LLC might expect, such findings© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC inevitablyNOT resulted FOR in aSALE gross misunderstanding OR DISTRIBUTION of the plight of crime victimsNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and a categorical dismissal of the validity of their rights and needs. Because the victim component of crime represented a serious theoretical void, a struggle developed as to the independence of this new discipline in © Jonesrelationship & Bartlett to the Learning, established LLC field of criminology. Many,© includingJones & Fattah, Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORcontinue SALE to view OR victimology DISTRIBUTION as an integral part of criminology,NOT whereasFOR SALE oth- OR DISTRIBUTION ers, especially those who work directly with victims, see the field as separate

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and independent. Fattah (2000) argues that the study of crime victims and of © Jonescriminal & victimizationBartlett Learning, has the potential LLC of reshaping criminology© Jones and that & Bartlettit Learning, LLC NOTmay FOR be SALEthe paradigm OR DISTRIBUTION shift that criminology needs. Recent developmentsNOT FOR SALEin OR DISTRIBUTION victimology have undergone a transformation through major achievements in the applied field. This remarkable phase in the evolution of victimology, con- tinues Fattah, was one of consolidation, data gathering, theory formulation, © Jones & Bartlettvictim Learning, legislation, LLC and sustained efforts to improve© Jones victims’ & Bartlett lot and alleviateLearning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtheir DISTRIBUTIONplight. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Advances in the various theoretical victimology models explain the varia- tions in victimization risks, the clustering of victimization in certain areas and certain groups, and the phenomenon of repeat victimization. Many countries © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLChave passed victim bill of rights© Jones legislation, & Bartlett including Learning,the adoption LLCof the U.N. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONDeclaration of Basic PrinciplesNOT of JusticeFOR SALEfor Victims OR ofDISTRIBUTION Crime and Abuse of Power by the General Assembly of the United Nations (1985). State compensation programs for victims of violent crime have been created, the concept of restitution by offenders has reemerged, and numerous victim–offender media- © Jonestion programs & Bartlett have Learning,been established. LLC Victim therapy has become© Jones an acknowl & Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOTedged FOR means SALE of dealingOR DISTRIBUTION with the traumatic aftereffects of victimization.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Fattah predicts that future developments in victimology will include an emphasis on scientific research, particularly qualitative research, and that the need for advocacy, partisanship, and therapy will decline. In its place will be © Jones & Bartlettthe Learning, rise of the restorative LLC justice paradigm with© Jonesvictimology & Bartlett developing Learning, into a LLC NOT FOR SALE ORscientific DISTRIBUTION discipline with a truly humanistic practiceNOT FOR (Fattah, SALE 2000). OR DISTRIBUTION

Victims of Violent Crime in the Media

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCPeople are fascinated by crime.© CrimesJones and & Bartlettthe legal proceedings Learning, that LLC surround NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthem excite the public’s interestNOT for FOR a variety SALE of reasons:OR DISTRIBUTION some, according to Fletcher (1988), because they involve celebrities, some because they are grue- some, some because they raise important social or legal issues, some because of their racial character, some because of the bizarre behavior of the parties, © Jonesand some & Bartlettbecause of Learning, the plight of LLCthe victim. The growing number© Jones of television & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTdramas FOR thatSALE depict OR criminal DISTRIBUTION behavior and victimization, policeNOT and FOR forensic SALE OR DISTRIBUTION work, and the prison system is a testament to crime’s prominence in popular culture. However, it has been argued that attributing the fascination with crime media to entertainment and voyeurism alone limits our understanding of its © Jones & Bartlettother Learning, social functions; LLC namely, that cultural© representations Jones & Bartlett of crime Learning, reflect LLC NOT FOR SALE OR(and DISTRIBUTION propagate) social anxieties and fears associatedNOT FOR with crimeSALE (Sparks, OR DISTRIBUTION 1990; Young, 2008). Instances of violent crime, especially those that are unpredictable

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or sporadic in nature and those perpetrated by strangers, often provoke a sense of fear that© Jonesthe mass &media Bartlett is quick Learning, to capitalize LLC on. Cases that have received© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC wide mediaNOT attention FOR forSALE these ORreasons DISTRIBUTION include murdered children, professionNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION als as victims, victims of revenge, and victims of workplace violence. Murdered Children © JonesIn 1996, & Bartlett almost 2,000 Learning, children LLC were murdered in the United© States,Jones but & none Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORof those SALE murders OR fascinated DISTRIBUTION the American public and attractedNOT the FORmass media SALE OR DISTRIBUTION like that of JonBenét Ramsey, a child beauty pageant contestant. Although the spotlight has dimmed over the years, the case has been reopened, and public bias regarding the parents as suspects, similar to the Caylee Anthony (a two- © Jones & Bartlett year-oldLearning, girl who LLC went missing in Florida in© 2008)Jones case, & remains.Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONIn the early morning of December 26,NOT 1996, FOR in Boulder, SALE Colorado, OR DISTRIBUTION Patsy Ramsey reportedly found a ransom note on the family’s back staircase demand- ing $118,000 for her 6-year-old daughter, JonBenét (see FIGURE 1-2). The Ramseys quickly realized that JonBenét was missing from her bedroom and called 911.© LaterJones that & day, Bartlett John Ramsey Learning, discovered LLC JonBenét’s body covered in© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC her specialNOT white FOR blanket SALE in the OR wine DISTRIBUTION cellar. She had been strangled with a garNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION rote made from a piece of cord and the broken handle of a paintbrush; to add to the horror there was evidence of sexual assault. The official cause of death was asphyxiation due to strangulation associated with blunt force head trauma. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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The early investigation focused on the three-page ransom note, and police © Jonestook hair & Bartlettand blood Learning, samples from LLC members of the Ramsey family.© Jones The district & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTattorney’s FOR SALE office OR strongly DISTRIBUTION supported a family member theoryNOT to the FOR murder, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION whereas a private investigator, Lou Smit, and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) profiler John Douglas, supported an intruder theory. A Boulder County grand jury was convened on September 16, 1998, and for a year heard tes- © Jones & Bartletttimony, Learning, forensic LLCevidence, analysis of handwriting,© Jones DNA & evidence,Bartlett and Learning, hair LLC NOT FOR SALE ORand fiberDISTRIBUTION evidence. No indictment was returnedNOT by FOR the grand SALE jury OR because DISTRIBUTION of conflicting testimonies and theories. In 2002, the Ramseys filed and defended a series of libel lawsuits against media outlets that tried to implicate them in their daughter’s murder. In 2003, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCan Atlanta federal judge dismissed© Jones a civil & lawsuit Bartlett against Learning, John and PatsyLLC Ram- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsey, stating there was no evidenceNOT FORshowing SALE the parentsOR DISTRIBUTION killed JonBenét and abundant evidence that an intruder killed the child. The judge criticized the police and the FBI for creating a media campaign designed to make the family look guilty. That same year, Mary Keenan, recently elected district attorney, © Jonesagreed &to Bartlettlook at all Learning,the evidence inLLC the case, including foreign,© male Jones DNA &that Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTwas FOR found SALE in JonBenét’s OR DISTRIBUTION underwear that had never been tested.NOT In 2006, FOR Patsy SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Ramsey died of a recurrence of ovarian cancer. Nevertheless, in February 2010, the Boulder Police Department took the case back from the district attorney to reopen the investigation. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Over the years, LLC several theories have been© Jonesraised regarding & Bartlett the deathLearning, of LLC NOT FOR SALE ORJonBenét. DISTRIBUTION One theory suggests that Patsy RamseyNOT injured FOR SALEher child OR in aDISTRIBUTION burst of anger over bedwetting, proceeded to kill her either in rage or to cover up the original injury, and then wrote the ransom note. Another speculates that John Ramsey had been sexually assaulting his daughter and murdered her as a cover. Others look to the brother of JonBenét, who they say was jealous of © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC his sister and murdered her. A final theory suggests that an intruder sexually NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONassaulted and murdered theNOT child. FOR To complicate SALE OR the DISTRIBUTIONfamily murder theory, DNA evidence did not match the mother, father, or brother and failed to find a match in the FBI CODIS database. This cold case remains focused on a forensic evidence match to JonBenét Ramsey or the crime scene and/or confession from © Jonesthe offender. & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Professionals as Victims Dr. George Tiller, age 67, was one of the few doctors who performed late-term abortions, raising concerns among citizens in Wichita, Kansas, that Dr. Tiller © Jones & Bartlettwas Learning, contravening LLC state law, public morality,© and Jones religious & Bartlett values. For Learning, more LLC NOT FOR SALE ORthan DISTRIBUTION 20 years, groups protested outside his offices,NOT FORpeople SALEsigned petitions,OR DISTRIBUTION and

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individuals made death threats against him. On May 31, 2009, Tiller was shot in the head© Jonesat point-blank & Bartlett range (despiteLearning, wearing LLC a bulletproof vest) by Scott© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Roeder, anNOT antiabortion FOR SALE activist. OR Tiller DISTRIBUTION was killed during a Sunday morningNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION service at the Reformation Lutheran Church in Wichita, where he was serving as an usher. Tiller’s killing has been labeled an act of domestic terrorism and an assassination. © Jones &Scott Bartlett Roeder Learning,took the stand LLC in his own defense on January© Jones 28, 2010. & Bartlett He Learning, LLC NOT FORadmitted SALE to killing OR DISTRIBUTION Dr. Tiller, described his views on abortion,NOT and FOR defended SALE OR DISTRIBUTION his act as an attempt to save unborn children. On January 29, 2010, the jury returned a verdict of guilty on all three charges (one count of first-degree murder and two counts of aggravated assault) after less than 40 minutes of delib- © Jones & Bartlett eration.Learning, On April LLC 1, 2010, in Wichita, Kansas,© Jones Sedgwick & County Bartlett District Learning, Judge LLC NOT FOR SALE ORWarren DISTRIBUTION Wilbert sentenced Roeder to the maximumNOT FOR time SALE allowed OR in DISTRIBUTION Kansas, known as a “hard 50,” meaning he had no possibility of parole for 50 years. Assassinations have been part of human history from early times. Victims who are killed for political reasons are sometimes aware of their danger, as in the case of© Dr.Jones Tiller, &or Bartlettsometimes Learning, totally unaware, LLC as in the case of President© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC AbrahamNOT Lincoln. FOR In eitherSALE case, OR such DISTRIBUTION murders trigger great public outcry forNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the victims, their families, and their communities. Victims of Revenge © JonesOn &Christmas Bartlett Eve, Learning, 2008, Bruce LLC Jeffrey Pardo arrived at the© homeJones of &Joseph Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORand Alicia SALE Ortega, OR DISTRIBUTIONthe parents of his ex-wife, dressed in a SantaNOT Claus FOR suit. SALE He OR DISTRIBUTION opened fire and killed nine people inside the house, including his ex-wife Sylvia, three of their children, the elder Ortegas, two daughters-in-law, and a teenager working at a computer. Pardo had no criminal record and had no history of violence. Police speculate the motive of the attack was related to marital problems, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC as Pardo’s wife of 1 year had settled for divorce the prior week. Pardo owed his NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION wife $10,000 as part of the divorce settlement, according to court documents, which detailed a bitter split. He also lost a dog he doted on and did not get back a valuable wedding ring. Pardo had also lost his job in July. Pardo complained in a court declaration that Sylvia Pardo was living with © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC her parents, not paying rent, and had spent lavishly on a luxury car, gambling trips to LasNOT Vegas, FOR meals SALE at fine OR restaurants, DISTRIBUTION massages, and golf lessons. SomeNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION speculated that the divorce may have been caused by Pardo concealing a child from a previous relationship. This child had been severely injured and disabled in a swimming pool accident. It was also revealed that Pardo planned to kill © Joneshis own& Bartlett mother becauseLearning, she apparently LLC displayed sympathy© forJones Sylvia & Pardo Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORduring SALE the divorce. OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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Although there was no history of domestic conflict in the divorce papers, © Jonesthis mass & Bartlett murder might Learning, have had LLC some warning signs, such ©as Jonesthe rage &and Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTanger FOR toward SALE the OR in-laws DISTRIBUTION and resentment of financial expendituresNOT and FOR revenge SALE OR DISTRIBUTION toward the distribution of marital property. Clearly, the victims were taken by surprise in a blitz attack and had no time to defend themselves.

© Jones & BartlettVictims Learning, of Workplace LLC Violence © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR“We’re DISTRIBUTION now just trying to figure out who’sNOT shot, FORwho’s SALEnot accounted OR DISTRIBUTION for,” said Brett Hollander, the director of marketing at Hartford Distributors (Martinez, 2010). This chilling statement was quoted in one of the initial press reports from the summer of 2010 shooting in a beer distribution company © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCin Manchester, Connecticut. ©Approximately Jones & Bartlett 60 people Learning, were in the LLCwarehouse NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONat the 7:00 a.m. shift changeNOT when FOR Omar SALE Thornton OR fatally DISTRIBUTION shot eight fellow employees and then himself. The shooting occurred minutes after Thornton was confronted by management with video evidence that he was stealing beer. He was given the option of quitting the job or being fired. Thornton did not © Jonesdeny the & allegations,Bartlett Learning, signed the release LLC papers, and then withdrew© Jones a gun from& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOThis FOR lunch SALE box. Witnesses OR DISTRIBUTION on the scene described Thornton as coolNOT and FOR calm SALE as OR DISTRIBUTION he proceeded to shoot those around him in the head. During the past decade, newspapers rarely have missed an opportunity to report the latest murder, robbery, physical or sexual assault, or stalking © Jones & Bartlettincident Learning, occurring LLC in the workplace. Of these© incidents, Jones &the Bartlett ones that Learning, receive LLC NOT FOR SALE ORthe mostDISTRIBUTION attention are, not surprisingly, workplaceNOT FORshootings. SALE In manyOR DISTRIBUTION cases, violent episodes in the workplace can be prevented. With this in mind, some companies have begun to provide employee assistance programs, stress management and anger control workshops, and fitness and exercise facilities. In addition, corporate security and human resource personnel often receive train- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ing in crisis intervention, psychological risk assessments, and critical incident NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION debriefing. No office, business, or institution is immune to the threat of violence, and careful planning and program development are crucial to handling threats appropriately and containing and preventing future violent incidents. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTWho FOR SALEIs a Victim?OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

The examples above depict several cases of victimization that have garnered significant media attention over the years. Important questions should be © Jones & Bartlettasked Learning, about why LLC certain crimes become focal© points Jones of &news, Bartlett documentaries, Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtelevision DISTRIBUTION series, and other productions whereasNOT othersFOR areSALE largely OR ignored. DISTRIBUTION Although the answers to these questions are complex, it is evident that the

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mass media is drawn to crimes that are especially unpredictable and violent in nature. Because© Jones a great & Bartlettdeal of peoples’ Learning, perceptions LLC and knowledge of crime© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and victimizationNOT FOR are informed SALE OR by sensationalized DISTRIBUTION media accounts, ideas aboutNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION victims are subject to considerable distortion. As a result, peoples’ perceptions of the regularity or frequency of victimization, of who is most likely to become a victim, or what constitutes the most common forms of victimization can © Jonesbecome & Bartlett considerably Learning, divorced LLC from reality. Media accounts© Jones may also & leadBartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORto an SALEexceedingly OR narrowDISTRIBUTION conception of what constitutes NOTa victim, FOR silencing SALE OR DISTRIBUTION accounts of harm that arise in cases that may seem more mundane, such as workplace injuries that result from corporate negligence or acute and chronic illness linked to environmental pollution. As a corrective, victimology can © Jones & Bartlett provideLearning, a more LLC accurate picture of crime and© Jones victimization & Bartlett through Learning, data and LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtrends DISTRIBUTION as well as provide a more encompassingNOT conceptualization FOR SALE OR of the DISTRIBUTION victim that takes into account a wide range of crimes and harms. The following section details a brief definitional history of victim, describing the term’s historical and contemporary usage. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC DefiningNOT the FOR “Victim” SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The word victim is derived from the Latin victima, and originally included the concept of sacrifice. The sense of an offering to the temple is implied in the Bible (Leviticus 1.2, 1.14, 2.1, etc.), and though the word victim does not appear in © Jonesthe Bible,& Bartlett the notion Learning, of persons LLC suffering from acts committed© Jonesby an aggressor & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORis found SALE throughout. OR DISTRIBUTION One of the most prominent cases of victimhoodNOT FOR found SALE in OR DISTRIBUTION the holy text is the murder involving Adam and Eve’s first- and second-born sons, in which in a fit of jealousy Cain murdered his brother because God had favored Abel’s thanksgiving offerings over his (Genesis 4:9–10). The relation- © Jones & Bartlett shipLearning, between LLCvictim and sacrifice had similar© Jones resonance & Bartlett in ancient Learning, civiliza- LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtions DISTRIBUTION where individuals were sacrificed duringNOT religious FOR SALEceremonies OR to DISTRIBUTION appease the gods. In early Anglo-Saxon society, victims were perceived as persons suffering from injury at the hands of perpetrators, and laws typically enforced restitution and compensation paid to victims or their families by offending parties. While© Jones sanctions & Bartlett were initially Learning, enforced LLClocally and through informal© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC means, theNOT emergence FOR SALEof a stronger OR DISTRIBUTION sovereign state transformed the conceptNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of victimhood by implicating the state in processes of justice. No longer was an offense solely viewed as a transgression against the victim, but was considered an offense against God and a breach of the king’s peace, and as such, the © Jonesstate & increasingly Bartlett Learning, became an instigator LLC of charges against offenders© Jones while & Bartlett the Learning, LLC NOT FORvictim’s SALE role was OR reduced DISTRIBUTION to that of a witness (Walklate, 2007).NOT As FOR this system SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of justice evolved, compensation by the offender became increasingly seen as a

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debt owed to society (often paid in the form of fines), rather than to the indi- © Jonesvidual &victim. Bartlett These Learning, arrangements LLC bear some resemblance to© the Jones contempo & Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOTrary FOR justice SALE process OR whereby DISTRIBUTION the prosecution team, as the state’sNOT representative, FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION pursues a case against the accused. The role of the victim is limited to that of a witness who may give a testimony on behalf of the prosecution. Contemporary ideas about what constitutes a victim have largely been © Jones & Bartlettshaped Learning, and influenced LLC by criminal law. Federal© Jones law defines & Bartlett the term Learning, victim LLC NOT FOR SALE ORand outlinesDISTRIBUTION the rights of crime victims. A crimeNOT victim FOR in aSALE purely ORlegal DISTRIBUTION sense refers to a person, organization, or business that has been directly harmed (physically, emotionally, or financially) as a result of the commission of an offense. In general, crime victims’ rights apply after charges have been filed by © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCa U.S. Attorney’s office. Some© individualsJones & Bartlettare viewed Learning, to not have theLLC capacity NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONto exercise their own rights. NOTSuch individuals FOR SALE include OR victims DISTRIBUTION of crime who are younger than 18 years of age, incompetent, incapacitated, or deceased. In these cases, the legal guardians of the crime victim or the representatives of the crime victim’s estate, family members, or any other persons appointed as suitable by © Jonesthe court & Bartlettmay assume Learning, the crime victims’ LLC rights. A person who is© a Jones defendant & inBartlett Learning, LLC NOTthe FOR crime SALE being investigatedOR DISTRIBUTION or prosecuted cannot act as a proxyNOT for FOR a victim. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION In the United States, crime victims’ rights are the eight rights included in the Justice for All Act (2004), Section 3771 of Title 18 of the U.S. Code, Crimes and Criminal Procedure:

© Jones & Bartlett1. Learning,The right to LLCbe reasonably protected from© theJones accused. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 2. The right to reasonable, accurate, and timely notice of any public court proceeding, or any parole proceeding, involving the crime or any release or escape of the accused. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC3. The right not to be excluded© Jones from any & suchBartlett public Learning, court proceeding, LLC unless NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe court, after receivingNOT clear FOR and convincing SALE OR evidence, DISTRIBUTION determines that testimony by the victim would be materially altered if the victim heard other testimony at the proceeding. 4. The right to be reasonably heard at any public proceeding in the district © Jonescourt & Bartlettinvolving release,Learning, plea, [or]LLC sentencing, or any parole© proceeding. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT 5.FOR The SALEreasonable OR right DISTRIBUTION to confer with the attorney for theNOT government FOR SALEin OR DISTRIBUTION the case. 6. The right to full and timely restitution as provided in law. © Jones & Bartlett7. Learning, The right to LLCproceedings free from unreasonable© Jones delay. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR8. TheDISTRIBUTION right to be treated with fairness and withNOT respect FOR for SALE the victim’s OR dignityDISTRIBUTION and privacy.

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For purposes of these rights and services, victims are defined in specific ways in the federal© Jones law (FBI, & Bartlett2011). Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC However,NOT not FOR all contemporarySALE OR DISTRIBUTION notions of the victim have emerged fromNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION within the confines of formal law. The term’s first use as a scientific concept originated from the work of Benjamin Mendelsohn. In his scientific study of crime victims, Mendelsohn’s (1976) concept of victimhood featured four © Jonesfundamental & Bartlett criteria: Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1. The nature of the determinant that causes the suffering. The suffering may be physical, psychological, or both, depending on the type of injurious act. 2. The social character of the suffering. This suffering originates in the victim’s © Jones & Bartlett Learning,and others’ LLC reaction to the event. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR3. DISTRIBUTION The importance of the social factor. TheNOT social FOR implications SALE of OR the injuriousDISTRIBUTION act can have a greater impact, sometimes even more severe than the physical or psychological impact. 4. The origin of the inferiority complex. The term inferiority complex, sug- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC gested by Mendelsohn, manifests itself as a feeling of submission that may NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION be followed by a feeling of revolt. The victim generally attributes his or her injury to the culpability of another person. Mendelsohn would later become known for his typology of crime victims that © Jonesfocused & Bartlett on the extent Learning, to which LLC victims played a role in their© Jones own victimiza & Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOT FORtion. However,SALE OR he alsoDISTRIBUTION acknowledged that human sufferingNOT extended FOR beyond SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the confines of criminal victimization and proposed that victimology should incorporate causal factors of victimization derived from the self, technology, the social environment, and the natural environment, as well as from criminal offences (Mendelsohn, 1976). As such, the term victim has been greatly © Jones & Bartlett expandedLearning, to implyLLC a wide range of circumstances© Jones of human& Bartlett suffering Learning, and to LLC NOT FOR SALE ORinclude DISTRIBUTION victims of deliberate self-harm, victimsNOT of accidents,FOR SALE victims OR of DISTRIBUTION war and political crises, victims of economic and social problems, victims of natural disasters, and victims of identity theft. The following sections briefly discuss victims of crime as well as victims of “noncriminal” harms. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC VictimsNOT of PersonalFOR SALE and OR PropertyDISTRIBUTION Crime NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Modern distinctions between what constitutes a crime and what does not are usually drawn from legal definitions inscribed in criminal codes. Addi- tionally, victimization surveys provide us with measures of crime defined in © Jonesparticular & Bartlett ways, theLearning, legality of LLC which is largely consistent ©with Jones criminal & Bartlettlaw. Learning, LLC NOT FORThe NationalSALE CrimeOR DISTRIBUTION Victimization Survey (NCVS) provides definitionsNOT FOR of SALEcrimes OR DISTRIBUTION resulting in victimization for the purposes of data collection and reporting.

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This information includes the specific type of crime experienced, the location © Jonesof the &incident, Bartlett whether Learning, the incident LLC was reported to police or© other Jones officials, & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTthe FOR type SALE and value OR of DISTRIBUTION the property involved, and the identityNOT and FOR personal SALE OR DISTRIBUTION characteristics of the victim. Personal crime as defined by the NCVS includes rape or sexual assault, robbery, aggravated or simple assault, and personal larceny. A violent crime includes rape or sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated © Jones & Bartlettor simpleLearning, assault LLC characterized by the “use or© threat Jones of force.” & Bartlett Property Learning, crime LLC NOT FOR SALE ORmay DISTRIBUTIONinvolve theft or damage of personal property,NOT but FOR does SALE not usually OR involve DISTRIBUTION the presence of the victim. TABLE 1-2 provides a summary of crimes resulting in victimization.

Type of Crime Definition

Burglary The unlawful or forcible entry or attempted entry of a structure with the intent to commit an offense therein. This © Jonescrime usually, & Bartlett but not always, Learning, involves theft. It is a LLCproperty crime. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Larceny The theft or attempted theft of property or cash without using force or illegal entry. An alternate label for this crime is theft. It is a property crime.

Personal crime A criminal act affecting a specific person. Crimes against persons, as defined by NCVS, include rape, sexual assault, © Jones & Bartlettrobbery, Learning, assault, and purse LLC snatching/pocket picking. The victimization© is Jonespersonal either & through Bartlett the direct experienceLearning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORof force DISTRIBUTION or threat of force or by theft directly from one’s person. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Personal larceny Purse snatching and pocket picking. Personal larceny involves the theft or attempted theft of property or cash directly from the victim by stealth, but without force or threat of force. It is both a property crime and a personal crime.

© Jones & BartlettProperty crimeLearning, LLCThe illegal taking or damaging of property,© including Jones cash and & personal Bartlett belongings. Learning, Examples include burglary,LLC theft, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONrobbery, vandalism, and arson. In many instances,NOT the FOR offender SALEacts furtively, OR and the DISTRIBUTION victim is often not present when the crime occurs.

Robbery The taking of property or cash directly from a person by force or threat of force. Robbery is both a property crime and a © Jonesviolent crime. & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Vandalism NOT TheFOR willful orSALE malicious destroying,OR DISTRIBUTION defacing, or damaging of property without the consent of theNOT owner. ItFOR is a SALE OR DISTRIBUTION property crime.

Violent crime Rape, sexual assault, robbery, and assault, including both attempted and completed crimes. The defining element © Jones & Bartlettis theLearning, use of force or threat LLC of force. Violent crimes involve contact between© Jones the victim and& theBartlett offender. The Learning, NCVS LLC NOT FOR SALE ORdefinition DISTRIBUTION of violent crime excludes murder. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Data from National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS).

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Crime victims do not fit a standard profile. Persons of all ages, races, eth- nicities, and© Jones socioeconomic & Bartlett backgrounds Learning, are LLCsubject to criminal victimiza©- Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tion of oneNOT form FOR or another. SALE However,OR DISTRIBUTION victimization statistics from the U.S.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Bureau of Justice Statistics (2016) reveal that not all groups have an equal likelihood or probability of becoming a crime victim. Research indicates that young black males, 16 to 24 years of age and living in high-crime, urban areas, © Jonesare the& Bartlett most likely Learning, to fall victim LLC to serious violent crime due© Jonesin large part& Bartlett to Learning, LLC NOT FORsocioeconomic SALE OR factors DISTRIBUTION such as poverty and lack of adequateNOT housing, FOR educa SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION tion, and/or employment. In sharp contrast, elderly white females who live in low-crime areas and generally do not venture out at night are the least likely to become victimized. Lifestyle, location, and race appear to be the primary © Jones & Bartlett predictorsLearning, of whoLLC is most likely to become© a victimJones of &crime. Bartlett However, Learning, one of LLC NOT FOR SALE ORthe DISTRIBUTION best predictors of future victimization isNOT past victimization.FOR SALE AsOR with DISTRIBUTION repeat offenders whose criminal activity constitutes a disproportionate amount of all crime, some individuals are involved in a similarly disproportionate amount of all victimization events (see Tseloni & Pease, 2004). This observation has been supported© Jones by a& growing Bartlett field Learning, of research LLC on repeat victims of violent© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC crime, includingNOT FOR victims SALE of sexual OR abuse, DISTRIBUTION domestic abuse, bullying, assault, andNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION hate crimes, as well as property crimes such as burglary and vandalism (Arata, 2002; Frank, Brantingham, & Farrell, 2012; Tseloni, Knuttson, & Laycock, 2005). A greater appreciation of patterns in victimization may shed light on © Joneswhich & Bartlettfactors make Learning, these individuals LLC susceptible to repeat© victimization Jones & Bartlettand Learning, LLC NOT FORmay haveSALE further OR implications DISTRIBUTION for crime prevention policy. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Beyond Criminal Victimization: Victims of “Noncriminal” Harms © Jones & Bartlett InLearning, heeding Mendelsohn’s LLC suggestion that there© Jonesare victims & outsideBartlett the Learning,domain of LLC NOT FOR SALE ORcrime, DISTRIBUTION our definition of what it means to beNOT a victim FOR expands SALE accordingly. OR DISTRIBUTION One way in which the term becomes more accommodating is by considering victims who suffer from harmful activities that are not deemed by law to be criminal. It is widely acknowledged among critical criminologists that labeling processes involved in© definingJones &what Bartlett is considered Learning, a criminal LLC act cannot be divorced from© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC questions NOTof power FOR and SALE politics. OR It is DISTRIBUTIONnot necessarily true that all harmful behavNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION iors are criminalized, nor is it necessarily true that all criminals are pursued with equal intensity by the criminal justice system. Many criminologists and victimologists in the critical and radical traditions have increasingly challenged the © Jonesstereotypical & Bartlett conception Learning, of offenders LLC and victims that narrowly© Jonesreduce problems & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORof crime SALE to problems OR DISTRIBUTION associated with traditional “street” crime.NOT For FOR example, SALE in OR DISTRIBUTION 1939, Sutherland introduced the term white-collar crime to bring attention to

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crimes committed by persons of high respectability and social status that tended © Jonesto be ignored& Bartlett by law Learning, enforcement LLC and society in general (Sutherland,© Jones 1949). & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTOther FOR scholars SALE haveOR DISTRIBUTIONfollowed Sutherland’s lead, focusing onNOT corporate FOR and SALE OR DISTRIBUTION occupational crimes that escape criminal definition and tend to be treated with considerable impunity. It has been argued that even when codified in law some forms of corporate and white-collar crimes tend to be unregulated in practice or © Jones & Bartlettare Learning,prosecuted through LLC administrative and informal© Jones channels. & Bartlett It is common Learning, in LLC NOT FOR SALE ORthese DISTRIBUTION cases for victims not to receive justice or NOTcompensation. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Indeed, some victimologists believe that our understandings of environmental, economic, social, and other forms of victimization cannot and should not be bound by criminal definition, but should rather be seen in terms of © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC“social harms” (see Hillyard© and Jones Tombs, & 2007). Bartlett This Learning, perspective isLLC especially NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONimportant for understandingNOT environmental FOR SALE victimization OR DISTRIBUTION given the various environmentally harmful practices and activities that are regulated (and facili- tated) but not prevented by law (White, 2015). Although a more encompassing notion of victimhood can bring a greater emphasis to the experiences of vic- © Jonestims adversely & Bartlett affected Learning, by pollution, LLC climate change, and other© Jonesenvironmen & Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOTtal FOR hazards, SALE challenging OR DISTRIBUTION issues emerge regarding measurementNOT and FORevidence SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of environmental harm, determining culpability for environmental harm, and agreeing on appropriate sanctions while providing redress to victims affected. Further complicating matters is the fact that environmental victims may not be © Jones & Bartlettaware Learning, that they haveLLC been victimized, may suffer© Jones from repeat & Bartlett exposure Learning,to envi- LLC NOT FOR SALE ORronmental DISTRIBUTION hazards over a long period of time,NOT may FORnot experience SALE OR symptoms DISTRIBUTION until long after exposure, and may be unsure about who or what is responsible for their victimization (Skinnider, 2011). Despite these challenges, victimologists are increasingly drawn to these matters as they continue to affect a growing number of people across the world. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Similarly, victimology has been concerned with conceptualizing state actions NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthat violate national or internationalNOT FOR law while SALE in pursuit OR DISTRIBUTION of economic and political ends, but do not result in criminal sanction. Although this tradition derives from earlier global concerns regarding genocide, Nazi atrocities, and state- sanctioned apartheid, it has also had a more domestic relevance with regard to © Jones“victims & of Bartlett police force, Learning, the victims LLC of war, the victims of the correctional© Jones system, & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTthe FOR victims SALE of state OR violence, DISTRIBUTION the victims of oppression of any NOTsort” (Quinney,FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1972, p. 315). Although radical victimology and the study of state crime has yet to develop into a major subfield of criminological research (Kauzlarich, Matthews, & Miller, 2001), the current context of racialized violence and police © Jones & Bartlettshootings Learning, in the LLCUnited States, which is not limited© Jones to this & Bartletthistorical moment,Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORdemands DISTRIBUTION a return to thinking about these formsNOT of victimization. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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Trends© Jones in Crime & Bartlett and Learning, Victimization LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Among newsNOT reporters, FOR SALE historians, OR DISTRIBUTIONand criminologists who review and interNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION pret these findings, there are predictable reactionary stances, including those of the alarmists, the skeptics, and the realists. Frequently, members of the press tend toward alarmism, singling out and sensationalizing specific violent cases © Jonesof victimization. & Bartlett SuchLearning, instances LLC include cases like that of Lorena© Jones Bobbit, & whoBartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORin 1993, SALE cut off OR half DISTRIBUTION of her husband’s penis while he lay sleeping;NOT or FOR of Lyle SALE and OR DISTRIBUTION Erik Menendez, who in 1993, murdered their parents; or the 2006 arrest of three Duke lacrosse players for rape. Some historians fall into the skeptic category, where a 5- or 20-year period of cyclical decline in most crime categories © Jones & Bartlett isLearning, viewed as temporary LLC because history sometimes© Jones repeats & Bartlett itself. The Learning, realists LLC NOT FOR SALE ORare DISTRIBUTION many of the academic scholars and criminologistsNOT FOR SALE who can OR examine DISTRIBUTION a 10- or 25-year trend analysis and with reasonable certainty predict that 10, 20, or 25 years of overall declines in crime rates are not necessarily temporary, but coincide with a number of underlying, though complex, factors that remain a subject ©of Jones debate (see& Bartlett Zimring, Learning, 2007). Their LLC goals include understanding© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC why crimeNOT rates FORfluctuate SALE and ORdetermining DISTRIBUTION which root causes may explain whyNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION people commit crime. Crime in the United States is a significant criminal justice and public health problem, and the serious nature of homicide, forcible rape, robbery, aggra- © Jonesvated & assault,Bartlett domestic Learning, violence, LLC burglary, larceny/theft, carjacking,© Jones and & motor Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORvehicle SALE theft impact OR DISTRIBUTION millions of victims and their families eachNOT year. FOR Repeated SALE OR DISTRIBUTION depictions of violent crime in the news and television dramas can give the impression that American society is more violent today than ever before and that violence is increasing. The facts are, however, much more complex, and simple generalizations can be misleading (Reiss & Roth, 1993). © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Crime data collected by national surveys can help us construct a partial pic- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ture of crime and victimization longitudinally, allowing us to make sense of crime trends in a historical context. Generally, data on crime rates show a sharp rise in crime after 1963 until the early 1990s. A snapshot of violent crime trends reported by the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) Program for the year 1991, during which© Jones violent crime& Bartlett peaked, showsLearning, higher ratesLLC of violent crime during the© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC summer monthsNOT FORand in SALEwestern ORstates. DISTRIBUTION Aggravated assault accounted for 57% ofNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION all reported violent crimes, followed by robberies (36%) and forcible rapes (6%). The number of violent crimes exceeded 1.9 million offenses (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). According to NCVS data, in 1991, violent victimization was © Joneshighest & Bartlett among males, Learning, persons agedLLC 20 to 24 years, persons ©identified Jones as& Black,Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORand persons SALE earning OR DISTRIBUTION less than $7,500 annually. In addition, NOTthose FORresiding SALE in a OR DISTRIBUTION

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central city were more likely than those residing in either a suburban or nonmet- © Jonesropolitan & Bartlettarea to be victimsLearning, of violent LLC crime (Bureau of Justice Statistics,© Jones 1993). & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORIn the SALE mid-1990s, OR DISTRIBUTION overall rates of crime began to steadily decline.NOT FOR Rates SALE of OR DISTRIBUTION violent crime (i.e., crimes involving force or threat of force) are generally consistent with this trend. According to NCVS data, from 1993 to 2015, violent crime dropped from 79.8 to 18.6 violent victimizations per 1,000 persons © Jones & Bartlettover Learning, the age of LLC11. Nonfatal firearm violence© Jones also declined,& Bartlett falling Learning, from LLC NOT FOR SALE OR7.3 victimizations DISTRIBUTION per 1,000 persons in 1993 NOTto 1.1 FORin 2015. SALE Furthermore, OR DISTRIBUTION the rate of property crime declined from 351.8 to 110.7 per 1,000 persons, with the decline in theft accounting for the majority of the overall fall in property crime (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2016). © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCIn 2015, the most common© Jones type of &violent Bartlett crime Learning, recorded by LLC the NCVS NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONwas simple assault, accountingNOT for FOR approximately SALE OR 64% DISTRIBUTION of all violent crimes, followed by aggravated assault (16%), robbery (11%), and rape/sexual assault (9%). In contrast to the previous year, females were more likely than males to be a victim of violent crime. Individuals were more likely to be victimized if © Jonesthey were & Bartlett between theLearning, ages of 12 LLC and 17, followed by those© aged Jones 18 to & 24. Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTThose FOR identifying SALE OR as BlackDISTRIBUTION or Other (e.g., Aboriginal, Asian, andNOT Biracial), FOR SALEas OR DISTRIBUTION separated or divorced, or as having a household annual income of less than $9,999 showed an elevated risk for violent victimization. When looking only at serious violent crime (rape or sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated assault), © Jones & Bartlettall Learning,the above-mentioned LLC sociodemographic factors© Jones remain & Bartlett relevant riskLearning, fac- LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtors, DISTRIBUTIONbut those between the ages of 18 and 24 NOTare the FOR most at-riskSALE demographic OR DISTRIBUTION for serious violent victimization (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2016). With regard to geography, victims residing in urban areas have been at the highest risk for both violent and property crime, while those living in rural areas have been at the lowest risk. This holds true for years 1996, 2005, and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 2015. Regional rates of violent and property crimes have fluctuated over the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONyears, but western states consistentlyNOT FOR show SALE the highest OR ratesDISTRIBUTION of crime across all three reference years. TABLE 1-3 provides data on violent crime and property crime by household location and region for the years 1996, 2005, and 2015. The main source for murder rates in the United States is the FBI’s UCR. © JonesIn 2014, & theBartlett murder Learning, rate hit a 51-year LLC low at 4.5 murders per ©100,000 Jones inhab & Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOTitants. FOR In SALE 2015, theOR murder DISTRIBUTION rate increased slightly to 5 murdersNOT per FOR 100,000 SALE OR DISTRIBUTION inhabitants, levels comparable to 2009. TABLE 1-4 shows the steady decline in rates of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter from 1995 to 2014. Although the overall murder rate has shown a general decline over the last © Jones & Bartlettfew Learning, decades, the LLC National Center for Victims© ofJones Crime &(2015) Bartlett reported Learning, that LLC NOT FOR SALE ORactive DISTRIBUTION shooter events, mass murders, and activeNOT shooter FOR casesSALE have OR increased DISTRIBUTION over recent years.

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TABLE 1-3 Rate of Violent Victimization by Household Location and Region Based per 1,000 (National Crime Victimization Survey), 1996, 2005, ©and 2015 Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Violent Crime Property Crime

Location of Residence 1996 2005 2015 1996 2005 2015

Rural 53.2 22.4 14.0 232.9 126.2 95.7 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Region* NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Northeast 52.9 25.9 17.1 234.8 113.3 81.6

Midwest 66.3 34.6 19.6 266.7 165.9 105.0 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC South NOT FOR SALE 57.9OR DISTRIBUTION23.4 16.9 286.8NOT 148.8 FOR SALE 107.6 OR DISTRIBUTION West 85.1 32.0 21.3 371.9 209.3 144.7

*Midwest includes the 12 states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Northeast includes the nine states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont. South includes the District of Columbia and the 16 states of Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. West includes the 13 states of Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, © JonesOregon, Utah,& Washington,Bartlett and Wyoming. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORCalculated from SALE Bureau of Justice OR Statistics, CriminalDISTRIBUTION Victimization, by Location of Residence and Region, 1993–2015. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Crime in Canada shows similar historical trends. According to Statistics © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Canada (2015), violent victimization rates for 2014 (76 per 1,000 persons NOT FOR SALE ORaged DISTRIBUTION 15 years and older) were 28% lowerNOT than FOR those SALE for 2004, OR with DISTRIBUTION robbery declining by 39% and physical assault by 35%. However, sexual assault victimization rates have remained relatively stable since 1999. In terms of household victimization (which includes break-ins, motor vehicle theft, vandalism, and© Jonestheft of household& Bartlett property), Learning, the 2014 LLC rate of 143 incidents per© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1,000 householdsNOT FOR was SALE 42% lowerOR DISTRIBUTION than the rate in 2004. Key risk factorsNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION for violent crime included age, drug use and alcohol consumption, mental health problems, history of homelessness and/or child maltreatment, and residence in a neighborhood with low social cohesion (Statistics Canada, 2015). © JonesTABLE 1-5 & Bartlett provides Learning, data on violent LLC and property (household)© Jones victimization & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORrates SALEper 1,000 OR persons DISTRIBUTION aged 15 years and older in CanadaNOT by type FOR of offence SALE OR DISTRIBUTION for the years of 1999, 2004, 2009, and 2014.

9781284130195_CH01_Burgess.indd 19 11/15/2017 8:26:41 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 20 CHAPTER 1 Crime and Victimology

TABLE 1-4 Murder Rates in the United States (Uniform Crime Reports) from 1995 to 2014 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTRate: FOR Number SALE of Crimes perOR 100,000 DISTRIBUTION Inhabitants NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

by Population Group, 2015

Murder and nonnegligent © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Violent crime LLC manslaughter © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Number of Number of Number of 2015 estimated Population group offenses known Rate offenses known Rate agencies population

© Jones & BartlettTOTAL ALL Learning, AGENCIES: LLC 1,154,081 385.9© Jones 14,856 & Bartlett 5.0 Learning, 15,010 299,091,598LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION TOTAL CITIES 922,794 454.1 11,571 5.7 10,645 203,209,630

GROUP I (250,000 and over) 436,315 734.2 5,990 10.1 79 59,428,247

1,000,000 and over (Group© JonesI subset) & Bartlett 188,291 Learning, 687.1 LLC 2,231 8.1 11© Jones 27,404,679 & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 500,000 to 999,999 (Group I subset) 138,863 836.0 2,081 12.5 23 16,609,970

250,000 to 499,999 (Group I subset) 109,161 708.2 1,678 10.9 45 15,413,598

© GROUPJones II (100,000 & Bartlettto 249,999) Learning, 147,363 LLC 471.0 1,934© 6.2Jones & 210 Bartlett 31,285,733 Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION GROUP III (50,000 to 99,999) 111,334 337.9 1,231 3.7 474 32,952,951

GROUP IV (25,000 to 49,999) 85,566 293.8 980 3.4 841 29,124,007

© Jones & BartlettGROUP V Learning,(10,000 to 24,999) LLC 75,676 269.8© Jones 820 & Bartlett 2.9 Learning, 1,752 LLC 28,049,861 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION GROUP VI (under 10,000) 66,540 297.5 616 2.8 7,289 22,368,831

METROPOLITAN COUNTIES 185,490 258.4 2,424 3.4 1,954 71,792,662

NONMETROPOLITAN COUNTIES© Jones1 & Bartlett45,797 Learning, 190.1 LLC 861 3.6 2,411© Jones 24,089,306 & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION SUBURBAN AREA2 323,651 249.2 3,822 2.9 8,263 129,863,798

Data from Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). 2015. Number of Crimes per 100,000 inhabitants. 1 Includes state police agencies that report aggregately for the entire state. 2 Suburban areas include law enforcement agencies in cities with less than 50,000 inhabitants and county law enforcement agencies that are within a Metropolitan Statistical Area. Suburban areas exclude all metropolitan © Jonesagencies associated & with aBartlett principal city. The agencies Learning, associated with suburban areas LLC also appear in other groups within this table. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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TABLE 1-5 Victimization Rates per 1,000 Persons Aged 15 Years and Older in Canada by Type of Offense (General Social Survey), 1999, 2004, 2009, ©and Jones 2014 & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1999 2004 2009 2014

Total violent victimization 111 106 118 76

Physical assault 80 75 80 48 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Total household victimization 218 248 237 143 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Break and enter 48 39 47 31

Motor vehicle/parts theft 41 44 34 18 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Theft of householdNOT property FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION62 88 NOT83 FOR SALE54 OR DISTRIBUTION Vandalism 66 77 74 40

Data from Statistics Canada (2015). Table 1: Victimization incidents reported by Canadians, by type of Offense, 1999, 2004, 2009, and 2014. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Costs and Consequences of Crime

Many government agencies and independent organizations have been tasked with measuring crime rates and providing estimates of the costs of crime. © Jones & Bartlett WhileLearning, acknowledging LLC that many of these© agenciesJones &and Bartlett organizations Learning, use LLC NOT FOR SALE ORdistinct DISTRIBUTION crime-costing methods, which inevitablyNOT FOR leads SALE to variation OR DISTRIBUTION in cost estimations, it can be informative to go beyond the simplicity of crime rates by assessing the impact of crime in economic terms. A two-year multidisci- plinary research effort, funded by the National Institute of Justice and pub- lished in ©1996, Jones estimated & Bartlett the costs Learning, and consequences LLC of personal crime for© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC AmericansNOT (Miller, FOR Cohen, SALE & Wiersema,OR DISTRIBUTION 1996). The report estimated annualNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION direct tangible costs to crime victims of $105 billion in medical expenses, lost earnings, and public programs related to victim assistance. Pain, suffering, and reduced quality of life increased the cost to $450 billion annually (Miller © Joneset al., & Bartlett1996). Anderson Learning, (1999) LLC estimated the total annual© costJones of criminal & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORbehavior SALE in the OR United DISTRIBUTION States, arguing that past research typicallyNOT FOR focused SALE on OR DISTRIBUTION particular costs, regions, or crime categories. Anderson estimated the direct

9781284130195_CH01_Burgess.indd 21 11/15/2017 8:26:41 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 22 CHAPTER 1 Crime and Victimology

and indirect costs that extend over the expenses of the legal system to con- © Jonessider ancillary & Bartlett costs Learning, that had not LLC yet been included into an ©overall Jones formula & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTfor FOR the costSALE of crime.OR DISTRIBUTION These costs included victims’, criminals’,NOT and FOR prison SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION ers’ time; the fear of being victimized; and the cost of private deterrence. Anderson estimated the net annual burden of crime to exceed $1 trillion. According to a systematic review of crime costs by Wickramasekera, Wright, © Jones & BartlettElsey, Learning, Murray, and LLC Tubeuf (2015), the total costs© Jones of crime & in Bartlett the United Learning, States LLC NOT FOR SALE ORranged DISTRIBUTION from $450 billion to $3.2 trillion. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Canada has approximately one-tenth the population of the United States (Statistics Canada, 2016) and significantly lower levels of crime and victimization per capita. Zhang (2008) estimated that the total (tangible) social © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCand economic costs of Criminal© Jones Code & offenses Bartlett in Learning,Canada were LLC approxi- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmately $31.4 billion annually.NOT This FOR amounted SALE to OR a per DISTRIBUTION capita cost of $943 per year. However, Zhang pointed out that this was likely to be a conserva- tive estimate due to the unavailability of data in many areas. Despite best efforts to account for all the financial impacts of crime, only a partial pic- © Jonesture of & the Bartlett true range Learning, of costs is everLLC available. The costs identified© Jones are borne& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTby FOR the criminal SALE justiceOR DISTRIBUTION system, victims of crimes, and third partiesNOT inFOR general SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (Zhang, 2008). For instance, it is estimated that the Canadian criminal justice system cost $15 billion in 2008. This includes policing, courts, prosecution, legal aid, correctional services, and mental health review boards. © Jones & BartlettIndividual Learning, victims, LLC however, paid an estimated© Jones$14.3 billion & Bartlett for crimes Learning, com- LLC NOT FOR SALE ORmitted DISTRIBUTION against them that same year. Their costsNOT included FOR SALE medical OR attention, DISTRIBUTION hospitalizations, lost wages, missed school days, and stolen/damaged property. Of the total costs, 47.0% represented lost wages and productivity and 42.9% lost or stolen property (Zhang, 2008). Indirect victims also bear costs due to grieving the loss of a loved one or caring for a victim. When all © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC costs were taken into account, Zhang (2008) estimated total costs of crime NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONfor a 1-year period in CanadaNOT to FOR be $99.6 SALE billion. OR DISTRIBUTION A more recent study by Easton, Furness, and Brantingham (2014) estimated the overall costs of crime to be $85.2 billion, the majority of which ($47 billion) was borne by victims directly. Victim costs included the value of damaged or stolen prop- © Joneserty, pain & Bartlettand suffering, Learning, loss of income LLC and productivity, and ©health Jones services. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTThe FOR authors SALE note OR that DISTRIBUTION although the crime rate in Canada hasNOT fallen FOR over theSALE OR DISTRIBUTION years, the cost of crime has risen due to increased criminal justice system expenditures such as police, courts, and correctional services, which com- prise $19.3 billion of the estimated total cost of crime. The remaining costs © Jones & Bartlettinclude Learning, those associated LLC with private security,© crimeJones prevention & Bartlett services, Learning, and LLC NOT FOR SALE ORproductivity DISTRIBUTION and business losses. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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A breakdown of the costs of crime can be organized into four main categories: health-related© Jones & costs, Bartlett direct financialLearning, costs, LLC intangible costs, and criminal© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC justice costs.NOT Each FOR category SALE is detailedOR DISTRIBUTION below. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Health-Related Costs Tangible losses consisting of direct costs for damages and injuries as a result © Jonesof victimization & Bartlett include Learning, medical LLC and mental health expenses.© JonesPhysical &means Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORof violence SALE to ORa victim DISTRIBUTION include a person’s body (hands, fists,NOT feet), FOR instruments SALE OR DISTRIBUTION such as firearms and knives, flammable liquids and explosives, poisons, and animals (such as attack dogs); all of these can produce serious injuries. Physical injury can range from minor harm, such as bruises and lacerations, © Jones & Bartlett toLearning, serious harm, LLC such as broken bones and© need Jones for hospitalization,& Bartlett Learning, to lethal LLC NOT FOR SALE ORinjury DISTRIBUTION and death. Some violent crimes leaveNOT no visible FOR signSALE of physical OR DISTRIBUTION injury. This is true in some rape cases where there are no general body injuries or pelvic or genital injuries. Wallace and Roberson (2011) list four general classifications of physical injuries to victims. First,© immediate Jones injuries& Bartlett include Learning, cuts, contusions, LLC and/or broken bones that© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC generally NOTheal fairly FOR quickly SALE and OR are DISTRIBUTIONnot viewed as serious by the victim. ImmeNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION diate injuries can take longer to heal in persons who are elderly, have existing disabilities, are taking certain medications, or have an immune disorder. In a Nevada case, a 23-year-old man was hit over the head and robbed of his wallet © Jonesby four& Bartlett men in a Learning,restaurant parking LLC lot. At the hospital emergency© Jones room & Bartlett the Learning, LLC NOT FORphysician SALE stitching OR DISTRIBUTIONthe victim’s head remarked that the patientNOT was FORlucky—that SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the last man who was attacked in that parking lot did not survive. The victim filed a civil lawsuit, the case went to trial, and the victim received a jury verdict of $200,000. The restaurant was on notice that its parking lot was not secure, as there was no security surveillance system or security officers patrolling the lot. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Second, some injuries leave visible scars, such as facial scaring, loss of teeth NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION or fingers, or loss of mobility. Victims who have been shot will have permanent scars that remind them daily of the crime. Child abuse victims or victims of domestic violence may have lasting scars from physical beatings. In a Florida case, a young woman was exiting her car at her apartment complex when she © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC was forced at gunpoint back into the passenger side of the car and carjacked. After beingNOT forced FOR to withdraw SALE OR money DISTRIBUTION from an ATM, the victim was orderedNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION out of the car and instructed to keep on walking and not to look back. Despite her following instructions she was shot three times in the back. She managed to crawl to a porch and call for help. The three men were found and prosecuted. © JonesThe & victim Bartlett won aLearning, jury award LLCof $1.3 million. Scars from ©the Jones shootings & haveBartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORcontinued SALE to remindOR DISTRIBUTION the victim of her ordeal. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

9781284130195_CH01_Burgess.indd 23 11/15/2017 8:26:41 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 24 CHAPTER 1 Crime and Victimology

Third, unknown long-term physical injuries can cause a change in life activ- © Jonesities. Rape & Bartlett victims, for Learning, example, may LLC be exposed to a permanent© sexually Jones trans & Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOTmitted FOR disease SALE such OR as DISTRIBUTION herpes virus or HIV/AIDS. In Pennsylvania,NOT FORa student SALE OR DISTRIBUTION was working in a convenience store when a man forced her into a back room at gunpoint and raped her orally. Later she developed gonorrhea of the throat and experienced permanent voice changes due to scarring of her vocal cords. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Fourth, long-term LLC catastrophic injuries can© restrictJones a victim’s& Bartlett mobility. Learning, In a LLC NOT FOR SALE ORColorado DISTRIBUTION rape case, the perpetrator intentionallyNOT broke FOR a victim’s SALE neck, OR DISTRIBUTIONresult- ing in a paraplegic outcome. These severe injuries result in great stress on victims’ families, who also need to alter their lifestyle to care for their loved ones. Such injuries may also reduce the victim’s life span and alter quality of life. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCThe use of weapons, namely© Jones guns and & knives,Bartlett in incidentsLearning, of interpersonal LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONviolence is considered an insidiousNOT FORpublic SALE health danger.OR DISTRIBUTION This violence causes strain to its victims, their families, community members, healthcare practi- tioners, and law enforcement officials. Gunshot wounds, sometimes called bal- listic trauma, refer to the physical trauma caused by the discharge of a gun © Jonesduring &a conflict.Bartlett In Learning, terms of public LLC health, it is estimated that© Jonesover 500,000 & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTinjuries FOR areSALE sustained OR DISTRIBUTIONannually from the use of firearms. In termsNOT of FOR economic SALE OR DISTRIBUTION cost, estimates are that the expenditures of shootings and stabbings in the United States are greater than $20 billion each year. In the state of Massachusetts alone, expenditures related to stabbings and shootings are estimated to be greater than © Jones & Bartlett$18 Learning, million each LLC year and do not account for© theJones emotional & Bartlett impact Learning,of these LLC NOT FOR SALE ORevents DISTRIBUTION on victims and their families (Hume, McKenna, &NOT FOR McKeown, SALE OR 2007). DISTRIBUTION Although insurance may cover partial or full restitution for such costs, victims can still be required to pay insurance deductibles and face higher pre- miums when renewing their insurance (“Statistics: Costs of Crime,” 2002). Complications from injuries can cause functional, cognitive, and emotional © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC disability as well as the presence of significant comorbid conditions and poten- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONtial death. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Additionally, where physical manifestations of harm are absent, victims of violent crimes may show signs of significant psychological and emotional trauma endured during and after their victimization. Consequences of violence © Jonesmay be & delayed Bartlett or cumulative,Learning, and LLC stress induced by violent© acts, Jones especially & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTwhen FOR repeated SALE within OR DISTRIBUTION a partner relationship, may culminateNOT in severe FOR emo SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION tional trauma or physical illness. Although these psychological consequences are difficult to measure in financial terms, they may manifest in more tangible costs associated with postvictimization counseling and rehabilitation, medi- © Jones & Bartlettcation Learning, used to cope LLC with resultant psychological© Jones trauma, & asBartlett well as Learning,reduced LLC NOT FOR SALE ORproductivity DISTRIBUTION or lost days at work. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

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Direct Financial Costs © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FinancialNOT costs FORfor crime SALE victims OR areDISTRIBUTION staggering. In 2007, for crimes bothNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION reported and not reported in the United States, the total economic loss to victims was $2 billion for violent crime and $16 billion for property crime (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2008). Tangible economic costs include stolen or © Jonesdamaged & Bartlett property; Learning, loss of productivity LLC in terms of wages and© salary;Jones and & daysBartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORlost from SALE school, OR work,DISTRIBUTION and other activities. An impaired NOTcapacity FOR to work,SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to continue in school, or to maintain one’s quality of life are less often rec- ognized, but consequential, costs of violent victimization. In 2000, 36% of rape and sexual assault victims lost more than 10 days of work after their victimization, and property crimes cost victims more than $11.8 billion (Bureau © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC of Justice Statistics, 2002). State compensation programs paid crime victims NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and their families $370 million in benefits in the federal fiscal year 2001, which represents an increase of $52 million from 2000 and an increase of $120 million from 1998 (National Association of Crime Victim Compensation Boards [NACVCB], 2002). Vandalism costs totaled $1.7 billion in damages to U.S. households© Jones in& 2000Bartlett (Bureau Learning, of Justice LLC Statistics, 2000). Today, vic©- Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tim compensationNOT FOR funds SALE provide OR nearly DISTRIBUTION $500 million to victims and survivorsNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (NACVCB, 2016). According to the Office for Victims of Crime (2013), the largest sum paid out was to victims of assault ($230 million), followed by homicide ($59 billion), child abuse ($28.4 billion), robbery ($19.6 billion), and © Jonessexual & Bartlettassault ($16 Learning, billion). LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Intangible Costs Intangible costs usually impact victims in a way that is difficult to measure, at least in a financial sense. However, they are arguably the most significant con- © Jones & Bartlett sequencesLearning, of crimeLLC because they can impede© Joneshealthy functioning& Bartlett and Learning, restrict LLC NOT FOR SALE ORthe DISTRIBUTION ability to carry out the normal functionsNOT in FORone’s SALEdaily life. OR These DISTRIBUTION costs include fear of crime, psychological distress, decreased quality of life, suffering, and stigma. In a study on the fear of crime in a sample of college students by Fox, Nobles, and Piquero (2009), it was found that particular types of prior victimization© Jones increased & Bartlettfear of crime, Learning, especially LLC among females. They also© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC noted thatNOT daytime FOR fear SALE was associated OR DISTRIBUTION with stalking, sexual assault, and theft,NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION whereas nighttime fear was only associated with sexual assault. With regard to psychological distress, victims can exhibit symptoms of a variety of different mental health issues as a result of the trauma experienced during and after © Jonestheir & victimization. Bartlett Learning, These may LLC include posttraumatic stress© disorder Jones (PTSD),& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORmajor SALE depressive OR episode, DISTRIBUTION agoraphobia, obsessive-compulsiveNOT disorder FOR (OCD), SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and other social phobias (Boudreaux, Kilpatrick, Resnick, Best, & Saunders,

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1998). Furthermore, young children have been found to be especially vulnera- © Jonesble to mental& Bartlett health Learning, problems later LLC in life as a result of victimization© Jones (Turner, & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTFinkelhor, FOR SALE & Ormrod, OR DISTRIBUTION 2006). In terms of overall well-being, Hanson,NOT FOR Sawyer, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Begle, and Hubel (2010) found that victimization can indirectly influence life satisfaction by affecting parenting skills, occupational functioning, employment, and intimate relationships. And finally, victimization, particularly events © Jones & Bartlettrelated Learning, to child abuse, LLC domestic abuse, and sexual© Jones assault, & may Bartlett lead to Learning,feelings LLC NOT FOR SALE ORof shame, DISTRIBUTION self-blame, guilt, and/or self-imposedNOT stigma FOR (Ulman,SALE ORTownsend, DISTRIBUTION Filipas, & Starzynksi, 2007). These resultant feelings are particularly troubling consequences not only for their substantial psychological impact, but also because they can serve as a barrier for reporting victimization events to police © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC(see Sable, Danis, Mauzy, & ©Gallagher, Jones 2006).& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Criminal Justice Costs Additional costs to society arise from the discretionary collective response to violent victimization. Law enforcement, adjudication, victim services, and cor- © Jonesrectional & expendituresBartlett Learning, add thousands LLC of dollars of cost to each© criminal Jones event. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOTAlthough FOR SALE these costsOR DISTRIBUTIONmay not be incurred by victims directly,NOT they constituteFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION a significant proportion of expenditures by the state that are financed by the collection of taxes. Additionally, the criminal justice system may impose additional costs on victims beyond those experienced from the criminal incident. © Jones & BartlettThe Learning, concept of doubleLLC victimization suggests ©that Jones victims & can Bartlett be revictimized Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORby the DISTRIBUTION criminal justice system in the form of NOTtime lost FOR in interviewsSALE OR and DISTRIBUTION com- pleting paperwork, waiting in corridors for hearings and trials, and delays and postponements of the case. This is especially pertinent for victims of sexual assault or abuse who harbor feelings of guilt or shame that may be exacer- bated during processes of justice. Several examples include when victims are © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC required to recite the details of their victimization in front of a jury or law NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION enforcement individuals who may doubt their accounts or when victims must come face to face with the accused.

The definition of victim dates back to early religious practice and sacrifices. Although victimology emerged as a branch of criminology, the tradition has © Jones & Bartlettevolved Learning, to become LLC a discipline in its own right.© Jones As a corrective & Bartlett to the Learning, distor- LLC NOT FOR SALE ORtions DISTRIBUTION of victimhood by mass media and culture,NOT victimology FOR SALE vis-à-vis OR the DISTRIBUTION study of victimization statistics can provide a more accurate picture of the “crime”

9781284130195_CH01_Burgess.indd 26 11/15/2017 8:26:41 PM © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Discussion Questions 27

problem. Most notable is that victimization rates, including violent victimization, property© Jones victimization, & Bartlett and murder, Learning, have generallyLLC been decreasing since© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the mid-1990s.NOT DespiteFOR SALE these declines, OR DISTRIBUTION the costs of victimization remain signifiNOT- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION cant, including the various costs to victims and their families, as well as costs to society through the criminal justice system. The dynamics of victimization provide important information about the impact to the victim, and victimology is © Jonesa critical & Bartlett component Learning, of investigating LLC violent crime. However,© Jonesthe need & exists Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORto understand SALE ORthe experiences DISTRIBUTION of victims who do not fall withinNOT the FOR traditional SALE OR DISTRIBUTION sphere of criminal victimization.

Key Terms © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORCold DISTRIBUTION case: A criminal investigation that hasNOT not beenFOR solved SALE for OR(generally) DISTRIBUTION at least 1 year and, as a result, has been closed from further regular investigations.

Crime victim: A person who has been directly and proximately harmed (physically, emotionally, or financially) as a result of the commission of an offense. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Crime victims’ rights: Eight rights included in Section 3771 of Title 18 of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION U.S. Code, Crimes and Criminal Procedure.

Criminology: The study of the etiology of crime and the characteristics of the criminal.

© JonesDouble & Bartlett(or secondary) Learning, victimization: LLC The retraumatization of ©the Jones victim or & expe Bartlett- Learning, LLC NOT FORrience SALE of other OR adverse DISTRIBUTION consequences as a result of the justiceNOT process. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS): A series of surveys, previously called the National Crime Survey, that has collected data on personal and household victimization since 1973. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Repeat victimization: Repeated criminal offences committed against a victim NOT FOR SALE ORwho DISTRIBUTION has experienced prior victimization. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Victimology: The study of the victim from a social-structural way of viewing crime and the law and the criminal and the victim. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC DiscussionNOT FOR Questions SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

1. Compare and contrast victimology and criminology. 2. How do you think the JonBenét Ramsey murder will be solved? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 3. Are Amanda Knox and Raffaele Sollecito victims of the justice system? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 4. How important was DNA evidence in the Meredith Kercher murder case?

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5. Why might there be a disconnect between public and media perceptions of © Jonesvictimization & Bartlett and Learning, statistics that LLC suggest crime has declined?© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 6. Can “noncriminal” forms of victimization or harms that are not currently defined by the criminal code be adequately addressed through criminal law? 7. What are the implications of repeat victimization? How can this phenom- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,enon be helpful LLC in understanding vulnerability© Jones and the & social Bartlett determinants Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR ofDISTRIBUTION victimization? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 8. Is thinking about victimization in terms of financial costs to victims and society helpful? Why is there a desire to think of victimization in terms of costs?

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© JonesReferences & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Anderson, D. (1999). The aggregate burden of crime. The Journal of Law and Economics, 42(2), 611–642. Arata, C. (2002). Child sexual abuse and sexual revictimization. Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 135–164. © Jones & BartlettBoudreaux, Learning, E., Kilpatrick, LLC D., Resnick, H., Best, C.,© Jones& Saunders, & Bartlett B. (1998). Learning,Criminal LLC NOT FOR SALE OR victimization,DISTRIBUTION posttraumatic stress disorder, andNOT comorbid FOR psychopathology SALE OR DISTRIBUTION among a community sample of women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(4), 665–678.

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Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1992). Crime in the United States, 1991. Washington, DC: U.S.© Jones Department & Bartlett of Justice. Learning, Retrieved from LLC https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC /Digitization/138839NCJRS.pdfNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1993). A National Crime Victimization Survey report: Criminal victimization 1991. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv91.pdf © JonesBureau & Bartlettof Justice Learning,Statistics. (2000). LLC Crime and the nation’s ©households, Jones & 2000 Bartlett. Learning, LLC Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2002). National crime victimization survey: Personal and property crimes, 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2008). Criminal victimization in the United States, 2008. Retrieved from http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv08.pdf © Jones & Bartlett BureauLearning, of Justice LLC Statistics. (2016). Violent victimization,© Jones 1993–2015 & Bartlett. Retrieved Learning, from LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONhttps://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=245NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Carter, B. (2017, July 22). What happened to Amanda Knox—what she’s up to now? The Gazette. Retrieved from http://gazettereview.com/2017/04/happened-amanda -knox-news-updates/ DeFlem, M.© Jones(2006). Sociological& Bartlett theory Learning, and criminological LLC research: Views from© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Europe and the United States. New York: Elsevier/JAI Press. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Donadio, R., & Povoledo, E. (2011, October 4). As Amanda Knox heads home, the debate is just getting started. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www .nytimes.com/2011/10/05/world/europe/amanda-knox-freed-after-appeal-in -italian-court.html © JonesEaston, & BartlettS., Furness, Learning, H., & Brantingham, LLC P. (2014). Cost of crime© Jonesin Canada: & 2014Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORreport SALE. Fraser OR DISTRIBUTIONInstitute. Retrieved from https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sitesNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION /default/files/cost-of-crime-in-canada.pdf Fattah, E. (2000). Victimology, past, present, and future. Criminologie, 33(1), 17–46. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). (2011). Victim rights. Retrieved from http:// www.fbi.gov/stats-services/victim_assistance/victim_rights © Jones & Bartlett FederalLearning, Bureau LLC of Investigation (FBI). (2015).© JonesNumber &of Bartlett crimes per Learning, 100,000 LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONinhabitants. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-theNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION -u.s.-2015/tables/table-16 Fletcher, G. P. (1990). A crime of self-defense: Bernhard Goetz and the law on trial. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fox, K., Nobles,© Jones M., & & Piquero, Bartlett A. (2009).Learning, Gender, LLC crime victimization and fear of© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC crime.NOT Security FOR Journal SALE, 22(1), OR 24–39. DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Frank, R., Brantingham, P., & Farrell, G. (2012). Estimate the true rate of repeat victimization from police recorded crime data: A study of burglary in metro Vancouver. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 54(4), 481–494. Garland, D. (2001). The culture of control: Crime and social order in contemporary © Jones &society Bartlett. Oxford: Learning, Oxford University LLC Press. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORHanson, SALE R., Sawyer, OR DISTRIBUTIONG., Begle, A., & Hubel, G. (2010). The impactNOT of crime FOR victimiza SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION tion on quality of life. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(2), 189–197.

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Hastings, R. (2008). Achieving crime prevention: Reducing crime and increasing security © Jonesin &an Bartlettinclusive Canada Learning,. Ottawa: LLC Institute for the Prevention of© Crime. Jones Retrieved & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORfrom SALE http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/lbrr/archives/cnmcs-plcng/cn35297-eng.pdf OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Hillyard, P., & Tombs, S. (2007). From “crime” to social harm? Crime, Law, and Social Change, 48(1–2), 9–25. Hume, B., McKenna, M., & McKeown, L. (2007). Injuries to Massachusetts residents © Jones & Bartlett Learning,2004. Boston: LLC Department of Public Health. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Justice for All Act. (2004). Office of Victims of Crime, Department of Justice, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Washington, DC. Kauzlarich, D., Matthews, R., & Miller, W. (2001). Toward a victimology of state crime. Critical Criminology, 10(3), 173–194. Martinez, E. (2010, August 3). Hartford Distributors shooting: Angry employee © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCallegedly kills multiple people.© Jones CBS News. & Bartlett Retrieved Learning, from http://www.cbsnews LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.com/8301-504083_162-20012503-504083.htmlNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Mendelsohn, B. (1976). Pioneers in victimology. Victimology: An International Journal, 1(2), 189–228. Miller, T. R., Cohen, M. A., & Wiersema, B. (1996). Victim costs and consequences: © JonesA new & Bartlett look. Washington, Learning, DC: National LLC Institute of Justice. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (2016). Criminology. Retrieved from http://www NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION .merriam-webster.com/concise/criminology National Association of Crime Victim Compensation Boards (NACVCB). (2002). Compensation at record highs. Victim Compensation Quarterly, 3. National Association of Crime Victim Compensation Boards (NACVCB). (2016). © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Crime victim LLCcompensation: An overview. Retrieved© Jones from &http://www.nacvcb.org/ Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR index.asp?bid=14DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION National Center for Victims of Crime. (2015). Crime trends. Retrieved from http:// victimsofcrime.org/docs/default-source/ncvrw2015/2015ncvrw_stats_crime trends.pdf?sfvrsn=2 Office for Victims of Crime. (2013). Crime victims fund. Washington, DC: Office for © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCVictims of Crime, Office of© Justice Jones Programs, & Bartlett U.S. Department Learning, of Justice. LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONQuinney, R. (1972). Who is the NOTVictim? FOR Criminology SALE, 10 OR(3), 314–323.DISTRIBUTION Reiss, A. J., & Roth, J. A. (1993). Understanding and preventing violence. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Sable, M., Danis, F., Mauzy, D., & Gallagher, S. (2010). Barriers to reporting sexual © Jonesassault & Bartlett for women Learning, and men: Perspectives LLC of college students. Journal© Jones of American & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORCollege SALE Health OR, 55 (3),DISTRIBUTION 157–162. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Skinnider, E. (2011). Victims of environmental crime: Mapping the issues. Vancouver: International Centre for Criminal Law Reform and Criminal Justice Policy. Sparks, R. (1990). Dramatic power: Television, images of crime and law enforcement. In C. Sumner (Ed.), Censure, politics, and criminal justice. Philadelphia: Open © Jones & Bartlett Learning,University Press, LLC Milton Keynes. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR“Statistics: DISTRIBUTION Costs of Crime.” (2002). EncyclopediaNOT of crime FOR and justiceSALE. Retrieved OR DISTRIBUTION from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3403000253.html

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