Hypogenic Versus Epigenic Origin of Deep Underwater Caves Illustrated

RESEARCH ARTICLE Hypogenic Versus Epigenic Origin of Deep Underwater 10.1029/2020JF005663 Caves Illustrated by the Hranice Abyss (Czech Key Points: — • Hypogenic and epigenic evolution is Republic) The World's Deepest considered for deep underwater caves Freshwater Cave • Geophysical models show geometry Radek Klanica1 , Jaroslav Kadlec1 , Petr Tábořík2,3 , Jan Mrlina1 , Jan Valenta2 , and extent of the Hranice Abyss 1 1 • A new formation model of the Světlana Kováčiková , and Graham J. Hill Hranice Abyss based on epigenic 1 2 formation is presented Institute of Geophysics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic, Faculty of Science, Institute of Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology and Applied Geophysics, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic, 3Institute of Rock Structure and Mechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Correspondence to: R. Klanica, Abstract Extremely deep freshwater filled cave systems are common in karst systems globally. The [email protected] origin and evolution of such caves are usually attributed to hypogenic (bottom‐up) processes, in which acidic groundwater dissolves limestone from below. However, these deep cave systems can form by epigenic Citation: (top‐down) processes, with meteoric waters descending from the surface underground. The Hranice Abyss Klanica, R., Kadlec, J., Tábořík, P., Mrlina, J., Valenta, J., & Kováčiková, S., (Czech Republic), with a reached depth of 473.5 m, is the deepest mapped extent of such a system et al. (2020). Hypogenic versus epigenic globally, although its maximum depth is unknown. Multiple geophysical data sets (gravity, electrical origin of deep underwater caves resistivity tomography, audiomagnetotellurics, and seismic refraction and reflection) are used to investigate illustrated by the Hranice Abyss (Czech Republic)—The world's deepest fresh- the extent and formation of the Hranice Abyss. The geophysical results suggest the Hranice Abyss extends to water cave. Journal of Geophysical depths of ~1 km. Further, we identify structures within the karst, including buried cockpit karst towers Research: Earth Surface, 125, with several NW‐SE‐oriented valleys. The new geophysical results from the Hranice Abyss, considered in e2020JF005663. https://doi.org/ 10.1029/2020JF005663 combination with geological constraints of the region (tectonic evolution and morphology of karst structure), suggest an epigenic formation process, rather than the traditionally invoked hypogenic origin. Received 17 APR 2020 Formation by epigenic rather than hypogenic processes has implications for local and regional karst history Accepted 10 AUG 2020 associated with areas hosting deep karst systems. Accepted article online 15 JUL 2020 1. Introduction Whether large cave systems formed via epigenic or hypogenic processes is a fundamental question for under- standing the regional and local karst processes of the cave area. Epigenic caves form by top‐down dissolution of meteoric water enriched with soil CO2 infiltrating from the surface and may be the dominant formation processes for as many as 80–90% of known caves (Audra & Palmer, 2015). On the other hand, hypogenic cave systems form from a bottom‐up migration of deep‐sourced thermally elevated CO2‐H2S bearing fluids, often typically related to volcanic/mantle structures (Klimchouk et al., 2017) or more rarely to petroleum generat- ing processes (DuChene et al., 2017). Hypogenic fluids in the upper crust result in groundwater enriched with strong acids (e.g., CO2,H2S, or HCl) that can upwell via artesian aquifers or interformational flow in/from the zone of fluid‐geodynamic influence along faults or fractured zones (Klimchouk et al., 2017). Determining the evolution dominant process and formation history of deep‐flooded cave systems is compli- cated by the difficulty of completing detailed exploration beneath the water table. Flooded deep karst cave systems are found globally (Vysoká et al., 2019) for example, in Italy (Pozzo del Merro, 392 m), Mexico (Zacatón, 335 m), Brazil (Lagoa Misteriosa, 220 m), and South Africa (Boesmangsat, 283 m). The commonly invoked mechanism of formation of these vertical caves is hypogenic (Klimchouk et al., 2017), largely based on present‐day observations such as groundwater filling the Pozzo del Merro and El Zacatón abysses being enriched by CO2 and H2S from nearby volcanic centers (Gary, 2017; Gary et al., 2003). The local structure of karstified regions is a controlling factor in the formation of horizontal or vertical cave morphologies. Further, the surficial geomorphic evolution (e.g., variations in the erosional base elevation) of the surrounding landscape also plays a fundamental role in the evolution of epigenic cave systems (Ford & ‐fi ©2020. American Geophysical Union. Williams, 2007). Deep epigenic water lled caves have developed in southern France (Fountaine de All Rights Reserved. Vaucluse, 308 m; Audra et al., 2004) and in Croatia (Red Lake, 350 m; Andrić & Bonacci, 2014). The KLANICA ET AL. 1of16 Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 10.1029/2020JF005663 formation of Fountaine de Vaucluse was triggered by a dramatic regional erosional base elevation decrease during the Messinian period (5.96–5.32 Ma) when the Mediterranean Sea was almost dry. The erosional base drop quickly led to river valley deepening, followed by the formation of a deep cave system. Marine trans- gression caused the end of the Messinian lowstand, which led the deep canyon‐like valleys in the karst regions to be infilled with clastic sequences. The pre‐Messinian freshwater springs flowing at the base of the canyon system did not experience a corresponding rise in base level associated with the canyon filling sedimentation; rather, they became “buried,” leading to bottom‐up flooding of the karst cave systems (Audra et al., 2004). The Hranice Abyss (HA) currently represents the deepest flooded freshwater cave in the world, with a maximum depth 473.5 m below surface estimated using a ROV (remote‐operated vehicle). The depth the sub- mersible reached was limited by the length of the fiber‐optic communication cable and, as such, does not represent the full extent of the cave system (Guba, 2016; Zajíček, 2020). The HA is filled with Ca‐HCO3 mineral water enriched by CO2 with temperature varying from 14.5–18.8°C depending on seasonal variations and the depth below the water table level (Vysoká et al., 2019). Stable isotopic CO2 compositions, together with a ratio of 3He/4He dissolved in the water, indicate an origin of the gasses close to the Earth's mantle/crust transition (e.g., Meyberg & Rinne, 1995; Šmejkal et al., 1976; Sracek et al., 2019), evok- ing the possibility of the extreme depth of the HA (Meyberg & Rinne, 1995) and suggesting a hypogene (hydrothermal) origin of the HA (e.g., Sracek et al., 2019; Zajíček, 2020), following an early accepted view on the Hranice Karst area evolution (Hynie & Kodym, 1936). Geophysical methods have been frequently used to image subsurface karst structure (e.g., Carvalho et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2002). Geophysical imaging of these regions can provide valuable information needed for reconstruction of the tectonic and morphological evolution of these areas. In the case of cave formation features, such as a well‐developed and deep‐seated fault network, and alteration zones resulting from large‐scale fluxing of heated waters and mantle‐derived gasses are indicative of hypogenic formation, while a complex shallow drainage pattern morphology, including sinkholes and dolines, suggests epigenic formation. We use the results from geophysical surveys of the HA area to reveal the local geological and morphological structures within the HA. The new geophysical results are then integrated with regional tectonic history and period of formation of the HA in a reassessment of its formation mechanism. A similar approach may be applied to other deep‐flooded karst cave systems globally to identify the key karst structures associated with each of the formation mechanisms. 2. Geological Settings and Karst Evolution The HA is a part of the Hranice Karst (HK) located in the eastern part of the Czech Republic, ~35 km east of Olomouc City. The HK covers an ~15 km2 area and formed at a contact between the Bohemian Massif and Outer Western Carpathians within the Carpathian orogenic belt. The carbonate rocks, susceptible to karst processes, were deposited on carbonate platforms and reef slopes in a tropical ocean during the Middle Devonian and Early Carboniferous (Macocha and Líšeň Fms.) (Otava, 2010). The estimated thickness of carbonates reaches 1.2 km based on a coring conducted about 11 km SE of the HK area (Sracek et al., 2019). Deposition of overlying Carboniferous turbidite flysch sequences, up to 6 km thick, indicate deepening of the sedimentary basin (Bubík et al., 2018). Both carbonate and clastic sequences were folded and thrusted during the Variscan Orogeny in the Late Carboniferous (Kalvoda et al., 2008). In the Carpathian domain, marine silicic‐clastic and flysch sediments were deposited within the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods. These sequences were folded and thrusted over the eastern margin of the Bohemian Massif during the Alpine Orogeny since the Oligocene/Miocene transition to the mid‐Miocene (early Langhian). The frontal thrust terminations are found very close to the HK area (Figure 1). Parallel with the Carpathian deformation front, the Carpathian Foredeep (CF) basin originated during the early Miocene (Burdigalian) and subse- quently was filled with shallow‐water carbonates and

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