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AUTHOR Cordes, Colleen, Ed.;' Miller, Edward, Ed. TITLE Fool's Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood. INSTITUTION Alliance for Childhood, College Park, MD. PUB DATE 2000-00-00 NOTE 105p. AVAILABLE FROM Alliance for Childhood, P.O. Box 444, College Park, MD 20741; Tel: 301-513-1777; Fax: 301-513-1777; e-mail: [email protected]; Web Site: http://www.allianceforchildhood.net ($8.50). PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)-- Opinion Papers (120) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS At Risk Persons; Brain; Child Health; *Childhood Needs; *Children; Cognitive Development; *Computer Uses in Education; *Computers; Creativity; Early Childhood Education; *Early Experience; *Educational Technology; Elementary Education; Emotional Development; Moral Development; Play; Social Development IDENTIFIERS Brain Development
ABSTRACT Noting that computers are reshaping children's lives in profound and unexpected ways, this report examines potential harms and promised benefits of these changes, focusing on early childhood and elementary education. Chapter 1 argues that popular attempts to hurry children intellectually are at odds with the natural pace of human development. Chapter 2 presents information on the risks of using computers to children's physical health (including musculoskeletal injuries, vision problems, and obesity), emotional and social development (isolation, shifts toward computer-centered education, detachment from community, and the commercialization of childhood), creativity and intellectual development (impaired language and literacy, poor concentration, inability to tolerate frustration, plagiarism, and distraction from meaning), and moral development. Chapter 3 urges families and schools to recommit themselves to providing young children with the essentials of a healthy childhood, including strong bonds with caring adults, hands-on experiences with the physical world, time for unstructured play, exposure to the arts, and literacy activities. Chapter 4 discusses ways parents and teachers can help children achieve a technology literacy that also involves the capacity to think critically and use technology to serve personal, social, and ecological goals. Chapter 5 focuses on the costs of technology and argues that the national infatuation with computers in early childhood and elementary education is diverting scarce resources from children's real unmet needs. Chapter 6 concludes with recommendations, including a refocus on the essentials of a healthy childhood and an immediate moratorium on further introduction of computers in early childhood and elementary education. Each chapter contains reference notes. (KB)
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The Alliance for Childhood is a partnership of individualsand organizations committed to fostering and respectingeach child's inherent right to a healthy and developmentally appropriatechildhood.
Alliance for Childhood P.O. Box 444 College Park, MD 20741
Tel: 301-513-1777 Fax: 301-513-1777 Email: [email protected] Internet: www.allianceforchildhood.net
COPYRIGHT©2000, ALLIANCE FOR CHILDHOOD All Rights Reserved. FOOL'S GOLD: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood
Edited by Colleen Cordes and Edward Miller
Alliance for Childhood Acknowledgments .11
THE ALLIANCE FOR CHILDHOOD GRATEFULLY Kate Moody, executive director of the Open acknowledges the following individuals for Gates Dyslexia Program at the University of their assistance in reviewing, editing, or Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; Douglas writing individual sections or chapters of this Noble, author of The Classroom Arsenal: report: Dr. Jeffrey Anshel, author of Visual Military Research, Information Technology, and Ergonomics in the Workplace; Alison Public Education; Mimi Noorani of the Armstrong, co-author of The Child and the Alliance for Childhood; David Orr, chair of Machine: How Computers Put Our Children's the Department of Environmental Studies at Education at Risk; C.A. Bowers, professor Oberlin College; Stephen Talbott, editor of emeritus of education at Portland State NetFuture, an online newsletter on technology University; Dr. Edward Godnig, author of and human responsibility; Richard Sclove, Computers and Visual Stress: Staying Healthy; founder of the Loka Institute; and Langdon Story Landis, senior investigator in the Neural Winner, professor of political science in the Development Section of the U.S. National Department of Science and Technology Institute of Neurological Disorders and Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Stroke; Jeffrey Kane, dean of education at the The Alliance also thanks Matt Wasniewski, C.W. Post Campus of Long Island University; Kim Kash, and Patti Regan for proofreading Lowell Monke, assistant professor of education the report. at Wittenberg University; Table of Contents introduction 1 executive summary 3 chapter one Healthy Children: Lessons from Research on Child Development 5 The Beginnings of Life 5 Emotions and the Intellect 6 The Essential Human Touch 7 The Dangers of Premature "Brain" Work 8 Learning About the Real World 9 chapter two Developmental Risks: The Hazards of Computers in Childhood19 Hazards to Children's Physical Health 20 Musculoskeletal injuriesVision problems Lack of exercise and obesityToxic emissions and electromagnetic radiation Risks to Emotional and Social Development 28 Isolated livesNew sage on the stageLess self-motivation Detachment from communityThe commercialization of childhood Risks to Creativity and Intellectual Development 33 Stunted imaginationLoss of wonderImpaired language and literacy Poor concentrationLittle patience for hard workPlagiarismDistraction from meaning Risks to Moral Development 39 A Massive National Experiment 40 chapter three Childhood Essentials: Fostering the Full Range of Human Capacities 45 Close, Loving Relationships with Responsible Adults 47 Outdoor Activity, Gardening, and Other Direct Encounters with Nature 48 Time for Unstructured Play, Especially Make-Believe Play 51 Music, Drama, Puppetry, Dance, Painting, and the Other Arts 53 Hands-on Lessons, Handcrafts, and Other Physically Engaging Activities 56 Conversation, Poetry, Storytelling, and Books Read Aloud with Beloved Adults 59 chapter four Technology Literacy: Educating Children to Create Their Own Future 67 Develop the Young Child's Own Inner Powers 68 Teach Ethics and Responsibility 70 Teach the Fundamentals of How Computers Work 71 Teach the History of Technology as a Social Force 72 The Goal of Technology Literacy 73 chapter five Real Costs: Computers Distract Us From Children's Needs 77 The Real Costs of Educational Technology 77 Flawed Assumptions 79 The Politics of Technomania 80. The Commercial Blitz: A Mega-Scam 81 The Dog That Didn't Bark 84 Children's Real Unmet Needs 85 Eliminating lead poisoning Other Pressing Needs of Our Most At-Risk Children 87 Critical needs of our public schools A New Conversation 88 chapter six Conclusion and Recommendations 95 Introduction
THIS REPORT GREW OUT OF A FEBRUARY children's physical and emotional health 1999 gathering in Spring Valley, New York were not being accurately reported. They the founding of the U.S. branch of the Alliance decided to research and document the facts and for Childhood. The Alliance is an international to publish the results. This report is the fruit of effort of educators, physicians, and others who that effort. are deeply concerned about the plight of During the past year a number of individuals children today, and who believe that only by have worked hard to prepare this report, in working together in a broad-based partnership particular Colleen Cordes, former reporter on of individuals and organizations can they make science and technology policy for the Chronicle a significant difference in the lives of children. of Higher Education, and Edward Miller, former editor of the Harvard Education Letter. We are These are our fundamental beliefs and extremely grateful to them and those who concerns: contributed to the report for the excellent work Childhood is a critical phase of life and they have done. must be protected to be fully experienced. In this report we focus on children in early It should not be hurried. childhood and elementary education, for the data seem clear that computers offer few Each child deserves deep respect as an advantages in these years. There is still much individual. Each needs help in developing his or her own unique capacities and in work to be done on the question of how to finding ways to weave them into a healthy introduce computers safely and effectively for social fabric. older students. We welcome an opportunity to work with other concerned groups and Children today are under tremendous individuals on these questions. stress and suffer increasingly from illnesses This report will be distributed widely in the such as allergies and asthma, hyperactive disorders, depression, and autism. This hope that an open and spirited conversation will- stress must be alleviated. result. Democracies thrive when social change is accompanied by public debate in which all A follow-up meetingof the Alliance's points of view are explored. In this case, it has partners and friends with expertise in the field been so widely assumed that computers are of children and computers raised further, more essential in childhood that there has been specific concerns. They suspected that the almost no public debate. We hope this report benefits of computers for preschool and will stimulate conversation and lead to healthier elementary school children were being vastly and more considered policies on computer use overstated. They felt also that the costs in in childhood. terms of money spent, loss of creative, hands-on Joan Almon, U.S. Coordinator educational opportunities, and damage to Alliance for Childhood
1 Executive Summary
COMPUTERS ARE RESHAPING CHILDREN'S LIVES, Do computers really motivate children at home and at school, in profound and to learn faster and better? unexpected ways. Common sense suggests that Children must start learning on computers we consider the potential harm, as well as the as early as possible, we are told, to get a jump- promised benefits, of this change. start on success. But 30 years of research on Computers pose serious health hazards to educational technology has produced just one children. The risks include repetitive stress clear link between computers and children's injuries, eyestrain, obesity, social isolation, and, learning. Drill-and-practice programs appear to for some, long-term physical, emotional, or improve scores modestly though not as intellectual developmental damage. Our much or as cheaply as one-on-one tutoring children, the Surgeon General warns, are the on some standardized tests in narrow skill areas, most sedentary generation ever. Will they thrive notes Larry Cuban of Stanford University. spending even more time staring at screens? "Other than that," says Cuban, former Children need stronger personal bonds with president of the American Educational Research caring adults. Yet powerful technologies are Association, "there is no clear, commanding distracting children and adults from each other. body of evidence that students' sustained use of Children also need time for active, physical multimedia machines, the Internet, word play; hands-on l6sons of all kinds, especially in processing, spreadsheets, and other popular the arts; and direct experience of the natural applications has any impact on academic world. Research shows these are not frills but achievement." are essential for healthy child development. Yet What is good for adults and older students many schools have cut already minimal offerings is often inappropriate for youngsters. The sheer in these areas to shift time and money to power of information technologies may actually expensive, unproven technology. hamper young children's intellectual growth. The emphasis on technology is diverting us Face-to-face conversation with more competent from the urgent social and educational needs of language users, for example, is the one constant low-income children. M.I.T. Professor Sherry factor in studies of how children become expert Turk le has asked: "Are we using computer speakers, readers, and writers. Time for real talk technology not because it teaches best but with parents and teachers is critical. Similarly, because we have lost the political will to fund academic success requires focused attention, education adequately?" listening, and persistence. Let's examine the claims about computers The computer like the TV can be .a and children more closely: mesmerizing babysitter. But many children,
9 overwhelmed by the volume of data and flashy children at risk, need most close relationships special effects of the World Wide Web and much with caring adults. software, have trouble focusing on any one task. Research shows that strengthening bonds And a new study from the American Association between teachers, students, and families is a of University Women Educational Foundation powerful remedy for troubled studentS and casts doubt on the claim that computers struggling schools. Overemphasizing automatically motivate learning. Many girls, it technology can weaken those bonds. The found, are bored by computers. And many boys National Science Board reported in 1998 that seem more interested in violence and video prolonged exposure to computing games than educational software. environments may create "individuals incapable Must five-year-olds be trained on of dealing with the messiness of reality, the computers today to get the high-paying needs of community building, and the demands jobs of tomorrow? of personal commitments." For a relatively small number of children with In the early grades, children need live lessons certain disabilities, technology offers benefits. that engage their hands, hearts, bodies, and But for the majority, computers pose health minds not computer simulations. Even in hazards and potentially serious developmental high school, where the benefits of computers are problems. Of particular concern is the growing more clear, too few technology classes emphasize incidence of disabling repetitive stress injuries the ethics or dangers of online research and among students who began using computers in communication. Too few help students develop childhood. the critical skills to make independent judgments The technology in schools today will be about the potential for the Internet or any obsolete long before five-year-olds graduate. other technology to have negative as well as Creativity and imagination are prerequisites for positive social consequences. innovative thinking, which will never be Those who place their faith in obsolete in the workplace. Yet a heavy diet of technology to solve the problems of ready-made computer images and programmed education should look more deeply into the toys appears to stunt imaginative thinking. needs of children. The renewal of Teachers report that children in our electronic education requires personal attention to society are becoming alarmingly deficient in students from good teachers and active generating their own images and ideas. parents, strongly supported by their Do computers really "connect" children communities. It requires commitment to to the world? developmentally appropriate education Too often, what computers actually connect and attention to the full range of children's children to are trivial games, inappropriate adult real low-tech needs physical, emotional, material, and aggressive advertising. They can and social, as well as cognitive. also isolate children, emotionally and physically, from direct experience of the natural world. The "distance" education they promote is the opposite of what all children, and especially
4 1.0 chapter one
Healthy Children: Lessons from Research on Child Development
"And remember the seed in the little paper cup: First the roots go down and then the plant grows up."
From the song "Kindergarten Wall," by John McCutcheon
WHEN IT COMES TO HUMAN CHILDHOOD, system to achieve their full size and remarkable nature is in no hurry at all. At birth, human complexity. This long period of complex infants are far more dependent on others' care growth, anthropologists Raymond Scupin and than are the young of any other species. Even Christopher DeCorse suggest, is "the source of our formidable brains are relatively immature at our extraordinary capacity to learn, our birth, compared to other primates. And the imaginative social interactions, and our facility span of childhood is far longer for our species unique among all life forms to use and than for any other animal, including other produce symbols, language, and culture."4 primates.' In fact, recent brain-imaging studies suggest The Beginnings of Life that even adolescents' brains are relatively Human life begins in the warm, safe, living immature. The biological changes that allow sphere of the womb. It is the perfect emotions to be harmoniously integrated with environment for the child-to-be. Here she is abstract thinking and sound judgment do not bathed in the gentle flow of amniotic waters, generally occur until the early twenties.2 calmed by the rhythmic beat of mother's heart, Human beings also do not reach physical nourished, and protected. Her world is small, maturity, in terms of muscular strength and but there is enough space to grow, and even, as motor coordination, until their twenties.3 the months pass, to stretch and kick, and so to The uniquely unhurried pace of human begin a lifetime of motion. As the fetus development is a fact of vast significance to matures, the womb responds, adjusting and educators because it seems so closely related to expanding again and again to meet her the broad range of capacities including an changing needs. The womb thus offers a unparalleled potential for lifelong intellectual, constantly recalibrated balance of nurture, social, emotional, and moral growth that is security, and freedom that is crucial to healthy also uniquely human. Indeed, the length of prenatal development. It's nature's version of childhood allows the human brain and nervous "just-in-time" care.
li 6 healthy children
As the young child learns to stand and then imaging studies are instructive on this point. walk, he orients himself to a much larger and They indicate that experiences of every kind yet still spherical environment. The earthly emotional, social, sensory, physical, and world is beneath his feet, the starry world above cognitive all shape the brain, and are shaped his head. Life unfolds around the child on every by the brain and by each other. Healthy human side. Gradually, the child's senses open and help growth, in other words, is profoundly integrated.8 him to engage the world around him.5 As Bennett L. Laventhal, an expert on child The womb is a living metaphor for the development and psychiatry at the University of nurturing, developmentally-responsive Chicago, has explained: "There is no longer a environment at home, at school, and in the boundary between biology, psychology, culture, community that best serves the full range of and education."9 children's needs. Mechanistic models of education, in contrast, are guided by the dead Emotions and the Intellect metaphor of computer engineering. They see Complex intellectual tasks and social the child's mind as a machine that can and behaviors proceed from a successful integration should be both powered up and programmed of a wide range of human skills, not just a into adult levels of operation as quickly as narrow set of computational and logical possible. The fallacy of this premature focus on operations. A prime example is the adult cognitive skills, as if they could and should be capacity for reasoning itself. Studies of brain- singled out for expedited development, is now damaged patients have demonstrated that evident. feelings are an essential factor in making rational Popular attempts to hurry children decisions. Our feelings guide us in assigning intellectually such as the trend toward value to different possibilities, and thus provide academic kindergartens are at odds with the some basis for deciding between them. natural pace of cognitive development. They Otherwise, no option that life poses could also ignore evidence that the natural patterns of either attract or repel us, and we would be cognitive development are intricately stymied by the neutrality of each. In other coordinated with other well-established patterns words, sheer logic, divorced from human of development, in the emotional, social, emotion, is insufficient for assessing the value sensory, and physiological realms of human and, therefore, the meaning of a choice.1° experience.6 That does not mean, however, that every Research in many disciplines supports what human capacity develops at the same pace, in a attentive parents and teachers have long known lockstep fashion. Far from it. In fact, childhood from personal experience: healthy development patterns of development, including the physical is promoted by a balance of freedom, secure maturation of the brain and nervous system, limits, and generous nurturing of the whole seem to reflect the evolutionary history of child heart, body, and soul, as well as head.? humanity. The brain's lower centers, controlling The child grows as an organic whole. Her movement, evolved first, followed by the basic emotional, physical, and cognitive development brain structures governing emotion, and finally are inseparable and interdependent. Brain- by the neural regions that enable the most
12 healthy children 7 abstract thinking. A rich network of The child nukes the most dramatic connections between regions of the brain that sensorimotor gains of her life, from the relative primarily govern emotion and higher-order physical helplessness of the newborn, to the thinking allow human feelings to collaborate in toddler's running, jumping, grasping even the most intellectual of tasks.11 relationship with the world around her. Young children make the most dramatic strides, in terms of nearing their full adult The Essential Human Touch potential, in their sensory and motor skills, and The elementary-age child fine-tunes these the neural regions most related to them. motor skills, as his senses, organs, muscles, and During the grade school years and beyond, bones continue to mature. His thinking skills, children continue to progress incrementally in of course, are also advancing. But his whole motor and perceptual skills. But now the most being is naturally tuned to learn through the dramatic gains are in their social and emotional window of feelings, as he makes skills. The brain regions most involved in correspondingly dramatic gains in emotional emotion near maturation as children refine their and social development. This is a time for social skills and their capacity to regulate their storytelling, music, creative movement, song, own moods and behavior. Finally, after puberty, drama, making things with the hands, practical the developmental focus within the brain shifts and fine arts of every kind in short, every to the regions of the brain that enable the most educational technology that touches children's advanced thinking, relying upon abstractions hearts. They capture children's imagination, and critical judgment. Also, a rich network of waken their interest in learning, and serve their neural connections develops between these ever-expanding sense of the world around areas and brain regions most directly involved in them. Only around puberty does the child's emotion and movement. dominant mode for learning finally shift toward Becoming an adult in our culture corresponds the conscious intellect, as abstract reasoning to the timing of this neural integration of about events and ideas gradually begins to hold thinking, feeling, and acting. The most precise sway in his mind.12 movements of which humans are capable, such as At every stage, however, studies indicate the hand-eye coordination of a pediatric heart that strong emotional rapport with responsible surgeon, the most nuanced feelings about adults the human touch provides support feelings, based on mature self-awareness, and the that is critical in helping children master the most creative artistic and scientific achievements appropriate developmental challenges. Studies all tend to follow this maturation and integration indicate that children's earliest emotional of body, heart, and mind. experiences actually lay the foundation for later The biological patterns of brain academic achievement,13 and that children development appear to correspond to children's whose emotional needs were not met in early patterns of learning. In early childhood, the childhood benefit greatly from early school child most naturally learns primarily through experiences aimed at helping them to develop energetic use of her whole body in a truly the emotional skills that are critical to school "hands-on" approach to exploring the world. success.14 Studies have also shown that teen-
13 8 healthy children agers who report strong connections with The Dangers of parents and teachers are less likely to drop out Premature "Brain" Work of school, become pregnant, use illegal drugs, Unfortunately, attention to these basics is or commit other crimes.15 lacking in many current educational policies and What matters most, research shows, is practices. Increasingly, schools are pushing giving the child rich human interactions, at young children prematurely into sedentary, home, at school, and in the community, in abstract academic work narrowly conceived which he receives consistent, loving care from "brain" work wired to the most advanced adults who understand and information technologies that honor the general milestones of What matters most, the schools can afford. This childhood as well as the unique research shows, is giving approach neglects the actual constellation of gifts special the child rich human inter- cognitive needs of children, as actions, at home, at school, talents as well as unusual well as their emotional and and in the community. challenges and the unique sensorimotor needs. variations in developmental Indeed, it is hard to imagine pace that each child brings to the world. That a less promising educational strategy for young happens when adults calibrate their parenting children than emphasizing abstract thinking, and teaching to the child's developmental needs fueled by powerful computers. Why? Because of the moment, while encouraging the child to research findings across many scientific grow across the full spectrum of human disciplines strongly suggests that later capacities.16 intellectual development is rooted in rich childhood experiences that combine healthy This point is so critical that it bears emotional relationships, physical engagement repeating: love for each child, respect for the with the real world, and the exercise of general developmental patterns of imagination in self-generated play and in the childhood, and a sensitive honoring of the arts. Intense use of computers can distract unique gifts and developmental variations of children and adults from these essential each child provide the strongest scaffolding experiences.17 for healthy cognitive, emotional, and Literacy, for example, is inspired and sensorimotor growth in childhood. Children reinforced by a genuine emotional rapport need adults who care about them and care between the growing child and loving for them, personally, in ways that are caregivers first at home, later in school. The developmentally appropriate. nonverbal exchanges between infants or young The educational implications of this truth children and adult caretakers are beneficial in are profound. At the very heart of any laying the emotional foundations for later attempt to improve our schools and educate literacy skills, as are rich verbal exchanges. And our children should be a recognition of the critical milestones that child-development children's prime needs for close, loving experts cite as evidence of school readiness all relationships with caring, responsible adults, stem from healthy emotional and social and for developmentally-appropriate care. attachments in early childhood. These include
14 healthy childrene 9 the abilities to focus one's attention, to form touching, sensing, and, above all, imitating close relationships with other human beings, others not as a result of direct instruction and to communicate with others successfully, delivered by adults. Later, children become less both in terms of expressing one's self and in imitative. But they still learn about the world understanding others.18 In kindergarten, through actively engaging with it, in therefore, an emphasis on play and social skills imaginative play, games, climbing trees, and not premature pressure to master reading artistic and other hands-on exploration. and arithmetic seems most likely to prepare Unfortunately, school policies often ignore children for later academic success. the educational impact of suppressing this Researchers have documented how much natural, kinesthetic mode of learning in young young children learn intuitively through their children. Instead, they impose the adult mode bodies, and how this lays a critical foundation of seated, intellectually oriented approaches, for later conscious comprehension of the world. such as Internet research. Some schools are The child's first experience of geometric even eliminating recess to provide more time to relationships and physics, for example, is literally a drill young students for standardized tests.21 visceral one. As she moves herself through space, The imaginative element of children's play she actually begins to "learn" unconsciously in generally first appears about the age of two. It is her body about relationships, shape, size, weight, inseparable from the sheer physicality of play distance, and movement the basis for later and from its emotional and cognitive rewards. abstract, conscious comprehension.19 Research points to creative play as the "work" Hand-eye coordination seems to be that exercises and expands the imagination. The especially important to later academic power to generate playfully one's own images achievement. Evolutionary biologists and and to transform them in the mind's eye, anthropologists posit that the neural pathways scientists now theorize, later becomes the of the brain associated with complex language capacity to play with challenging mathematical, skills co-evolved with the hand. Early hand-eye scientific, and cultural concepts in ways that coordination, they suggest, may actually blaze create new insights. The term "intuitive leap" the neural pathways that the brain later converts neatly captures the childlike play that real to "grasp" individual words and "shape" them artistic and scientific achievement reflects.22 into meaningful communication. So the body, Learning About the Real World too, is profoundly involved in setting the stage for later abstract thinking, just as the heart is.20 What the child encounters in the classroom, Parents and teachers need no experts to tell as in the broader world, is not just some narrow them about the active energy of children. In the band of "information" about reality. It is the natural rhythms of human learning, that energy full spectrum of reality itself. The very richness is not wasted. Young children are prodigious of this world its beauty, its pain, its chaos, its learners, as their brains rapidly grow. But the order, its rhythms of change and motion, and most impressive feats of learning, including its seemingly infinite possibilities captivates walking and mastering language, are achieved and challenges the child to bring his whole almost entirely through moving, exploring, heart, body, mind, and soul to bear to know it, 10 healthy children and to serve it. The real world, in other words, human in the world together help to shape the motivates the child to learn and to care in ways physical development of the child's brain in ways no software could replicate. Teachers and that cannot be neatly dissected from each other. parents who experience a wonder and a Children thus need to experience the reverence for the world and who model their fullness of the world around them. Computer love for what they seek to teach can indeed simulations or "content delivery" are poor inspire children to learn. The ultimate subject, substitutes for hands-on lessons outdoors, if of course, is our real world, especially what's possible in botany, zoology, chemistry, and most special about our own planet life itself. physics. What young children learn first in their This encounter between child, teacher, and bodies and later in heartfelt sympathy with world is the very stuff of education. The Latin nature does, with time and instruction, later root of the word "educate" is educate, which mature into conscious understanding. means "to lead out," as to lead out of darkness Educational shortcuts that attempt to bypass into light. This meeting between child and the physical and emotional stages of learning world, facilitated by loving parents, teachers, defy science. and other mentors, literally calls forth from the The idea that schools should focus primarily child her incredible capacities for lifetime growth. on speeding up the natural trajectory of In this encounter, each child mirrors the children's cognitive development is at odds with history of human evolution, which is increasingly research findings on human development. understood as having been profoundly When children's emotional or physical integrated. Physical anthropologists increasingly development is stunted, their intellects also fail emphasize that our most human sensorimotor, to thrive.24 Treating young children like small emotional, and cognitive capacities were fine- scholars and overwhelming them with tuned in an integrated way, "called forth" as it electronic stimuli that outstrip their sensory, were, by encounters with environments that emotional, and intellectual maturity may posed specific evolutionary challenges.23 actually be a form of deprivation. It is The growing dexterity of the human hand, reminiscent of failed experiments of the 1960s for example, is thought to be closely related to in which preschoolers were pushed to learn to the development of language. So too is each read and write. By the middle of grade school, child's development integrated. Neural pathways they had fallen behind less rushed children in that primarily relate to physical and emotional both academic and social skills.25 experiences connect to the pathways that enable Attempts to engineer faster learning in abstract thought, which are the last to fully childhood draw from military research in the mature. In this way, different regions of the 1950s and 1960s that had nothing to do with brain cooperate, enriching experience and children. The military sought to program learning. Children's sensory development, their computers to perform complex logical skill in movement, their capacity to pay operations, in part by analyzing how humans attention and to communicate all directly process information. It also sought to apply the influence and are influenced by their cognitive lessons learned about how to "train" machines in development. And all of these ways of being this narrow realm of abstract operations to the
16 healthy children 11 similarly narrow task of training young adult physical, and moral or neglected those males to operate and maintain computers and aspects of development all together.26 weapons systems. A comprehensive look at human A new discipline, now called cognitive development, informed by many scientific science, sprung from those studies. But its disciplines, clearly demonstrates how foolish it is research agenda continued for years to be to pressure teachers to focus exclusively on driven primarily by the military's limited range cognitive skills in the classroom. Human of interests, in terms of advancing information development, it turns out, really can't be technology for weapons systems and developing reduced to information processing. efficient methods for training young adults with Even in processing information, children do as few instructors as possible. In time, its not behave like machines. That's because educational focus shifted to cognitive children, influenced by the culture of their engineering attempting to improve the families, schools, and larger communities, efficiency and productivity of human learners. actively bring to their encounters with life a far Its emphasis was frequently on wider set of capacities than any developing generic "problem- Again and again I have machine embodies. Each child solving skills,"often divorced come to realize that even has a growing body and a rich, from any context of social preschool children are unpredictable inner life, a needs or the personal goals of constantly trying to com- unique imagination, and a the learners. prehend how they should growing sense of self-awareness. Over time, many think about this gift of life Children don't just given them, what they educational researchers process data about the world. should do with it... embraced this information- They actually experience the -ROBERT COLES processing model of human world. They are constantly thinking. They were excited by creating new meaning for its potential to generate powerful concepts themselves based on those experiences. They about the mind's architecture. Eventually this are meaning-makers, and the meanings are model, with its guiding metaphor of the brain created by the complex encounters with the as a programmable computer, became broadly world of their whole selves bodies, minds, applied to the basic issues of educating even hearts, and souls.27 very young children. Researchers tried to identify Robert Coles of Harvard Medical School how children's minds process information, and has expressed it this way: then devise methods to increase the speed and Again and again I have come to realize that efficiency of those processes. Schools used these even preschool children are constantly trying to mechanistic models to try to devise standard comprehend how they should think about this methods to help children construct their own gift of life given them, what they should do with mental scaffolding for academic subjects. But it. People like me, trained in medicine, often emphasize the psychological aspects of such a enthusiasts either applied a narrow, information- phenomenon and, not rarely, throw around processing approach to every other aspect of reductionist labels.... In fact, moral exploration, child development social, emotional, not to mention wonder about this life's various
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mysteries,itsironies and ambiguities,its Also, see Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: complexities and paradoxes such activity of Why It Can Matter More than LQ, New York: Bantam the mind and heart make for the experience of Books, 1995, throughout and especially p. 274. what a human being is:the creature of Also, see Stanley I. Greenspan with Beryl Lieff Benderly,The Growth of the Mind: And the awarenesswho, throughlanguage,our Endangered Origins of Intelligence, Reading, MS: distinctive capability, probes for patterns and Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1997, through- themes, for the significance of things.28 out, especially pp. 211-230.
Also, see Jane M. Healy, Your Child's Growing Mind: A Practical Guide to Brain Development and 1 Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember, Anthropology: Learning from Birth to Adolescence, New York: A Brief Introduction, 3d ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Doubleday, 1994, especially pp. 227-256. Prentice Hall, 1998, pp. 29, 33, 53, 151. 7 "The healthiest children, psychologists tendto 2 Shannon Brownlee, "Behavior Can Be Baffling agree, have parents who are warm and accepting When Young Minds Are Taking Shape," U.S. News rather than cold and rejecting; who set up firm rules and World Report, Aug. 9, 1999, pp. 44-54. and consequences rather than remaining always lenient; and who support a child's individuality and 3 Fergus P. HugheS and Lloyd D. Noppe,Human autonomy rather than exerting heavy control." From Development: Across the Life Span, St. Paul, MN: West Marian Diamond and Janet Hopson, Magic Trees of Publishing Co., 1985), p. 88. the Mind: How to Nurture Your Child's Intelligence, Creativity, and Healthy Emotions from Birth Through 4 Raymond Scupin and Christopher R. DeCorse, Adolescence, New York: Plume, 1999, p.209. Anthropology: A Global Perspective, 3d. ed., Upper Diamond is a leading brain researcher whose work Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998, p. 87. strongly supports current theories that the brain's physical organization is responsive, throughout life, to Also, see Ashley Montagu, Growing Young, 2d ed., environmental influences and that the brain is partic- New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1983. ularly responsive and therefore, particularly vulnerable to experiences in childhood. 5 Michaela Glockler and Wolfgang Goebel,A Guide to Child Health, Edinburgh: Floris Books, 1990, pp. 8 Neurologist Frank R. Wilson, medical director of 170-174. the Peter F. Ostwald Health Program for Performing Artists at the University of California School of 6 Dorothy G. Singer and Tracey A. Revenson,A Medicine at San Francisco, has summarized the Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks, Rev. Ed., research and theories on the integration of physical Madison, CT: International Universities Press, 1997. experience and brain development in evolution and The seminal work in this area is Jean Piaget's theory child development, thawing upon a wide range of sci- of the progressive cognitive stages that children grow entific disciplines. See Frank R. Wilson, The Hand: through, and how they entail different kinds of think- How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human ing not just a question of quantities of information Culture, NewYork: Pantheon Books, 1998. Wilson learned. Piaget also stressed how closely tied a young notes: "No credible theory of human brain evolution child's first intuitive learning about the world was to can ignore, or isolate from environmental context, the the physical development of his or her senses and co-evolution of locomotor, manipulative, commu- motor skills. Cross-cultural studies support the idea of nicative, and social behaviors of human ancestors." basicthinking processes developing in phases. (p. 321). Especially see pp. 108-110 for a description of Piaget's warning against adults trying to arbitrarily Wilson also notes the current anthropological speed up children's progress through the natural theory that early tool use, combined with the evolu- phases of cognitive development. These patterns tion of the hemispheric specialization associated with reflect a corresponding process of biological matura- hand use "provide both the behavioral and neurologic tion, Piaget pointed out, and so their timing is neither context" to account for the evolution of human arbitrary nor subject to.cultural whim. language itself (p. 354).
18 EST COPY AVAILABLE healthy children 13 He also presents a wide range of research and case emotional development across the human lifespan. studies to argue that the development of physical skills For example, Greenspan with Benderly, The Growth of can help foster an intense emotional commitment to the Mind and the Endangered Origins of Intelligence, learning again, in an overall context of the dynamic throughout, especially pp. 319-322, for a history of synergy released by the "fusion" of movement, the science in this area. thought, and feeling. Citing the passion with which musicians, sculptors, jugglers, and surgeons practice Greenspan states: "Perhaps the most critical role their skills, he emphasizes the "hidden physical roots for emotions is to create, organize, and orchestrate of the unique human capacity for passionate and cre- many of the mind's most important functions. In fact, ative work" (p.6). intellect, academic abilities, sense of self, conscious- ness, and morality have common origins in our Also, again in the context of how the holistic earliest and ongoing emotional experiences. Unlikely nature of human development generates unique as the scenario may seem, the emotions are in fact the capacities, Wilson states: "If it is true that the hand architects of a vast array of cognitive operations does not merely wave from the end of the wrist, it is throughout the life span. Indeed, they make possible equally true that the brain is not a solitary command all creative thought" (p. 7). center, floating free in its cozy cranial cabin. Bodily movement and brain activity are functionally so inter- 9 Robert Lee Hotz, "Deciphering the Miracles of dependent, and their synergyisso powerfully the Mind," Los Angeles Times, October 13, 1996, formulated that no single science or discipline can reprinted in The Brain in the News, Vol 3, No. 11, independently explain human skill or behavior...The The Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives, Washington, hand is so widely represented in the brain, the hand's D.C.: November 15, 1996, p. 2. neurologic and biomechanical elements are so prone to spontaneous interaction and reorganization, and 10 Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, the motivations and efforts which give rise to individ- Reason,and the Human Brain, New York: ual use of the hand are so deeply and widely rooted, Grosset/Putnam: 1994. Damasio, a neuroscientist, that we must admit we are trying to explain a basic states: "Surprising as it may sound, the mind exists in imperative of human life" (p.10). and for an integrated organism; our minds would not be the way they are if it were not for the interplay of For a presentation of current evidence pointing body and brain during evolution, during individual to the roots of human language resting in human ges- development, and at the current moment" (p. xvi). tures, see the following work by three leading linguists: David F. Armstrong, William C. Stokoe, and 11 Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Sherman E. Wilcox, Gesture and the Nature of Matter More Than IQ, especially pp. 9-12. Language, Cambridge/New York:Cambridge University Press, 1995. 12 The editors gratefully acknowledge Story C. Landis, Ph.D., senior investigator in the Neural For an anthropological review of the evidence Development Section of the National Institute of that early tool use and the evolution of hemispheric Neurological Disorders and Stroke, for her review of specialization in the brain that is related to left- and the section above describing patterns of brain devel- right-handedness provide the behavioral and neuro- opment. Dr. Landis is also scientific director for the logic context for the evolution of human language Division of Intramural Research at NINDS. itself, see Gordon W. Hewes, "A History of the Study of Language Origins and the Gestural Primacy Also, for a discussion of how human evolution, Hypothesis," in A. Lock and C. Peters, eds., human cultural history, and human cognitive develop- Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution, Oxford: ment all suggest the wisdom of educators recognizing Clarendon Press, 1996. and taking advantage of children's progression from relying mainly on "somatic" tools for learning in early For a summary of research and theories on the childhood to their inclusion, much later in school, of two-way, dynamic interplay between emotional expe- much more abstract, "ironic" understanding as an riences especially the frequency of intimate intellectual tool, see Kieran Egan, The Educated Mind: interactions with other human beings and brain How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding, development, see the work of Stanley Greenspan, a Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. child psychiatrist and a leading expert on healthy
x9 14 healthy children
13 Heart Start: The Emotional Foundations of School We do not need to justify such interactions as part of Readiness. (Arlington, VA: National Center for training in social skills or other desirable goals that Clinical Infant Programs, 1992), especially pp. 7, 9, 13. some would argue should be left within the purview of the family. Rather, their importance is demonstrat- 14 Goleman, pp. 234-260; also, W. T. Grant ed by the fact that they are inextricably interwoven Consortium on the School-Based Promotion of with the process of learning" (p. 230). Social Competence, "Drug and Alcohol Prevention Curricula," in J. David Hawkins, et al., Communities 17 For summaries of research indicating the wisdom That Care, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992; also, of a wide variety of such experiences for children, see Greenspan, pp. 252-280. Healy, Your Child's Growing Mind: A Practical Guide to Brain Development and Learning from Birth to 15A recent major study--- of risk factors in adoles- Adolescence, 1994; and Diamond and Hopson, Magic cence, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, Trees of the Mind: How to Nurture Your Child's concluded that the most critical factor associated with Intelligence, Creativity, and Healthy Emotions from whether teenagers used drugs or alcohol, attempted Birth Through Adolescence, 1999. suicide, became sexually active at an early age, or committed acts of violence was how closely connect- For a summary of the research connecting ed they felt to their parents. The closer the bond, the physically active play and pretend play to intellectual less likely teenagers were to get into trouble. From development, see Fergus P. Hughes, Children, Play, "Add Health," Journal of the American Medical and Development, Allyn and Bacon, 1998. Association, Sept. 9, 1997. For a discussion of the research on the positive Ann S. Masten, associate director of the Institute impact of art and music education on academic per- of Child DevelopmentattheUniversityof formance, see Martin Gardiner, Alan Fox, Faith Minnesota, in summarizing the research on factors Knowleds, and Donna Jeffrey, "Learning Improved that foster resiliency in disadvantaged children at high by Arts Training," Nature, May 23, 1996. The risk for academic failure, juvenile delinquency, and authors note that children's performance in mathe- other negative developmental outcomes, states the matics and reading can be improved especially when following: "The most important protective factor in arts education is based on a sequential, skill-building their lives are their connections to competent, caring approach and consciously integrated into the rest of adults...They have had opportunities to feel effective the curriculum. and valued, opportunities that were afforded by a combination of their own talents and the interests of For more information on the relatively recent the adults around them. They have a knack for getting field of research indicating that music education, for into healthy contexts for development, making choic- example, has an impaCt on neurological development es that connect them with positive people and places and on spatial-reasoning skills important in mathe- that foster achievement and values. In most cases, it matics, science, and engineering, see the MuSICA takes more than adversity to bring down a child Research Database at the University of California- endowed with normal human qualities. It seems to Irvine at http://www.musica.uci.edu require significant failures in the major protective sys- tems for human development, which includes the 18 Greenspan, for example, in discussing how to nurturing of body and soul by adults, opportunities to prepare children for academic learning, states: "Now learn, to play, to be safe." From "Fostering Resiliency that we have a far more accurate idea of how the in Kids: Overcoming Adversity," a transcript of pro- human mind develops, we must base our educational ceedings of a Congressional breakfast seminar, methods not on tradition but on the best current Washington, DC: Consortium of Social Science insights into how children learn.... We must base it, in Associations, March 29, 1996. short, on a developmental model and on its key tenet: intellectual learning shares common origins with emo- 16Greenspan with Benderly, throughout, especially tional learning [italics sic]. Both stem from early pp. 211-230: "An educational system that serves the affective interactions. Both are influenced by individ- needs of our society is compelled to recognize chil- ual differences, and both must proceed in a step-wise dren's developmental levels, deal with individual fashion, from one developmental level to another.... differences, and foster dynamic affective interactions. First, a child must be able to regulate his attention. Whether he learns this easily or with difficulty
20 healthy children 15 depends, of course, on the particular endowment he rior, imaginative pictures and in concrete thinking arrived with as well as the early nurturing he received. about their experiences. Play is still important, but Second, he must be able to relate to others with children become increasingly interested in organizing warmth and trust. Those who lack adequate nurtur- games with rules. From the ages of about 12 through ing may not have learned to engage fully with other 16, he suggested, children gradually grow in their human beings. No teacher can then marshal this basic capacity for abstract thought and deductive reasoning. sense of connectedness. The child will not be moti- He insisted that reading, writing, and arithmetic vated to please her, and ultimately himself, by doing should not be imposed upon children until their ner- well at schoolwork. Finally, he must be able to com- vous systems were biologically mature enough for municate through both gestures and symbols, to such direct instruction which he suggested was not handle complex ideas, and to make connections until the primary grades. Through sensory and motor among them. Those who have not mastered these experiences in the world, he theorized, children take early levels obviously cannot succeed at more their "first steps in numerical and spatial intuition," advanced ones. The real ABCs come down to atten- which prepares them for later logical and verbal tion, strong relationships, and communication, all of abstractions. See Singer and Revenson, A Piaget which children must learn through interaction with Primer: How a Child Thinks, 1997, esp. pp.108-109. adults. Learning will also be smoother if a youngster arrives at school able to reflect on his behavior, so 20 Wilson, in The Hand, 1998, discusses how the that, for example, he can tell whether he understands evolution of the human brain over millions of years a lesson or assignment and if not, know which part he has been inextricably and dynamically linked to the finds confusing." From Greenspan with Benderly, The ways in which humans use tools. Changes in the Growth of the Mind (pp. 219-220). structure of the human hand and arm, related to the need to grasp, throw, and manipulate objects like Also, Jane Healy, educational psychologist and stones and sticks, led to changes in the structure of former school principal, cites the work of child-devel- the brain and nervous system and the development of opment expert David Elkind in suggesting that new, more complex patterns of thinking. The hand children, to be ready for academics, need to be able to and its control mechanisms, Wilson summarizes, seem express themselves, listen, and follow directions; start to have been "prime movers in the organization of and complete a task before moving to another activi- human cognitive architecture and operations" (p. ty; and cooperate with others. Healy adds: "All of 286). This same process of co-evolution takes place in these qualities may be eroded by the wrong kind of the development of individuals: children who learn to computer exposure." Jane M. Healy, Failure to play the violin or piano, for example, develop neural Connect: How Computers Affect Our Children's Minds networks that affect their ways of learning throughout for Better and Worse, New York: Simon & Schuster, life. And Wilson speculates that the individual infant's 1998, p. 242; and David Elkind, conference paper: potential to develop incredibly refined and related "Education for the 21st Century: Toward the hand and language skills may be a combined "ele- Renewal of Thinking." (New York: Teachers College, mental force in the genesis of what we refer to as the Columbia University, February 10-11, 1994). `mind,' activated at the time of birth" (p.34).
19 Hughes, Children, Play and Development, 1998. 21 Research on recess, for example, indicates that children return from recess outdoors with a new surge Some of the most influential theorists of cognitive of energy for paying attention to their studies. From development, including Maria Montessori, Jean Hughes, Children, Play, and Development, 1998. Yet Piaget, and Rudolf Steiner, have also made the same many schools have reduced or eliminated recess, or point, based, in part, on their acute observations of are considering doing so, in a misguided move to young children. Piaget, for example, suggested that make more time for computer classes and deskwork. children up to about the age of seven which, in the United States, corresponds to about second grade 22Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, a psychologist at the are biologically primed to learn intuitively about the University of Chicago, has suggested a theory of world through their senses, movement, and actually "flow," as a special state of consciousness that arises handling objects, especially through play and imita- when both energy and creative ability are synchro- tion. Then, from the ages of about seven to 12, Piaget nized. He arguesthatadults'creativityand asserted, children become more and more proficient achievements in the sciences and arts are linked to a in converting their "in-the-body" knowledge to inte- sense of play, which he describes as "the spontaneous
BEST COPY MAILABLE 21 16 healthy children joy of a child's natural learning experience." Like the guage, logic and mathematics, spatial representation, child's play, adult creative achievements are motivated music, movement, understanding others, understand- by the emotional rewards of the activity itself. Mihaly ing ourselves, and understanding and appreciating Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal nature as confirming common-sense observations. Experience, New York: Harper & Row, 1990. (Recently Gardner has also suggested that there may be an "existential intelligence.") Diamond recom- Also, see Demond Morris, The Human Animal: mends that parents and schools offer children a wide A Personal View of the Human Species, New York: variety of experiences to nurture the full spectrum of Crown, 1994, pp. 206-214, for a lyrical exposition of human intelligence and adds: "A school program how the human adult's retention of some childlike based on many domains of intellect can also help chil- capacities especially the capacity and enthusiasm for dren get practice in their weaker areas, whatever they play is both unique among species and a critical may be, and develop and discover talents in new evolutionary edge. "At our best," says Morris, "we realms." Diamond and Hopson, op.cit., 1999, remain, all our lives, childlike adults." (p. 197).
23 Scupin and DeCorse, Anthropology: A Global 25 Pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton has cited this Perspective, 1998, especially p. 88. research and later evidence that "such precocious early training is costly" and warns against pushing aca- 24 See Wilson, The Hand, 1998,p. 289, for this demics on children too early. Brazelton, Touchpoints: concise summary of the implications, for example, of Your Child's Emotional and Behavioral Development, research to date across the life sciences: "The clear Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1992, p. 213. He also notes: message from biology to educators is this: The most "Pressure on children to perform early seems to me to effective techniques for cultivating intelligence aim at be cheating the child of opportunities for self-explo- uniting (not divorcing) mind and body." ration for play and for the learning that comes from experimentation" (pp. 356-357). Also, on emotional impacts on learning, research at the University of Michigan, for example, concluded Also, anthropologist Ashley Montagu has warned that regardless of parents' education or social class, of "psychosclerosis," or hardening of the mind. It is, factors that placed four-year-old children at risk of he says, a culturally and educationally induced condi- emotional problems such as having depressed or tion that stems from pressures to rush children into addicted parents or suffering abuse or neglect were adulthood and that stunts our ability to maintain the related to poor cognitive development. Also, children childlike qualities that allow us to continue maturing from families with four or more emotional, social, and over our entire life span. Among the critical human economic risk factors were 24 times more likely than traits he identifies that are in jeopardy in adulthood those with just one risk factor to score below 85 on are the capacities to love, to wonder, to explore, to I.Q. tests and to suffer more behavioral problems. learn, to be imaginative and creative, to sing and Higher test scores were also correlated with having dance, and to play. See Ashley Montagu, Growing parents who were adept at reading and positively Young, 2d ed., op. cit. responding to their child's particular emotional and social cues in ways that encouraged the child to And child-development expert David Elkind, for- explore the world, rather than ignoring their cues or mer president of the National Association for the responding to them in a negative or overly directive Education of Young Children, has criticized the push way. Follow-up studies of the same children at the age to "collapse" the natural phases of childhood in order of 13 confirmed the findings. See A.J. Sameroff, R. to "hurry" children into more adult levels of func- Seifer, R. Barocas, M. Zax, and S.I. Greenspan, "IQ tioning. Elkind suggests that this attempt to rush ScoresofFour-Year-Old Children: Social- children through childhood may actually stunt their Environmental Risk Factors," Pediatrics 79, 1986, development, including the healthy development of pp. 343-350. their brains. See David Elkind, "Education for the 21st Century: Toward the Renewal of Thinking," Brain researcher Marian Diamond presents an New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, accessible review of the research in this area, as well as February 10-11, 1994. the scientific references, in Magic Trees of the Mind. Diamond also cites psychologist Howard Gardner's Also, animal studies involving the over-stimula- theory of multiple intelligences faculties for lan- tion of more than one sense too early in life have
22 healthy children 17 shown negative lifelong impacts for learning and attention. P.L. Radell and G. Gottlieb, "Developmental Intersensory Interference," Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 1992, pp. 794-803.
26 For the most thorough exposition of this history, see Douglas D. Noble, The Classroom Arsenal: Military Research, Information Technology, and Public Education, London: The Falmer Press, 1991.
Wilson, in The Hand, explicitly issues this "admo- nition" to cognitive science: "Any theory of human intelligence which ignores the interdependence of hand and brain function, the historic origins of that relationship, or the impact of that history on develop- mental dynamics in modern humans, isgrossly misleading and sterile" (p. 7). 27 Jeffrey Kane, "On Education With Meaning," from Jeffrey Kane, ed., Education, Information, and Transformation: Essays on Learning and Thinking, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, 1999.
28 Robert Coles, The Moral Intelligence of Children: How to Raise a Moral Child, New York: Penguin Putnam, 1998, pp. 177-178.
23 chapter two Developmental Risks: The Hazards of Computers in Childhood*
"We need to continually examine what succeeds and fails, and why. And we should do so before we deploy any technical approach on a grandscale."
Michael Dertouzos, director of MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science, writing about educational technology in What Will Be: How the New World of Information Will Change Our Lives.
MANY AMERICANS ASSUME THAT EVEN VERY identity. This duet of experience and biology young children must learn to use computers to nurtures and integrates a wide range of guarantee their future success in school and capacities into the synergistic whole that makes work. In fact, 30 years of research on us human beings, uniquely capable of learning, educational technology has produced almost no adapting, and maturing throughout our evidence of a clear link between using lifetimes. computers in the early grades and improved To put it simply, childhood is our species' learning. (One notable exception concerns evolutionary edge. Childhood takes time. And children with certain disabilities, who have many children are simply not being given the made significant gains with the help of assistive time to be children. technology.) In spite of the lack of evidence of Computers are perhaps the most acute any real need for them, computers are symptom of the rush to end childhood. The becoming ubiquitous in U.S. primary schools. national drive to computerize schools, from The rush to computerize elementary kindergarten on up, emphasizes only one of education is at odds with much of what many human capacities, one that naturally research in human biology and psychology develops quite late analytic, abstract thinking reveals about children's intellectual, emotional, and aims to jump start it prematurely. social, physical, and spiritual needs. Nature has Seymour Papert, co-founder of the Artificial choreographed a carefully timed sequence of Intelligence Laboratory at the Massachusetts human development, marked by long periods Institute of Technology, has been particularly of gradual progress and occasional spurts of influential in promoting the use of computers growth. Each child's experiences and particular by young children. But such an emphasis seems variations to the common patterns of growth designed for training children to think in ways interact to form the child's unique human that appear more mechanistic than childlike.
* This chapter draws extensively on two recent books that thoroughly document the hazards that computers pose to the education of young children: Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Our 19 Children's Minds for Better and Worse by Jane Healy; and The Child and the Machine: How Computers Put Our Children's Education at Risk by Alison Armstrong and Charles Casement.
24 20 a developmental risks
For example, Papert himself, referring to Logo, in children's ability to coordinate sensory the programming language for children he impressions and movement and to make sense created, has said: of the results. That could in turn lead to I have invented ways to take educational advan- language delays and other learning problems.2 tage of the opportunities to master the art of There are also potential but unproved deliberately thinking like a computer, according, health risks of toxic emissions from new for example, to the stereotype of a computer computer equipment and exposure to program that proceeds in a step-by-step, literal, electromagnetic radiation, especially from the mechanical fashion...By deliberately learning old video display monitors that are still in use in to imitate mechanical thinking the learner becomes able to articulate what mechanical many schools. thinking is and what it is not. 1 These health risks to children demand immediate action. But no one pushing the But can young children really differentiate computer agenda neither high-tech between their own human thinking and the companies, nor the federal government, nor powerful operations of a machine? Is it even fair school officials has yet publicly to impose such a task upon them? acknowledged the hazards, let alone taken Computers are the most sophisticated action to remedy them. thinking tools ever designed. They were developed with adult bodies, as well as adult Musculoskeletal injuries mental capacities, in mind. Even for adults, Long hours at a keyboard, constantly their intensive use is related to job stress and repeating a few fine hand movements, may serious injuries. But emphasizing computers for overtax children's hands, wrists, arms, and neck. children, whose growing bodies are generally That, in turn, may stress their developing more vulnerable to stress, presents several muscles, bones, tendons, and nerves. For years, challenges to healthy development. The current health and safety experts in government and focus on computers can distract schools and industry have been recommending that adults families from attending to children's true needs, who work at video display terminals take and can exacerbate existing problems. precautions to prevent such injuries: adjustable office furniture; changes in posture and careful Hazards to Children's attention to the angles of one's legs, arms, and Physical Health neck while working; warm-up stretches; and Emphasizing the use of computers in frequent breaks from using a keyboard and childhood can place children at increased risk mouse or staring at a screen. The American for repetitive stress injuries, visual strain, obesity, Occupational Therapy Association recommends and other unhealthy consequences of a a ten-minute break every hour.3 sedentary lifestyle. Some development experts Alison Armstrong and Charles Casement also warn that increasing the time that children explain why proper ergonomic design and frequent spend on computers, given the hours they breaks are essential especially for children: already sit in front of televisions and video However flexible it may be as a means of games, may contribute to developmental delays accessing and manipulating information, for developmental risks 21
the user the computer is a kind of straitjacket Spring, Maryland, the pain and the life changes into which the body must adapt itself. The eyes that such injuries lead to are all too familiar. stare at an unvarying focal length, drifting back Brendan is a 20-year-old Harvard student who and forth across the screen. Fingers move rapidly across the keyboard or are poised, wait- started using computers in school at about age ing to strike. The head sits atop the spine six. By high school he was spending hours each balanced, in the words of one physician, like a day at the computer, and started experiencing bowling ball. Built for motion, the human pain in his hands. Before the end of senior year, body does not respond well to sitting nearly his injury was so severe that he could no longer immobile for hours at a time.4 write or type, and eventually had trouble even The U.S. National Institute for opening doors. With treatment, the pain is now Occupational Safety and Health, in a major less, but he is not completely healed. He says research review in 1997, that he has just about given up concluded that awkward Childhood repetitive the idea of becoming a postures and highly repetitive strain injuries: "It's computer programmer because motions are strong risk factors probably a time bomb of the keyboard time that for musculoskeletal injuries waiting to go off." would require.8 related to work.5 Such injuries -DR. MARGIT BLEECKER Schools should get serious can be both painful and about ergonomic issues now, serious. The median number of lost workdays says Dr. Margit Bleecker, a neurologist and for employees suffering from carpal tunnel director of the Center for Occupational and syndrome, for example, is 25 days per year.6 Environmental Neurology in Baltimore, who Only a handful of studies have been has treated Brendan Connell. "We know that conducted on the potential for musculoskeletal these things can happen with children," she injuries for children using computers. But the says, based on the reports of children who results have been disturbing. They indicate that injure their hands playing video games. She most schools are allowing children to use expects the incidence of repetitive stress injuries desktop or laptop computers in ways that put in childhood to rise. "It's probably a time them at risk of straining their bodies and eyes. bomb waiting to go off."9 College health clinics report high numbers As younger children begin using computers of students complaining of computer-related intensively they may be at even greater risk of pain. Many, including Harvard University and injury than older children are, some experts the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, have suggest. That's because their bones, tendons, special Websites to advise students on nerves, muscles, joints, and soft tissues are still prevention and how to seek help if they are growing. A few reports of students developing injured. At M.I.T. about 175 students a year repetitive stress injuries have begun to appear in seek treatment for computer-related injuries, the news media.10 But the full scope of this according to Dr. David Diamond of the potential problem may not become known for university's medical center. A few are so injured years. Repetitive stress injuries, such as carpal they have to change their career plans, he adds.? tunnel syndrome, can be caused by the cumulative For Brendan Connell and his family in Silver impact of years of repeated minor trauma.
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For the most part, schools are in a state of with them wherever they go.) The children who denial about this issue. A team of researchers at had used computers for the mostyears reported Cornell University studied computer work more discomfort than children who had been stations for children in grades three, four, and using laptops for only a few months. On five at 11 elementary schools. They found average, the children in the study reported "striking misfits" at every school between the spending a total of more than 3.2 hoursa day work stations and the children using them, at their laptop keyboards, and 16.9 hours per resulting in unhealthy typing postures. Inevery week. The researchers concluded that "school school, the keyboards were set up too high for children are exposing themselves to prolonged the children using them, and the computer poor postures with laptop use that is leading to monitors were also too high in most cases. The discomfort. This is of particular concern as it researchers concluded that at least 40 percent of occurs during critical periods of their skeletal the children were at risk of serious injury.11 growth."13 When repetitive injuries do occur, medical Keyboard and monitor are nearly always experts emphasize that prompt treatment, attached on a laptop. So it's almost impossible changes in work habits, and correction of to follow the guidelines for healthy posture computer-station ergonomics are essential to when using them. Either the monitor istoo prevent chronic conditions. The latter may low, causing neck strain, or the keyboard too require expensive surgery, or long periods of high for healthy arm, wrist, and hand posture. recovery during which the simplest daily Hedge recommends that children takea activities, such as buttoning a shirt or twistinga break from computer work every 20 minutes cap off a tube of toothpaste, can be painful or and spend no more than about 45 minutes in impossible. Left untreated, musculoskeletal any hour at a computer, and avoid spending injuries can even be permanently disabling.12 more than 4 hours a day at computers and Alan Hedge, professor of ergonomics at video games including time spent both at Cornell University, helped superVise the study home and schoo1.14 A Roper Starchsurvey in cited above, whose results were published in 1999 estimated that the average American child 1998. It appears to be one of the first American is now spending about one to three hoursevery studies of childhood ergonomic issues relatedto day at a computer. Hedge points to this figure computers. Hedge notes that recent studies in as evidence of "great potential for injury."15 Australia indicate that children who use laptops Who will take financial responsibility for the instead of desktop computers appear to beat care of children who do suffer injuries? For the higher risk of musculoskeletal problems. millions of poor children whose parents donot One 1998 study, for example, with 314 have health insurance, this question is children aged 10 to 17, found that 60 percent particularly salient. Families without health of them reported discomfort in using their insurance are more likely to delay seeking laptops. (Sixty-one percent also reported treatment for health problems that do not seem discomfort in just carrying their laptops. This serious. Headaches and occasional pain in the calls into further question the wisdom of back, neck, or shoulders, for example, might proposals to give all children laptops tocarry seem like minor problems, but may actually be
2 7 developmental risks 23 an early warning that a child is at risk of more them. Too much time spent in passively looking at serious injuries ahead. two-dimensional representations of objects on a computer screen or a television set may Vision problems interfere with this developing capacity.19 Computer use places added strain on a Children's basic visual skills are generally child's eyes and developing visual system, and well-established enough by the age of 6 or 7 may actually make learning to that is, by first or second grade read more of a challenge for Expecting beginning for most children for them young children.16 Adult writers to poke a letter to comfortably focus on the workers who use visual display key and then passively kind of large two-dimensional terminals (VDTs) frequently watch a letter appear representations of letters that complain of fatigue, eye strain, on a screen ... may teachers might draw on a burning, tearing, soreness, actually hamper the classroom blackboard. blurred vision, and headaches.17 process of learning to Behavioral optometrists Eye strain experienced by write and read. recommend that children of computer operators is related to this age learn about letters first screen glare and to the screen being either too through direct physical engagement with them bright or too dim compared to the ambient perhaps by drawing or painting the letters as light. Maintaining a constant focus on the same big as possible. This takes advantage of the deep distance, at the same angle, inhibits blinking perceptual learning that coordinating vision even more than does reading from a book, with gross motor skill encourages. probably because the monitor presents a vertical Expecting beginning writers to poke a letter reading surface and because our eyes are open key and then passively watch a letter appear on wider, making it more of an effort to blink.18 a screen can be hard on their eyes and an extra Children, too, are at risk of visual fatigue perceptual challenge, and thus may actually from long spells at a computer screen, for all of hamper the process of learning to write and read. the same reasons. But the immaturity of their Grade-school children need even more visual systems raises some additional concerns. frequent breaks from close computer work than Infants and toddlers develop their visual-spatial adults do. That's because their muscular and awareness first through gross movements in nervous systems are still developing. It's not space, such as crawling, and then by gradually until about the age of 11 or 12 that their fine-tuning their hand-eye coordination, until capacity to balance and coordinate the their eyes become adept not only at following movement and the focusing of both eyes their hands, but at leading their hands in finer together is fully mature. Dr. Edward C. and finer motions. Finally, after many integrated Godnig, a behavioral optometrist and author of experiences of seeing, touching, and moving their Computers and Visual Stress: Staying Healthy, hands and the rest of their bodies in three- warns that intense computer use without proper dimensional space, young children develop an breaks may delay the completion of that appreciation of visual forms as real objects, and the maturation into adulthood.20 capacity to visualize objects without actually seeing Eye experts also note that it can be difficult
BEST COPYAVAILABLE 1 v. 24 developmental risks to achieve the proper lighting and ergonomic Some optometrists suggest that the rate of conditions in the average classroom to protect myopia, or near-sightedness, in childhood will children from straining their eyes. To reduce increase as children are encouraged to use glare, the fluorescent lighting of many computers for long stretches at home and classrooms would need to be dimmed by at schoo1.24 And some say they are already seeing least half. But to read books or to write on such an increase in their practice. Although paper in the same room, the lighting ideally myopia is often related to genetic factors, would be at the higher level. Closing window research suggests that it can also be blinds is another way to cut down on glare. But environmentally induced, particularly by chronic one recent study on classroom lighting found a conditions of close visual work.25 clear correlation between the amount of natural A pair of glasses may correct the immediate lighting from the sun and student achievement problem. But myopia itself may be a risk factor on tests of math and reading. The authors of for other visual problems. It can interfere with that study surmise that sunlight may have a children's sports activities and enjoyment of positive effect on eyesight, health, or mood for nature, and even limit their choice of career. students and teachers.21 Some studies have suggested that myopia may Eye experts suggest that children maintain a have a broader psychological impact that distance of about two feet from the monitor to myopic individuals may tend to be more avoid visual fatigue.22 But many children tend introverted and to pay more attention to detail, to lean as close as possible to the screen. This is instead of taking a more global, long-range a common, involuntary reaction that helps the point of view.26 learner literally "screen out" her peripheral Finally, some developmental optometrists vision, so as not to be distracted from the suggest that Internet research, which involves monitor. Also, ideally, children should be scanning or reading long documents for looking slightly down at the screen, at an angle meaning, requires the kind of visual skills and of about 20 degrees, which research indicates is perceptual abilities that are generally not well- the most comfortable alignment of the eyes, the developed until about the age of 9, which neck, and shoulders. would mean fourth grade, for many children. It "Computers are adult-sized tools and also, of course, requires a child to be an children are having to adapt to them," says Dr. accomplished reader.27 Jeffrey Anshel, a behavioral optometrist in Eye experts agree that reading a book or Carlsbad, California, and an expert on printed page is less of a strain on the eyes than computer-related vision problems. "So they're reading from a computer screen. Even Bill looking up at the screen, often at an awkward Gates of Microsoft has admitted as much. angle, for too long, and too close to it." Anshel "Reading off a screen," said Gates in a speech, adds that in his own practice he sees children "is still vastly inferior to reading off of paper.... suffering the "same type of near-point stress When it comes to something over four or five that adults do," and that they are developing pages, I print it out and I like to have it to carry near-sightedness at earlier ages than in the around with me and annotate."28 past.23 Chronic eye discomfort related to intense
29 developmental risks 25 computer work is likely to exact a toll on suggest that at least some of the alarming rise in student achievement. Research shows that some childhood asthma may be related to obesity, people respond to eye strain by simply avoiding perhaps because lack of exercise may reduce the the task causing it.29 efficiency of a child's respiratory system.36 Lack of exercise is bad for learning. Child Lack of exercise and obesity development experts emphasize that moving in Even before the recent push to computerize three-dimensional space stimulates both sensory elementary education, obesity and other health and intellectual development. According to problems related to children's educational psychologist Jane increasing physical inactivity We have the most Healy, research with physically were on the rise. By 1994, the sedentary generation disabled children suggests that most recent year for which the of young people in those who are restricted in freely federal government has statistics, American history. moving around and applying all nearly 14 percent of children in - DAVID SATCHER, of their senses to exploring the the U.S. ages 6 through 11 were U.S. SURGEON GENERAL world are at higher risk of overweight. In 1965, only 5 developmental delays in percent were. In 1994, an additional 20 percent seemingly unrelated mental abilities, such as weighed enough to be considered at risk of comprehending abstract verbal concepts. "As a becoming obese.30 Many health professionals child learns to put movements in order, brain believe childhood obesity has increased since areas are primed to put words and ideas into a 1994, in large part because children spend more logical sequence," Healy writes in Failure to time sitting in front of electronic media and less Connect.37 time actively playing, at home and school, and Increasing numbers of children are also being because they consume so many high-fat, high- diagnosed with attention disorders. Some sugar foods.31 developmental specialists suspect that some of "We have the most sedentary generation of these children may be spending so much time young people in American history," warns U.S. sitting in front of televisions, video games, and Surgeon General David Satcher.32 other electronic media that their auditory and The rate of Type 2 diabetes, a serious, perceptual-motor skills are not up to the incurable disease associated with obesity and demands of classroom learning.38 which in the past was rarely diagnosed in Other researchers have noted that the childhood, is also now rapidly increasing among demands of moving about in the real world children.33 Pediatricians report treating provide a foundation for more advanced extremely obese children for what are normally intellectual capacities. As a Scientific American adult complications of excess weight, such as article put it: "Human intelligence first solves obstructive sleep apnea and fatty liver, a movement problems and only later graduates to precursor to cirrhosis.34 Children who grow up pondering more abstract ones."39 Through obese also are at higher risk of other chronic time, the developing nervous system seems to health problems as adults, such as high blood transform actual physical experiences into pressure and heart disease.35 Recent studies also mental adeptness in manipulating, categorizing,
3 0 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 26 developmental risks and comprehending abstract ideas. The implicated as a cause of the disease have been artificial, two-dimensional environment of "inconsistent and contradictory." It could be computer learning is no match for that. that the higher rate of childhood leukemia is related to some other factor common to homes Toxic emissions and near power lines, the group added, such as poor electromagnetic radiation air quality or pollution from heavy traffic. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency But the panel called for more research on has identified 21 chemicals that are released in that question. It also called for more research the vapors emitted by new computers and on the relationship between exposure to VDTs. The agency estimates that it can take electromagnetic fields and breast cancer in from 144 to 360 hours for them to dissipate animals that have been exposed to carcinogens, completely. In a 1995 report, the agency noted and on why EMFs seem to affect the levels of that "the implications of these emissions can be the important hormone melatonin in animals. particularly significant in an indoor environment The same effect has not been observed in containing several new pieces of electronic human beings. equipment, e.g., a computer room in a In 1999, the U.S. National Institute of school."4° Office workers exposed to these Environmental Health Sciences recommended, emissions have experienced skin problems and after a lengthy review, that EMF exposure ear, nose, and throat irritations. continue to be recognized as a "possible" VDTs also produce electromagnetic fields, cancer hazard. But it also stressed the weakness or EMFs. Whether this radiation is dangerous, of the evidence and "the low risk that may be especially at the relatively low levels that involved.". 41 computer monitors generally emit, is a The release of radiation is highest from the controversial subject among scientists. Some backs and sides of terminals, but many schools early studies suggested a link between place them either front to back, or too close, side childhood leukemia and exposure to to side. That may expose children to radiation electromagnetic fields for families living near from the VDT being used by a nearby child. high-current electric wires. To be on the safe side, schools should at An expert panel of the National Research least be testing their own VDTs regularly and Council concluded that no convincing evidence making sure that children sit some distance exists that exposure to electromagnetic fields away from their own and others' monitors, from power lines, VDTs, or other home since the radiation dissipates over a short appliances was a threat to human health. The distance. For older monitors, built before the committee based its 1996 report on a review of mid-1990s, three feet is generally considered a about 500 studies. It did find a weak but safe distance.42 statistically significant link between the For years, the federal government has been incidence of childhood leukemia and living warning private employers and employees about close to high-power lines. But it added that the the physical health hazards of using computers results of research trying to establish whether intensively.43 But it has done little to alert the magnetic fields from the wires were actually schools, teachers, or parents of the hazards for
31 developmental risks 27 children, though it encourages the use of Ironically, the U.S. National Institutes of computers from kindergarten on up. In fact, Health, in a labor agreement covering all the Department of Education has never employees who routinely use VDTs, specifically conducted any studies of whether children acknowledges the dangers: using computers are at increased risk of ...there are certain ergonomic and environ- repetitive stress injuries, or how to prevent such mental factors that can contribute to the injuries, according to Carol Wacey, deputy health, safety, and comfort of VDT users. director of the agency's Office These factors involve the prop- of Educational Technology." The Alliance for er design of work stations and All of these negative Childhood urges every the education of managers, physical effects of children parent, teacher, and supervisors,andemployees abouttheergonomic,job spending increasing amounts of policymaker to take design, and organizational solu- immediate action to time sitting at computers are tionsto VDT problemsas among the most obvious ensure that no child is recommended in various studies hazards that computers pose to subjected to work on VDT usage. The Agency children's healthy stations at school that agrees that employees should be development. Because they are are not ergonomically provided informationabout so obvious, so serious, and yet designed and adjustable ergonomic hazards and how to prevent ergonomically-related still so widely ignored, they are for each student's injuries... It is also agreed, that height and size. also the most troubling. when equipment is purchased, Children are captive audiences to the extent possible, training in the classroom. Unlike responsiblebusinesses, should be provided by the vendor on how to however, few schools now have in place the safely and properly operate the equipment.45 kinds of health and safety precautions that would at least try to minimize the chances of It's appropriate, of course, for the computer injuries. government to so warn its own employees. But The Alliance for Childhood urges every who will take official responsibility for warning parent, teacher, and policymaker to take teachers and children? immediate action to ensure that no child is One reason why schools have not confronted subjected to work stations at school that are not this problem is that correcting it may be ergonomically designed and adjustable for each practically impossible. In any one class, there is student's height and size. If schools insist on a wide range of heights and sizes among requiring young children to use computers, students, and individual children grow they have a responsibility to take such unpredictably over the year. Purchasing and precautions and to share the legal liability for setting up equipment to accommodate these injuries if they do not. They also should provide differences, and trying to train young children the training and supervision that would be to adjust their posture and to continually required to try to prevent children from readjust the chairs and keyboards they share straining their eyes or bodies in unhealthy ways with others would be a massive and perhaps at computer stations. futile effort. In fact, adjustable child-size
32 BESTCOPYAVAILABLE 28 developmental risks
furniture is not widely available or affordable at elaborate educational toys, or summer camp, this time. Cornell University's Website with but time regular, substantial chunks of it recommendations for schools notes that ,spent together doing things that are naturally adjustable furniture is often difficult even for appealing to the child." A single parent, for adults to operate. It adds that young children example, "could consider leaving the television may not yet be aware of how their bodies are or computer off and recruiting a little oriented in space, so expecting them to interactive partner or partners in daily routines maintain correct posture without constant of cleaning, cooking, and shopping. "48 reminders might not be reasonable.46 'Isolated lives' Risks to Emotional and Social But by 1997, parents were already spending Development about 40 percent less time with their children Child-development experts like Dr. Stanley than they had30 years before.49 With the I. Greenspan, the former recent surge in the purchase of director of the Clinical Infant Children ages 2 to 18 home computers, laptops, and Development Program at the spend on average home connections to the National Institute of Mental about 4 hours and 45 Internet, as well as school Health, warn that an emphasis minutes a day outside connections, children are likely to on computers in childhood of school plugged spend even less time interacting exacerbates the tendency for our into electronic media face-to-face with parents, increasingly rushed and of all kinds. teachers, and friends. A 1999 impersonal culture to harm the study by the Kaiser Family emotional development of children. And that, Foundation concluded that children ages 2 to they add, will take a toll on their intellectual, 18 spend on average about 4 hours and 45 social, and moral development as well, because minutes a day outside of school plugged into emotions guide human learning and behavior. electronic media of all kinds. About 65 percent "So-called interactive, computer-based of the older children, ages 8 to 18, had instruction that does not provide true interaction televisions in their bedrooms, and 21 percent but merely a mechanistic response to the had personal computers.50 student's efforts," says Greenspan, is onemore Another recent study estimated that children sign of "the increasingly impersonal quality that between the ages of 10 and 17 today will suffuses the experience of more and more experience nearly one-third fewer face-to-face American children." As children at all income encounters with other people throughout their levels grow up with less nurturing at home and lifetimes as a result of their increasingly school, he adds, "we can expect to see increasing electronic culture, at home and school.51 levels of violence and extremism and less "Kids are living much more isolated lives collaboration and empathy."47 than ever before," Kay S. Hymowitz, author of The most important gift that parentscan Ready or Not: Why Treating Children as Small give a child to spur their mental development, Adults Endangers Their Future and Ours, Greenspan adds, "is not a good education, told U.S. News & World Report. "They just
33 developmental risks 29 disappear into their rooms and spend all of their alone, but rather the liveliness of the time with [these] media."52 relationship among the three. Students are Developmental experts say the intense inspired to learn by the enthusiasm of a teacher challenges of face-to-face interactions offer they respect the teacher's enthusiasm, that is, children the most emotionally maturing for both the students themselves and the world experiences. But even when teachers and the teacher is introducing to them.54 students are together in the classroom, they may Research by the Israeli psychologist Reuven be distracted from each other by the powerful Feuerstein on Down syndrome, for example, new information technologies in their midst. indicates that even children with severe learning Proponents of computers in schools argue problems can make surprising educational that they shift the classroom focus to the progress when they have an attentive teacher student instead of the teacher, whose traditional who consciously, consistently, and imaginatively role they describe as the ineffective "sage on the finds ways to directly mediate between the child stage." In the high-tech classroom, they and the world. The teacher serves as the ideal suggest, the teacher becomes "guide on the model for the child of an engaged, competent side," encouraging students to take charge of learner. She also helps the child translate the constructing their own education. The result is world's meaning moral and emotional supposed to be "student-centered" education. meaning as well as intellectual into the child's own words, so to speak. Only a human The new sage on the stage being, not a machine, can model this uniquely But the ubiquitous pictures in the news human kind of learning.55 media of both students and teachers Grade-school teachers, the majority of concentrating intently on a computer screen whom are women, are the real classroom instead of each other clearly illustrates a new experts with both the training and the sage dominating center stage. The actual shift is commitment to work personally with children. to computer-centered, not student-centered, Today, however, they often face intense pressure education. from supervisors or technology coordinators, "Nearly half of the staff development courses who are frequently men, to incorporate are now basic computer training," observed computers into the curriculum. The teachers Lowell Monke in 1997, speaking of the Des themselves often judge the technology to be Moines (Iowa) Public Schools, where he was not particularly beneficial for their young then teaching advanced technology classes. "As students. Little research has been done to I listen to teachers and administrators discussing uncover the role of gender in the politics of educational issues now, as opposed to three years educational technology or the impact of this ago, I hear much less attention directed toward pressure on schools' ability to retain strong what is going on inside our students, and much teachers. more toward what goes on with the tools they There is anecdotal evidence, however, that use."53 teachers are being pressuredor even coerced The essence of education is neither the into implementing high-tech solutions that may teacher, the students, nor the subject of study run counter to their own professional judgment.
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The male technology coordinator at one inner- motivate classroom learning. Many girls, it city school in Washington, D.C., for example, found, are bored by computers. And many boys candidly conceded to an outside observer that seem more interested in violent video games teachers who were not enthusiastic about his than educational software.57 school's new high-tech approach to learning had Other researchers have suggested that been encouraged to retire or seek transfers to young students often seem to be mesmerized other schools, and that several had done so. by, and some even addicted to, the action on He volunteered that he was considering their screens, rather than motivated to learn. A encouraging the principal to get rid of one fascination with technology, they caution, is not remaining kindergarten teacher, solely because the same thing as a motivation to learn about he believed the children in her class did not educational subjects beyond the technology spend enough time on computers.56 itself. Even some software producers admit that Given the dazzling graphics and animations the most mesmerizing educational software may of the latest software which may be highly be more entertaining than educational.58 entertaining without being particularly On the other hand, some studies have educational and the daily challenge of indicated that any initial academic gain keeping so much sophisticated equipment up generated by bringing computers into the and running, and frequently updated, how classroom may dissipate as the novelty of the could attention not shift to the machines in the technology wears off for both students and classroom? teachers. To some extent, this would seem to be a matter of common sense. Eventually, students Less self-motivation tend to become just as jaded about surfing the Computers are invariably said to be highly Internet as anything else, say experienced motivating to students. But those who make this teachers.59 assertion rarely provide specific evidence for their Research indicates that the most troubled claim. They rarely attempt to quantify the schools can improve the educational presumed increase in motivation, or to performance of their students by strengthening determine whether girls and boys are equally teacher-student bonds and making other, enthusiastic about the new technical overlay to people-oriented changes to foster a strong sense every subject of study. They rarely offer of community.60 But the huge costs of evidence of how this supposed boost in purchasing, maintaining, and constantly motivation has led to any deeper or broader updating computers and training teachers and learning. Nor do they examine whether any students to use them has made it difficult for number of other educational techniquesusing schools to hire additional, qualified teachers to artistic activities to bring the subject alive, for reduce class size and to give the most examplemight not have boosted motivation in disadvantaged and challenging students the less expensive and more age-appropriate ways. personal attention they need. A recent study by the American Association Researchers often hypothesize that the shared of University Women Educational Foundation excitement generated by new technologies in the challenges the notion that computers routinely classroom can itself boost the sense of
35 developmental risks 31 community at the classroom and school level, dealing with the messiness of reality, the needs and encourage student collaborations and faculty of community building, and the demands of exchanges. The evidence for how lasting or how personal commitments."61 much related to learning such effects really are, however, is thin. Much of the research is The commercialization of childhood sponsored by high-tech companies, and the The emphasis on connecting every child to reports of results rarely provide objective the Internet raises a host of issues related to measures to prove the sweeping conclusions exposing children to a flood of commercial researchers draw about the positive effects of messages promoting everything from candy and computers on student collaboration and electronic toys to pornography, violence, drugs, motivation. Yet federal officials and others and race hatred. frequently cite such work as proof of As one school librarian in Greenville, South technology's benefits. Meanwhile, educators have Carolina told her local newspaper, "It doesn't noted that computer-aided collaboration may matter if you put 100 software filters on there. spark classroom conflict as well as cooperation. You can still get around them if you want to."62 She was speaking of pornography. But Detachment from community commercialism is even more difficult to escape. Instead of boosting the sense of community, Many companies now intentionally direct a highly computerized schools may actually barrage of commercial messages at young weaken it, especially as Internet and e-mail children on the Internet. Sites designed to options proliferate. Few researchers have captivate young children often promote early investigated this possibility. But a special report sexual behavior, sugary foods, and a limitless published by the U.S. National Science Board craving for new products. in 1998 included an unusual federal admission "Generation X is going to give way to that prolonged exposure to a computing Generation Excess," warns Betsy Taylor, environment may harm children's emotional executive director of the nonprofit Center for a and psychological development in ways that New American Dream, which opposes the would hardly build strong communities. Citing commercialization of childhood.63 the work of Sherry Turkle, professor of The Website of MaMaMedia.com, for sociology at M.I.T., the report stated: example, promotes itself as presenting "playful "Computing and cyberspace may blur children's learning" activities aimed at children 12 and ability to separate the living from the inanimate, under, based on extensive research at Harvard contribute to escapism and emotional and M.I.T. The co-founder of M.I.T.'s detachment, stunt the development of a sense prestigious Media Lab is listed as chairman of of personal security, and create a hyper-fluid MaMaMedia's advisory board." The site also sense of identity." features the names of its commercial sponsors The Science Board panel added: "Turkle which include the producers of high-sugar raises the possibility that extensive interaction drinks and foods and video games. The site with cyberspace (especially through multi-user links children to one advertiser's new release, domains) may create individuals incapable of "X-Men Mutant Academy," which will allow
36 32 developmental risks young children to "Brawl your way around the the same page to purchase Geri's new CD. The world, one opponent at a time."65 It also links message to young children could not be clearer children to the Websites of a long list of candy never give anything without first making companies. On one link children are able to sure exactly what you will get in return.68 download a screensaver of Hershey's Miniatures Some responsible proponents of Internet "stacking up before your eyes," or "Flying learning suggest that "media education" Reese's Peanut Butter Cups," thereby setting up lessons in how to appraise critically the biases their own background ad for a chocolate break. and subtle messages promoted by the media The high cost of technology is leading some will protect children from such commercialism. schools to make deals with companies that Teen-agers would surely benefit from such a provide free or leased computer equipment and direct appeal to the kind of logical, abstract telecommunications services in exchange for reasoning that such critiques require. But what online advertising opportunities. Even of five-year-olds, for whom abstract reasoning is SesameStreet.com, which caters to preschoolers, not a realistic expectation? And must we train makes available to advertisers "a variety of ad every young idealist to be a cultural skeptic, or models from targeted banner campaigns to worse, a jaded cynic? premium sponsorships."66 Few adults are capable of resisting, day in Marketing consultants like Roper Starch and day out, the relentless, sophisticated Worldwide now survey children ages 6 to 17 marketing ploys that some of America's most about their "hopes and dreams...their daily creative minds have designed, aided by lives, what they love and hate on TV and why, professional psychologists and anthropologists what they buy and why they buy it, what they paid to advise corporations on how to do online." Why should companies be manipulate consumer behavior. What then of interested in buying this information? Because children, who are now the targets of intense this generation is the largest ever, representing consumer research? To be a child, after all, is to "the supreme opportunity to today's marketers have the right to be immature and to need of youth products."67 adult guidance and adult protection. Another site, iCanBuy.com, was created to It is neither fair nor realistic to expect young let children of all ages shop directly over the children to be intellectually, emotionally, and Internet by first setting up accounts that draw morally mature enough to exercise advanced on their parents' credit cards, with parents' critical thinking skills in the face of commercials permission. The site, in a nod to moral scientifically calibrated to target their most rectitude, also includes a page from which vulnerable emotions. children can direct donations to their favorite The American Academy of Pediatrics, in a charities. Here, former Spice Girl Geri Halliwell policy statement on children and advertising, promises to reward them for such altruistic notes that the ancient Code of Hammurabi behavior with a "free gift with every donation "made it a crime, punishable by death, to sell you make!" The more children contribute, the anything to a child without first obtaining a more free autographed products they get. And, power of attorney." It also reports on by the way, children can also point and click on "numerous studies documenting that young
37 developmental risks 33 children under 8 years of age developmentally But even as tools narrowly focused on are unable to understand the intent of cognitive development, computers do not appear advertisements and, in fact, accept advertising to be a promising technology for elementary claims as true." Its conclusion is blunt: "The education. Their sheer power seems more likely American Academy of Pediatrics believes to repress the development of important advertising directed toward children is intellectual capacities than to enhance it. inherently deceptive and exploits children under 8 years of age."69 Stunted imagination And what of older children? They do not Creativity and imagination, for example, are suddenly become fully capable of critical critical to intellectual insights and sophisticated judgment at the age of 9. In fact, the adult problem-solving in just about every academic content and come-ons so common on the domain. Creative work draws on a child's own Internet are a powerful inner resources including illustration of why it is Teachers find that today's originality, playfulness in inappropriate for children. video-immersed children generating ideas, and vigor and "Having the Internet in the can't form original pictures perseverance in carrying them classroom," one commentator in their mind or develop an out. Similarly, imagination has said, "is like equipping each imaginative representation. involves the capacity to bring classroom with a television that -JANE HEALY, to life pictures of one's own in can be turned on at any time EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST one's own mind. and tuned in to any of 100,000 Children who are unrestricted channels, only a tiny fraction of exposed to a heavy electronic diet of television, which are dedicated to educational the Internet, video games, and multimedia are programming (and even those have bombarded with ready-made images, often commercials). The Internet isn't about cleverly animated and quickly swapped with a education. It's about marketing."7° point and a click, literally leaving nothing to the imagination. Entertained constantly and Risks to Creativity and effortlessly by so many adult-generated images, Intellectual Development children seem to be finding it harder to Computers, which are supposed to generate their own images and ideas. accelerate the pace of children's cognitive Educational psychologist Jane Healy, a development, reflect the same mechanistic former school principal, notes that creativity approach to education as a narrow focus on involves the ability to generate "personal and raising standardized test scores. Because all original visual, physical, or auditory images aspects of children's growth are so well 'mind- images' in the words of one child." But integrated, however, the concentration on she adds: "Teachers find that today's video- cognitive skills, narrowly conceived, actually can immersed children can't form original pictures backfire. Failing to meet children's emotional in their mind or develop an imaginative and physical needs, as discussed above, can take representation. Teachers of young children a toll on academic learning as well. lament the fact that many now have to be taught
38
BERT rylcov La19A ninf n THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFTBLANK 34 developmental risks to play symbolically or pretend previously a University, has asked: "What is the effect of the symptom only of mentally or emotionally flat, two-dimensional, visual, and externally disordered youngsters."71 supplied image, and of the lifeless though florid Some scientists suggest that popular colors of the viewing screen, on the development simulation programs that many schools are of the young child's own inner capacity to bring using to teach biology and other subjects will to birth living, mobile images of his own?"73 dampen the natural, open-ended curiosity and So the issues of creativity and imagination creativity of children. They may lead students to are crucial in elementary education. passively accept that the programmed Unfortunately, like many other questions about constraints of the simulations neatly capture the negative impact of computers in childhood, what is actually a far more complex and less almost no research has been conducted on the predictable reality. One physicist put it this way: potential for computers to stifle children's "My concern is that we are tending to expose creativity and imagination. The results of the students to too many contrived, controlled only well-known study on creativity, however, versions of reality rather than nature as its raw, are not reassuring. It found that preschool untidy self. If our schools' curricula included an children scored significantly lower on measures hour of birdwatching or rock collecting, or of creativity after using a popular software fossil hunting or astronomical observing for package designed to teach reading.74 every hour spent in virtual reality, I could be In one sense, at least, teachers themselves content, but increasingly that seems not to be are under pressure to be less creative in the the case."72 classroom. Once they were rewarded for Software designers often limit their own bringing a lesson alive by using, or even attempts to be imaginative to clever animations recycling, the cheapest materials available in that draw heavily on fantasy. For grade-school creative ways. Teachers and parents alike children, however, imagination is a much encouraged children to be resourceful in using broader quality, a powerful technique that they simple materials like crayons, cardboard, and naturally tend to use at this age to grasp "from string. Instead, teachers now are often expected the inside" the real qualities of the world they to narrow their vision to lesson plans that must are exploring. They apprehend the world with incorporate the most expensive equipment their imaginations, which requires that they available. form their own internal images. By encouraging Similarly, children's work is now too often children in grade school to think iri as clear and judged to be an "authentic product" only if it emotionally compelling pictures as possible, mimics the slick commercial presentations that adults help them lay a solid foundation, based adults produce in high-tech offices with in material reality, for later mastery of more computer-generated art, spreadsheets, videos, advanced forms of thinking. The latter entails word-processing, PowerPoint presentations, and logical abstractions, such as conscious other sophisticated software. This devalues considerations of cause and effect. children's hand-drawn artwork. Proponents of Douglas Sloan, professor of history and such narrowly defined "authenticity" even education at Teachers College of Columbia suggest that the technical polish of such
40 developmental risks 35
"products" makes schoolwork "seem real and design a study to answer that question. But like important."75 This emphasis on glossy other profound questions about how computers production values seems calculated to distract are changing children's inner lives, it is too both teachers and students from the curricular important to ignore. content and developmental goals that were the What happens to the capacity for quiet point of the project. Instead, the emphasis wonder, for example, when children are becomes mastery of technical skills that children regularly bombarded with cartoonish graphics don't really need and that will soon be obsolete that are far louder and flashier than the real in the workplace anyway. thing, or sanitized, edited versions of reality that don't give them a chance to get their hands Loss of wonder dirty? When laptops and other electronic Computer use may also undermine the paraphernalia become necessary gear, interfering sense of wonder and reverence that young with a direct experience of nature, on those rare children typically bring to their encounters with occasions when children are allowed to venture the real world of rocks, bugs, and stargazing. out into the real world? And when children are Such wonder, especially if parents and teachers required to reduce their encounters with nature, share in it, can powerfully motivate young often imaginative and emotionally rich learners in the healthiest way possible. experiences in their own right, into data to feed When preserved throughout childhood, this into slick, computer-generated charts and graphs? reverence for the beauty and goodness of life can also inspire older students to feel a devotion Impaired language and literacy to truth, one of the most powerful motivations Language and literacy skills are another area for more mature intellectual work. And young of concern when children are on a high daily adults, with these healthy capacities intact, are dose of electronic media. Supportive social likely to be motivated to transform what they interactions with more competent language have learned into a resource for their own users is "the one constant factor that emerges" moral deeds in service to the world. in studies of how children become able Without these capacities, it's tempting to speakers, readers, and writers, research treat knowledge as a collection of useful facts psychologists Alison Garton and Chris Pratt and figures that an individual or even an concluded after an extensive review of the entire culture can exploit solely for one's literature .77 own entertainment or private gain. In short, a But the time spent with computers and child's wonder may later bear fruit in the adult's other electronic media may distract both sense of responsibility for his community and children and adults from directly for the larger ecosystems that sustain human life communicating with one another, face to face, itself 76 weaving together the rich variety of spoken and How does an intense focus on learning unspoken cues such interactions encourage. about nature and every other aspect of the That, literacy experts warn, may place children world through a computer screen affect a at risk of language delays. In addition, too few child's sense of wonder? It would be difficult to chances for such communication, if extended
41 36 developmental risks Every person or group of persons who move throughout childhood, may permanently limit into literacy first build a foundation for reading children's ability to express themselves in speech and writing in the world of orality. Orality sup- or in writing, to comprehend fully what they ports literacy, provides the impetus for shaping read, and even to understand themselves and to it. The skills one learns in orality are crucial think logically and analytically.78 because literacy is more than a series of words on All of these capacities are rooted in paper. It is a set of relationships and structures, a language. Progress in each domain, in turn, dynamic system that one internalizes and maps back onto experience. A person's success in oral- enriches a student's language skills. Research ity determines whether he or she will "take" to charting literacy development has shown that literacy.... But the way has been blocked. It has those skills are still very much being developed been blocked by electronic machinery of every after children enter school. conceivable kind, from TV and movies, through "Although we marvel at the magnitude of records and CDs, to PCs and video games. children's language use at the point of school Before teachers and parents begin to think about entry, as clearly as they have learned a great deal raising literate children, they must first ensure their beings as creatures of orality." about language in a relatively short period of time, they still have a great deal more to learn," Sanders adds that "good readers grow out of Garton and Pratt note. "The years from 5 good reciters and good speakers."81 Then, as a onwards must be regarded as a time when child matures, his success in reading and writing language skills are consolidated and expanded."79 nurtures his "innermost, intimate guide, the self" With children spending more time alone So any threat to language and literacy may with TVs and computers instead of interacting limit children's "inner voice" their capacity to with others, they come to school in need of tell themselves stories and talk themselves more, not less, spoken conversation with through academic or other problems. "This inner responsive adults. Is it wise for schools to speech," notes Jane Healy, "originates from exchange face-to-face time with teachers for talking with adult caregivers and then having hypertext and hypermedia? enough time and quiet space to practice it So-called "interactive" software designed to alone.... Inner speech is important to academic monitor students' performance, correct their as well as personal development. From ages six to errors, modify the pace of lessons accordingly, nine, gains in math achievement as well as in and even give them programmed encouragement other subjects are related to the use of self-talk. to keep trying obviously can't substitute for the (`How should I do this problem oh, I think dynamic exchanges, verbal and nonverbal, that a I'll try....') Delays in acquiring and using 'self- teacher who knows and loves her students can talk' may interfere with attention and behavior, initiate. Literacy is a social enterprise that is as well as effective performance in sports."82 threatened when children's social interactions are impoverished. Poor concentration Barry Sanders, professor of English and the Healy and other experts suggest that many history of ideas at Pitzer College, warns of this current uses of computers in schools may be in his 1994 book, A Is for Ox: Violence, Electronic encouraging unhealthy habits of mind. Success Media, and the Silencing of the Written Word: in school requires children to pay attention in a
42 developmental risks 37 think that we should be mindful of some of the focused way and to develop their memories and negative impacts of our technologies... I con- their listening skills. More children than ever tend that the combination of decreased before, however, are being diagnosed with parental protection and increased instant grati- attention disorders and placed on powerful ficationchangesthepsychologyand drugs to help them concentrate. The multiple undermines the socialization of the developing isnot options of many software programs and the child. When frustration tolerance acquired, modulation and management of endless chain of links the Internet presents aggression is compromised, and we see children already make it tough for a child to keep her like those who are now labeled "explosive" mind focused on a particular subject or task. children. Excluding those children with neuro- And the need for children to take breaks from biological deficits, psychiatry describes such the computer every 20 minutes to avoid children as "narcissistic" and their explosiveness physical stress, as Hedge has recommended, as "narcissistic rage." They are children who are seems likely to make it even harder for children unable to cope with the slightest of frustrations, and lash out aggressively. They are entitled, to sustain their concentration. demanding, impatient, disrespectful of authori- Marilyn B. Benoit, president-elect of the ty,oftencontemptuous of theirpeers, American Academy of Child and Adolescent unempathic and easily "wounded." Their num- Psychiatry, has coined the term "dot.com kids" bers are increasing. We must take note of this to describe the negative impact on children of disturbing trend and intervene with some being able to command so many entertaining urgency if we are to raise children who will care images and messages with just a click of the about others in society.83 mouse. Children's brains, she suggests, are overstimulated by the pace and attention- Jane Healy suggests that much educational grabbing nature of multimedia technology. She software amounts to "electronically sugar- notes the rise in diagnoses of attention deficit coated 'learning' that may spoil children's hyperactivity disorder and asks whether it is appetite for the main course." She adds: related to "children's constant exposure to Learning is, indeed, fun, but it is also hard rapid-fire stimuli to the brain." work. In fact, working hard, surmounting challenges, and ultimately succeeding is what Little patience for hard work builds real motivation. Any gadget that turns Instant gratification, Benoit adds, may make this exciting and difficult process into an easy game is dishonest and cheats the child out of it harder for children to tolerate frustration, the joy of personal mastery. Encouraging chil- which, in turn, may lead to episodes of dren to "learn" by flitting about in a colorful explosive rage when they cannot have what they multimedia world is a recipe for a disorganized want, when they want it: and undisciplined mind.... I am impressed by the apparent link between Accessing or memorizing isolated information, technology, instant gratification, poor frustra- or dabbling at an occasional skill sandwiched tion tolerance, lack of empathy, and aggression. amidst an entire loaf of intellectual Wonder While I do not propose that technology is the Bread, has nothing to do with true learning, cause of the episodes of horrific violence we which requires making meaningful connec- have seen in young people in recent years, I do tions between facts and ideas. Today's children
43 38 developmental risks are overpowered with data and special effects, by using word processing and graphic pro- but teachers report they have trouble follow- grams, including video and audio components. ing a logical train of thought or linking ideas The children proudly demonstrated their together. reports, and the teacher complimented their work by telling me that they knew more about Finally, some of the "habits of mind" fostered the software used than did she. The reports by this software are dangerous, to wit: impul- contained a reasonable amount of information, sivity, trial-and-error guessing over thoughtful the kind that would be available in any text, problem-solving, disregard of consequences, and they showed a great deal of effort in com- and expectation of overly easy pleasure.84 bining the various media.
Plagiarism However, I did not get the sense in talking Emphasizing Internet research makes with them that they internalized much of the plagiarism far more tempting to students. And drama and cultural richness of the Renaissance. the subtle shift in focus from their inner They did not get a vivid picture of the lives of the painters, their motivations, pains, and intellectual growth to how professionally they imaginations. They did not acquire the com- present computer-generated projects may make pelling insights that would come from reading many students wonder what's the difference if a book such as Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the they plagiarize or not. As one high-school Most Eminent Italian Painters, Sculptors, and sophomore remarked after downloading an Architects, a collection of firsthand biographi- essay on healthy eating in Spanish from cal sketches written during the Renaissance. the Internet to fulfill a classroom assignment: "I The Internet and databases the children used didn't think it was cheating because I didn't were not conducive to reading such a book. From what I've seen in classrooms, the tech- even stop to think about it."85 nologies used have almost no place for books And as a high school teacher in Wisconsin at all. In this case, the children looked for noted: "We're somehow not able to convince information, got it, and moved on to the pre- [students] of the importance of the process. It's sentation. The teacher did not guide them the product that counts."86 further to experience some of the inner mean- ing of the period, of the unfolding of new Distraction from meaning aesthetic and intellectual capacities played out on the scale of individual lives. Rather than Jeffrey Kane, dean of education at the C. W. pursue the richness of the Renaissance as a Post Campus of Long Island University,argues foundation for new visions and insights within that teachers, parents, and children may be too themselves and in the world, the children dazzled by classroom information technologies learned to use the software programs available. to focus much at all on the child's inner They learned more about how to think like experience of meaning. He defines meaning as computers thanlikethe people of the Renaissance. "a form of inner awakening in response toan encounter," and tells the following story: Although one may argue that the Internet and Recently, I visited a sixth-grade classroom computer searches of various sorts could pro- where children were studying the Renaissance. duce the information I describe, the fact They used the Internet to find information remains that neither the teacher nor the stu- about the period. They prepared their reports dents had any sense that something was
44 developmental risks 39
WARNING: Computers May Be Hazardous to a Child'sHealth
Emphasizing computers in childhood may expose children to the risk of a broad rangeof developmental setbacks. Potential hazards include the following:
Physical Hazards Musculoskeletal injuries Visual strain and myopia Obesity and other complications of a sedentary lifestyle Possible side effects from toxic emissions and electromagnetic radiation
Emotional and Social Hazards Social isolation Weakened bonds with teachers Lack of self-discipline and self-motivation Emotional detachment from community Commercial exploitation Intellectual Hazards Lack of creativity Stunted imaginations Impoverished language and literacy skills Poor concentration, attention deficits Too little patience for the hard work of learning Plagiarism Distraction from meaning
Moral Hazards Exposure to online violence, pornography, bigotry, and other inappropriatematerial Emphasis on information devoid of ethical and moral context Lack of purpose and irresponsibility in seeking and applying knowledge
missing. The "lessons" reflected a fascination A Nation at Risk suggested. with technology, rather than with the capacities "VVhat is lost in all this," writes Jeffrey for human experience and vision identifying the Kane, "is that children are human beings whose Renaissance.87 minds are not a public or corporate resource. Risks to Moral Development The source of the error is in assuming that children have intelligence, rather than that they If schools treat the child as an object, a kind are the embodiment of intelligence. Children of "biological computer," then education not only process information but also exist as self- becomes a matter of calculating how most conscious human beings who construct meaning efficiently to train children to collect, sort, in their thinking." And schools, whether they store, analyze, and apply information. The fact intend to or not, have a profound impact on that information technologies are dramatically how children discover or create meaning for reshaping the economy reinforces the notion themselves. "Every fact imparted, every that children are "the Nation's intellectual thinking skill emphasized, however subtle, capital," as the influential 1983 report opens some possibilities for meaning and may
BEST COPY AVAILABLE 40 developmental risks close others." science and technology recognized this as the In other words, for children, all education is massive national experiment that it is. Our moral education. From this perspective, a children are the experimental subjects. That concept like "Web-based education" is an presidential commission called for stepping up oxymoron, because moral education requires this massive experiment, with no mention of how moral educators. As Kane puts it: children will be protected from the risks to their The educational imperative of our day is not to health and well-being. It pointed to the cultivate intellectual capital for the economy; it tremendous amount of money the federal is not to teach children to process bits of infor- government invests in pharmaceutical research in mation in formal ways to solve problems; and arguing for large increases in research spending to it is not to get them to store as much discrete promote the use of computers in education. But information where "more" and "earlier" are the panel failed to note that the clinical trials the rule. It is to guide children in their devel- required before new drugs can be approved are so opment as whole persons; it is to help them to learn through direct and varied forms of expensive precisely because drug companies are encounter with the world as a foundation for required, by federal law, to prove, above all, that clear, rigorous thinking; it is to bring all the new medications are safe, and, after that, that new resources of the culture to help them experi- drugs are effective in treating the conditions for encemeaning,identity,purpose,and which they are to be prescribed.89 responsibility in the whole of life; and it to There are few examples, in the decades in address the "I am" as being, rather than as which federal agencies have been actively abstraction or capita1.88 promoting computers in elementary education, of federal funding for research designed to examine A Massive National Experiment whether this prescription really is safe for children. Schools are spending so much money The effects on children's health of this massive and so much time on computers that many experiment have simply not been considered. are cutting essential programs to try to keep up with the latest technology. Schools pushing intense academics in kindergarten, for example, 1 SeymourPapert,Mindstorms:Children, often now linked to computers, have to sacrifice Computers, and Powerful Ideas, New York: Basic recess and creative play time the very Books, 1980, p. 27. activities that researchers have identified as 2EstherThelen,"MotorDevelopment," "warm-up" exercises for the young mind that American Psychologist, Vol. 51, No. 11, 1996, pp. pay off in academic achievement later. 1134-1152; and Phyllis S. Weikart, "Purposeful Despite the Pandora's box of hazards outlined Movement: Have We Overlooked the Base?" Early Childhood Connections, Fall 1995, pp. 6-15. in this chapter, corporate, government, and school officials are proceeding at full speed with 3 American Occupational Therapy Association, plans to radically transform kindergarten and "Repetitive Motion Injury," www.aota.org, as of March 22, 2000. grade-school classrooms with high-tech machinery. 4 Armstrong and Casement,op. cit., p. 144. A panel of President Clinton's top advisers on developmental risks 41
5 Bruce P. Bernard (editor), "Musculoskeletal 15 Alan Hedge (professor of ergonomics and Disorders (MSDs) and Workplace Factors: A Critical director of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Review of Epidemiologic Evidence for Work- Laboratory,CornellUniversity),"Risksof Related Musculoskeletal Disorders of the Neck, Keyboarding," Cornell University Ergonomics UpperExtremity,and Low Back," DHHS, Website:http : //ergo .human.cornell.edu/Mbergo/ (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-141, Washington, schoolguide.html, as of March 2000. DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, July 1997. 16 Lawrence Calhoun, "VDT's Through Rose- Colored Glasses," American School and University, 6 Occupational Safety & Health Administration, Vol. 56, No. 16: January 1984, p. 16; Armstrong "Women and Ergonomics," Ergonomics Fact Sheet, and Casement, pp. 150-153; and Weldon G. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, March Bradtmueller, "Perception of the Use of High 2000. TechnologyintheTeachingofReading: Microcomputer Use in Teaching Reading," ERIC 7 Dr. David Diamond, Massachusetts Institute of Database (ED246396), 1983. Technology Medical Center, telephone interview, June 30, 2000. 17 National Institutes of Health, "Safety Notes Number 11: Safety and Health Program for Video 8 Brendan Connell, telephone interview, July 28, Display Terminal VDT Operators," July 25, 1994. 2000. 18 U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety 9 Dr. Margit L. Bleecker, telephone interview, and Health, "Potential Health Hazards of Video August 1, 2000. Display Terminals," as referenced in the online Health and Safety Manual of the U.S. National 10 Pearl Gaskins, "I Didn't Think Typing Would Instituteof EnvironmentalHealthSciences Hurt Me," Scholastic Choices, March 1999; Susan (www.niehs.nih.gov/odhsb/manual/manll f. htm, Gregory Thomas, "Kid Wrists at Risk," U.S. News & as of March 22, 2000). Also, Dr. Jeffrey Anshel, e- World Report, July 5, 1999; Abby Fung, "RSI mail communication, July 26, 2000. Attacks the Next Generation," Boston Globe, Sept. 29, 1998. 19 Shirley Palmer, "Does Computer Use Put Children's Vision at Risk?" Journal of Research and Development in 11 S. Oates, G. Evans, and A. Hedge, "A prelimi- Education, 1993: Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 59-65. nary ergonomic and postural assessment of computer 20 Edward C. Godnig, telephone interview, work settings in American elementary schools," August 1, 2000. Computers in the Schools, 1998: 14, 3/4, 55-63. See also K.L. Laeser, L.E. Maxwell, and A. Hedge, "The 21 Kenneth J.Cooper, "Study Says Natural effects of computer workstation design on student ClassroomLighting Can Aid Achievement," posture," Journal of Research on Computing in Washington Post, Nov. 26, 1999; and Warren E. Education, 1998: 31(2), 173-188. Hathaway, The Effects of Types of School Lighting on Physical Development and School Performance of 12 OSHA, "Women and Ergonomics," U.S. Children, Edmonton: Alberta Department of Department of Labor, www.osha-slc.gov/ergonom- Education, March 1994. ics-standard/fs-women.html, as of March 2000. 22 The American Optometric Association, for 13 Courtenay Harris and Leon Straker, "Survey of example, recommends placing monitor screens physical ergonomics issues associated with school about 20 to 26 inches from the eyes and about four children's use of laptop computers," International to nine inches below eye level. See AOA, "New Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, in press. Release: Computer-Related Vision Woes Can Be Solved," AOA,1997. 14 L.Straker, K. Jones, and J.Miller, "A Comparison of the Postures Assumed when Using 23 Dr. Jeffrey Anshel, e-mail communication, July Laptop Computers and Desktop Computers," 26, 2000. Anshel is the author of the 1998 book, Applied Ergonomics, Vol. 28, 1997, pp. 263-268. Visual Ergonomics in the Workplace.
47' 42 developmental risks Relief," Washington Post, May 25, 1999, Health 24 Shirley Palmer,op. cit. See also W. Jaschinski- Section, p. 16. Kruza, "Transient Myopia after Visual Work," Ergonomics 1984: Vol. 2, no. 11, pp 81-89; and H. 37 Jane M. Healy, Failureto Connect: How Yoshikawa and I.Hara, "A Case of Rapidly Computers Affect Our Children's Mindsfor Better Developed Myopia among VDT Workers," Japanese and Worse, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998, pp. Journal of Industrial Health 1989: Vol. 31, No. 1, 122-123. pp. 24-25. 38 Healy,op. cit., p. 183; and Armstrong and 25 American Optometric Association, "Common Casement, op. cit., pp. 56-59. Vision Conditions: Myopia," 1997: www.aoanet.org. 39W. H.Calvin,"TheEmergenceof Intelligence," Scientific American: October 1994, 26 Edward C. Godnig, telephone interview, pp. 100-107. See also Calvin, "The Emergence of August 1, 2000. Intelligence,"Scientific American, Special Issue: Winter 1998, pp. 44-50. 27 Ibid. 40 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 28Quoted in Robert Darnton, "The New Age of "Office Equipment: Design, Indoor Air Emissions, the Book," The New York Review, March 18, 1999, and Pollution Prevention Opportunities," March P. 5. 1995.
29 Armstrong and Casement,pp. 150, 218; and 41 Office of News and Public Information, the Bradtmueller, op. cit. National Academies, "No Adverse Health Effects Seen from Residential Exposure to Electromagnetic 30Office of Communication, Media Relations, Fields," Washington, DC: the National Academies, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Oct. 31, 1996. (Telephone: 770-488-5820), Atlanta, GA, July 2000. NIEHS Press Release No. 9-99,"Environmental 31 Newsweek, "Generation XXL: Childhood Health Institute Report Concludes Evidence Is Obesity Now Threatens One in Three Kids with `Weak' that Electric and Magnetic Fields Cause Long-Term Health Problems, and the CrisisIs Cancer," Research Triangle Park, NC: NIEHS, June Growing," Newsweek, July 3, 2000. 15, 1999.
32 Quoted in "Surgeon General's Warning: Watch 42 Louis Slesin, editor of Microwave News and for- Less TV," The TV-Free American, Washington, DC: mer editor of VDT News, New York, NY, telephone TV-Free America, Summer 1999. interview, March 31, 2000.
33 American Academy of Pediatricspress release: 43 See, for example, U.S. Department of Labor, "Rise in Childhood Obesity Linked to Increase in Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Type 2 Diabetes," Chicago: American Academy of "Ergonomics: The Study of Work," Washington, Pediatrics, Feb. 23, 2000. DC: OSHA 3125, 1991.
34 Newsweek,op. cit. 44 Carol Wacey, U.S. Education Department, Office of Educational Technology, telephone inter- 35 David S. Freedmanet al., "The Relation of view, July 11, 2000. Overweight to Cardiovascular Risk Factors Among Children and Adolescents: The Bogalusa Heart 45 Office of the Director, U.S. National Institutes Study," Pediatrics, Chicago: American Academy of of Health, Article 38: "Video Display Terminals," Pediatrics, June 1999. Nov. 9, 1999.
36CarolKrucoff,"TheObesity-Asthma 46 Cornell University Ergonomics Website,No. 9: Connection: Inactivity May Contribute to Breathing "Children's Special Concerns," http://ergo.human. cor- Problems, While Appropriate ExerciseBrings nell.edu/Mbergo/schoolguide.html, as of April 4, 2000. developmental risks 43 very difficult to design software that was truly edu- 47 Stanley I. Greenspan, The Growth of the Mind cational, engaging, and capable of generating prof-. and the. Endangered Origins of Intelligence, p. 174. its. The more educational software is, the harder it is to make it entertaining, and vice-versa, he suggest- 48 Greenspan, op. cit., pp. 311, 313. ed. Dinsmore spoke on the panel "Education as a Competitive Marketplace for Industry," at the 49 Marilyn B. Benoit, "Violence Is as American as National Academy of SciencesConvocation, Apple Pie," American Academy of Child and Reinventing Schools: The Technology Is Now, May Adolescent Psychiatry News, Washington, DC: 12, 1993. AACAP, March-April, 1997, p. 20. 59 See, for example, National Science Board, 50 Katy Kelly, "Get That TV Out of Your "Economic and Social Significance of Information Children's Bedroom," U.S. News & World Report, Technologies," (Chapter8).inScience and Nov. 29, 1999, p. 79. Engineering Indicators, 1998, Washington, DC: 1998, pp. 8-25 and 8-26. 51 Sara Hammel, "Generation of Loners? Living Their Lives Online," U.S. Newsl' World Report, 60For example, Robert J. Rossi and Samuel C. Nov. 29, 1999, p. 79. Stringfield conducted a major study for the U.S. Education Department to determine how to help at- 52 Kelly, op. cit. risk students succeed in school. They reviewed 30 years of research and conducted extensive school 53 Lowell Monke, "Computers in Schools: Time observations. They found that schools with a strong to Grow Up," paper presented at a conference on sense of community were particularly effective. The computers and education, sponsored by the Center essence of community, they concluded, was in the for the Study of the Spiritual Foundations of quality of the human relationships: "Students felt EducationatTeachersCollege,Columbia cared about and respected, teachers shared a vision University, New York, December 1997. and a sense of purpose, teachers and students main- tained free and open communication, and all parties 54 See,forexample, Hubert L.Dreyfus, shared a deep sense of trust." See Rossi and "Education on the Internet: Anonymity Versus Stringfield, "What We Must Do for Students Placed Commitment," paper presented at a conference on at Risk," Phi Delta Kappan, September 1995. computers and education, sponsored by the Center for the Study of the Spiritual Foundations of 61 National Science Board, "Children, Computers, EducationatTeachersCollege,Columbia and Cyberspace," Science and Engineering Indicators University, New York, December 1997. 1998, Washington, D.C.: 1998, p. 8-23.
55 MeirBen-Hur,ed., OnFeuerstein's 62 "State Bills Would Punish Librarians if Kids See Instrumental Enrichment: A Collection, Arlington Internet Pornography," quoting librarian Pat Scales Heights, IL: SkyLight, 1994. in the Greenville News, eSchool News, Bethesda, MD: IAQ Publications, March 2000, p. 12. 56 Elementary school observation by Colleen Cordes in northeast Washington, D.C., June 1997. 63 Deirdre Donahue, "Ads Put Pressure on The school's name and the names of the staff mem- Children," USA Today, Aug. 3, 1999, p. 3D. bers are protected, under a confidentiality agree- ment. 64 See www.mamamedia.com as of July 2000.
57 AAUW Educational Foundation Commission 65 See www.gameboy.com/wmen/index.html as on Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education, of July 2000. Tech-Savvy: Educating Girls in the New Computer Age, Washington, DC: American Association of 66 See www.ctw.org/fyi/mediakit/pages/ rates/ University Women Educational Foundation, 2000. 0,4244,00.html as of July 2000.
58 For example, Bill Dinsmore of the Learning 67 Roper Starch Worldwide, The Roper Youth Company, in a 1993 presentation, noted that it was Report, 1998, www.roper.com/research/syndicat-
49 44 developmental risks ed/youth.htm as of July 2000. 81 Ibid, p. 243.
68 See www.icanbuy.comas of July 2000. 82 Healy,op. cit., p. 233.
69 Committeeon Communications, American 83 Marilyn B. Benoit, "The Dot.Com Kids and Academy of Pediatrics, Policy Statement: Children, the Demise of Frustration Tolerance," speech given Adolescents, and Advertising (RE9504), Chicago: at the Roundtable of the Whole Child Initiative at American Academy of Pediatrics, 1995. the State of the World Forum, San Francisco, October 1999. 70 Brian Hecht, "Net Loss," The New Republic, Feb. 17, 1997, p. 16. 84 Healy,op. cit.. p. 54. 71 Healy,op. cit., p. 64. 85 Carolyn Kleiner and Mary Lord, "The Cheating Game: 'Everyone's Doing It,' from Grade 72 Ron Haybron, "Too Much Emphasison School to Graduate School.," U.S. News World Computers," Cleveland Plain Dealer, Aug. 6, 1996, Report, Nov. 22, 1999, p. 55. p. 8E. 86 Ibid,p. 57. 73 Douglas Sloan, "Introduction:. On Raising CriticalQuestions AbouttheComputerin 87 Jeffrey Kane, "On Education with Meaning," Education" in Douglas Sloan, ed., The Computer in in Jeffrey Kane, ed., Education, Information, and Education: A Critical Perspective, New York: Transformation: Essays on Learning and Thinking, Teachers College Press, 1985. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999, pp. 12-13. 74 S. W. Haughland, "The Effect of Computer Software on Preschool Children's Developmental 88 Ibid,pp. 1-21. Gains," Journal of Computing inChildhood Education, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1992, pp. 15-30. 89 President's Committee of Advisorson Science and Technology: Panel on Educational Technology, 75 Barbara Means and Kerry Olson, "The Link Report to the President on the Use of Technology to Between Technology and Authentic Learning," Strengthen K-12 Education in the United States, Educational Leadership: 1994, pp. 15-18. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President of the United States, March 1997. 76 For example, foran explanation of the cultural roots of intelligence, versus a definition- of intelli- gence as the individual's ability to manipulate infor- mation, seeC.A. Bowers, Educating for an EcologicallySustainableCulture:Rethinking Education,Creativity,Intelligence, and Other Modern Orthodoxies, State University of New York Press, Albany: 1995.
77 Alison Garton and Chris Pratt, Learningto Be Literate: The Development of Spoken and Written Language, Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1998, pp. 218-220.
78 Healy,op. cit.
79 Garton and Pratt,op. cit., p. 101.
80 Barry Sanders, A Is for Ox: Violence, Electronic Media, and the Silencing of the Written Word, New York: Pantheon, 1994, p. xii.
.5.0 chapter three Childhood Essentials: Fostering the Full Range of Human Capacities
"Interactive multimedia leaves very little to the imagination. Like a Hollywood film, multimedia narrative includes such specific representations that less and less is left to the mind's eye. By contrast, the written word sparks images and evokes metaphors that get much of their meaning from the reader's imagination and experiences. When you read a novel, much of the color, sound, and motion come from you."
Nicholas Negroponte, founding director of MIT's Media Lab, in Being Digital.
WHEN WE CONTEMPLATE A NEWBORN Our task, then, is to educate our children in infant, we experience a feeling of reverence for ways that develop the traits of character and the sacred reality of a new human life its habits of mind that shouldering the moral unique potential and profound mystery. responsibilities of a high-tech future will Children who grow in an environment suffused demand. We fail in that task if we deny the with this sense of reverence, cared for by adults imperatives of childhood. Children's minds are who respect each child's special gifts and special especially tuned to learning through challenges, have the best chance of thriving. experiencing the world with their bodies, their They also experience, in their very bones, hands, and their hearts. Computer technologies the most personal and persuasive lesson we can have proven useful in many adult realms of possibly teach them about reverence for life. activity. But they are advanced intellectual tools Children, after all, learn much about how to that do not engage bodies, hands, or hearts in treat others by how we treat them. the experiential ways so essential for children's In that context, the most daunting development. Instead, they can overwhelm educational challenge that new technologies young children with abstract information about pose is really a moral issue. Human beings now grown-up realities. Children of elementary- wield unprecedented power to wage war on one school age and younger are in general neither another and on other species and intellectually nor emotionally mature enough to unprecedented power to sustain life as well. benefit from using these tools.' How can we prepare our children for these The new technologies that are reshaping so unprecedented moral responsibilities? Will much of our culture do present a formidable proficiency in technical skills alone suffice? Or challenge to education. But the challenge is not will a renewed sense of reverence for life be to mechanize the education of young children essential for humanity's survival perhaps for even further. Instead, the most pressing issue is the survival of life itself? how to enliven and re-humanize education in
45 46 childhood essentials
hugely amplified by the power of self-replica- the face of an increasingly dehumanized culture. tion... Nothing about the way I got involved Children, in close company with caring adults, with computers suggested to me that I was should be encouraged to explore and develop going to be facing these kinds of issues... As their own inner resources as human beings, Thoreau said, "We do not ride on the railroad; it including the special qualities they share with rides on us;" and this is what we must fight, in the rest of the living world. Then, as adults, our time. The question is, indeed, Which is to be they will command not just data but also the the master? Will we survive our technologies?2 wisdom, imagination, courage, and moral will all uniquely human qualities to With knowledge now so potent a force for consciously shape their own technological good and for evil, all education becomes moral future. They will learn to serve life on earth, education. One of the most critical moral not destroy it. questions we will have to help our children Never have such qualities been so crucial for answer by the power of our own example our shared future. Bill Joy, co-founder and chief is this: In a world of incredibly powerful scientist of Sun Microsystems and the co-chair machines, what's so special about imperfect of President Clinton's 1998 blue-ribbon panel human beings and other vulnerable forms of life? on the future of information-technology Unless we actually intend our children to research, predicts that our culture is only become the appendages or the victims of decades away from designing technologies that powerful technologies, we must educate them could self-replicate beyond our capacity to in ways that clearly demonstrate the difference. contain or control them. The survival of The popular image of the child's mind as a humanity and other forms of life, he warns, will "biological computer"3 to be jump-started has literally be at stake. spawned an endless stream of new technologies Joy also notes that we are racing into this and products. We are being sold on the idea of frightening scenario with almost no public an upgrade to childhood itself. Children are debate or planning. His warning, echoed by pushed to master much more, much sooner other leading scientists and engineers, is a wake- than ever before. up call to parents, educators, and policy makers: Pushing children in this way is both The 21st century technologies genetics, nan- inhumane and counterproductive. The otechnology, and robotics (GNR) are so unhealthy stresses it has added to children's powerful that they can spawn whole new classes lives threaten their intellectual, emotional, of accidents and abuses. Most dangerously, for social, and physical development. Evidence the first time, these accidents and abuses are from many sciences indicates the wisdom of widely within the reach of individuals or small protecting childhood as a lengthy and necessary groups. They not require large facilities or period of vulnerability and immaturity rare raw materials. Knowledge alone will enable a time the use of them. for extended, loving nurture. A buried acorn sinks a long, sturdy tap root Thus we have the possibility not just of weapons into the earth, to nourish the mighty oak it will of mass destruction but of knowledge-enabled become in the far distant future. Children, like mass destruction (KMD), this destructiveness acorns and unlike machines, also must sink childhood essentials 47 deep, strong roots for a lifetime of growth and sums of money now being diverted to a broad flowering of the unique capacities that computers in childhood have further distracted mark human nature. Recent research has adults from these healthy essentials. All of them demonstrated anew just how intricately unlike computers are strongly supported integrated all of these aspects of being human by both research and simple common sense: really are, in terms of both healthy growth and healthy functioning even at the level of 1. Close, loving relationships with neural connections. responsible adults. No wonder, then, that human capacities range 2. Outdoor activity, nature exploration, far beyond the narrow limits of machines' logical gardening, and other direct encounters and mechanical operations. Even the most with nature. sophisticated machines, after all, mimic only a 3. Time for unstructured play, especially narrow portion of human cognitive and physical make-believe play, as part of the core capacities. They are incapable, for example, of curriculum for young children. either intuitive or imaginative thinking. Nor can 4. Music, drama, puppetry, dance, painting, they physically express love with a look or a touch. and the other arts, offered both as In fact, our many nonlogical attributes are what separate classes and as a kind of yeast to make human thinking so alive. What we refer to as bring the full range of other academic the intellect is abundantly enriched by all other subjects to life. aspects of being human emotional, social, 5. Hands-on lessons, handcrafts, and other physical, and spiritual even as it enriches them. physically engaging activities, which The current emphasis on early computer use literally embody the most effective first and computer-like thinking leads children to lessons for young children in the sciences, "the rigid, logical, algorithmic thinking, bereft mathematics, and technology. of moral, ethical, or spiritual content, that is 6. Conversation, poetry, storytelling, and characteristic of computer interaction," write books read aloud with beloved adults. Valdemar Setzer and Lowell Monke, themselves computer scientists and educators. Such accelerated but narrow intellectual development, Close, Loving Relationships with they add, "brings a child's mental abilities to an adult level long before the emotional, Responsible Adults psychological, spiritual, and moral sensibilities As documented in previous chapters, the have grown strong enough to restrain it and quality of children's emotional connections to give it a humane direction."4 parents, teachers, and other mentors is critical We therefore urge families and schools to to every aspect of their development, including recommit themselves to providing young children intellectual development. For this reason, any with the essentials of a healthy childhood. In our proposed educational reform should be rushed culture, many children, both rich and scrutinized for its impact on strengthening or poor, were deprived of these, even before the weakening the bonds between the teacher, her current computer craze. But the time and huge students, and students' families. The same
BEST COPYAVAILABLE 48 childhood essentials question can be asked at the level of the whole highly computerized classrooms as the best school, as a community. Is a proposed chance to cross the "digital divide" and help innovation likely to strengthen or weaken the poor children compete academically with those school's sense of community? who have home computers. From this perspective, one of the most We know that computers pose hazards to promising and least expensive school reform children and can distract adults from children's strategies is to let teachers to stay with the same real needs. But the most disadvantaged children group of students for more than one year. Such may be at particular risk of educational failure if extended teaching, or "looping," makes it easier we insist that they interact with computers for for teachers to know students and their families much of the school day. Often, what they most well. Professor David Elkind of Tufts University, desperately need is more personal, caring former president of the National Association for attention from teachers, school counselors, and the Education of Young Children, has pointed other adults who will take the time to work out how "ideally suited" such an extended with their strengths and weaknesses and to relationship is for many children today, when convey patient confidence in the child's ability. parents are often pressed for time and children The research evidence for the wisdom of such have often experienced frequent turnover in special attention is overwhelming.8 child-care providers: So the real danger for disadvantaged children, Because of the attachment of children to as one technology expert has suggested, is just teachers whom they have been with for many the opposite of what many parents fear: "In the years, the teacher becomes a much more pow- end, it is the poor who will be chained to the erful role model than when the child only has computer; the rich will get teachers."9 the teacher for a year. The class also becomes more like a family as the children grow up learning and working together... School-age Outdoor Activity, Gardening, children need someone who knows them as and Other Direct Encounters totalities and who can reflect this wholeness with Nature back to them. Having the same teacher for a number of years is one of the best compensa- A second critical test of every proposed tions for the often truncated interactions of educational reform is whether it will strengthen postmodern, permeable family life.5 or weaken the bond between children and the natural world. Our ecological crisis amounts to Research also indicates that smaller classes a "planetary emergency," in the words of and smaller schools are effective for all students, environmental educator David W. Orr. It is also especially the most disadvantaged.6 And an educational crisis, Orr points out, because it fostering a strong sense of community has demands entirely new ways of thinking, and of proven to be one of the most promising setting intellectual priorities: remedies for the most troubled schools.? Those now being educated will have to do Parents and policymakers often assume that what the present generation has been unable poor children without access to a computer at or unwilling to do: stabilize world population, home will suffer academically. They push for reduce the emission of greenhouse gases that childhood essentials 49
perhaps dis- threaten to change the climate clothing, medicines, even the air we breathe. astrously protect biological diversity, reverse But it also builds our emotional capacity for the destruction of forests everywhere, and con- serve soils. They must learn how to use energy kinship, affection, awe, nurturing, and beauty; and materials with great efficiency. They must promotes our intellectual capacity for problem- learn how to run civilization on sunlight. They solving, creativity, discovery, and control; and must rebuild economies in order to eliminate helps stimulate the recognition of a just and waste and pollution. They must learn how to purposeful existence. Living diversity, adds Yale manage renewable resources for the long term. University scientist Stephen Kellert, "offers us They must begin the great work of repairing, as much as possible, the damage done to the inspiration, a source of language, story, and Earth in the past 150 years of industrialization. myth, a bedrock of understanding of beauty And they must do all of this while they reduce and significance."13 worsening social, ethnic, and racial inequities. Nature trains all of a child's senses, and No generation fias ever faced a more daunting encourages reflection and acute observation, agenda.10 which later support scientific insight and precision in thinking. The noise and flash of Many concerned scientists urge schools to electronic media demand the child's attention. create far more regular opportunities for In contrast, the silence and subtle beauties of children of all ages to forge deep emotional the natural world encourage children to focus bonds with the natural world. Otherwise, they their attention for themselves. This kind of self- warn, our children, as adults, will have trouble motivated attention is critical for persisting in summoning the courage and moral will to learning tasks of all kinds. respond to such grave challenges. Traditional cultures have long recognized "We cannot win this battle to save species the subtle qualities of nature as powerful and environments," Stephen Jay Gould has teaching tools. Among the Lakota people of said, "without forging an emotional bond North America, for example, children "were between ourselves and nature as well for we taught to use their sense of smell, to look where will not fight to save what we do not love."11 there was apparently nothing to see, and to A love of nature is natural in childhood, listen intently when all seemingly was quiet."14 given enough time for outdoor exploration. The Today, scientists consider childhood the Harvard biologist Edward 0. Wilson emphasizes most critical period for "cultivating an affinity, the evolutionary significance of "biophilia," or appreciation, awareness, knowledge, and human beings' deep need to connect with the concern for the natural world."15 living diversity of nature. We have evolved as But biophilia is by no means automatic. To part of a rich web of life, according to Wilson, cultivate a relationship with nature, children and both biologically and culturally we tend to need much time outdoors, both in active play connect our lives to other species.12 and in quiet contemplation. Young children's Our emotional bonds with the rest of the first education in the life and earth sciences natural world help us to mature physically, comes through their personal, emotionally intellectually, and spiritually. Nature's diversity -engaging experiences of nature, as a whole, live nourishes our material needs; including food, world to which the child himself belongs. 50 childhood essentials
Every child has a right to such experiences increase it just the opposite of what's beginning in early childhood and continuing intended. As a 1998 report from the U. S. throughout childhood. They lead both to National Science Board noted: "Computing engaged learning and to the wonder, reverence, and cyberspace may blur children's ability to and moral commitment that the subject in separate the living from the inanimate, question life itself deserves. But many contribute to escapism and emotional children today, even in rural areas, are growing detachment, stunt the development of a sense up increasingly isolated from the natural world. of personal security, and create a hyper-fluid They have far fewer chances to explore and sense of identity."17 enjoy the world outdoors on their own than The report cited the research of Sherry children had in the past. Turkle, a sociologist at the Massachusetts Computer software that presents sanitized Institute of Technology who has most closely or sensationalized versions of nature is part of studied these issues. When her own young the problem. Such intellectual abstractions are daughter saw a live jellyfish for the first time, out of step with the far more concrete Turkle reported at a 1998 conference, her experiences that young children need to relate daughter exclaimed: "But Mommy, it looks so to the natural world. realistic."18 Preschool children learn about nature by Reconnecting children to the natural experiencing the world with their whole bodies, environment would be far less expensive and their senses, and their own profound emotional far more effective than electronic simulations reactions to nature, including wonder, joy, and and all the paraphernalia required to support even fear. Between the ages of six and nine, them. Intense exposure to nature, such as children also are developing feelings of empathy frequent hands-on exploration of fields and for the needs and distress of other creatures. woods and participation in gardening through Next, their concrete knowledge and their the seasons, can inspire deep connections to the curiosity about plants and animals increases land and the many species that inhabit it. Such dramatically. Not until late adolescence, experiences also provide a natural opening to a however, do children show more abstract and broad study of subjects like botany, biology, conceptual consciousness about the natural zoology, meteorology, geology, geography, and world. At this later age, they also develop a history. capacity to make moral judgments about For a child, even an overgrown patch of ecological issues and human responsibilities, and weeds in an urban neighborhood can foster a hunger to literally stretch their horizons, magical moments with bugs and flowers. But a enjoying the personal challenge that wilderness small patch of ground, at school or near home, experiences provide, for example.16 can also be turned into a garden the ideal Some schools now purchase software hands-on science lab for young children living simulations of nature as a substitute for live field far from wilderness. trips to local rivers, parks, or campgrounds. But David Orr, who chairs the Environmental such simulations reduce children's actual Studies Program at Oberlin College, also urges connection to the real world rather than parents and schools to create chances for
56 childhood essentials 51 children of all ages to immerse themselves in a over the same time period have failed to particular aspect of their own local ecology a demonstrate that computers in elementary river, a mountain, a farm, a forest, even a education make any critical contribution to particular animal before introducing them to children's development. Yet playtime in many more advanced lessons based on information classrooms is being sacrificed, as computer time abstracted from nature. Children who live near increases. Play also, of course, contributes to a river, for example, could learn children's physical health. far more if they are allowed to "It's not that children Edgar Klugman and Sara return to it again and again over are little scientists, but Smilansky, two leading a period of time, to canoe in it, that scientists are big researchers in the field, have to experience its various seasons, children." argued that the evidence of gains to study its flora and fauna, to -ALISON GOPNIK, from play is so strong that play listen to it, smell it, and touch it, THE SCIENTIST IN THE CRIB should be part of the core and to talk to those who live or curriculum in the education of work along it.19 young children, through the age of eight. "In Children from urban neighborhoods with many crucial ways," they add, "play, an old high crime rates, poor housing, and little access friend, awakens the potential of each child."23 to parks are especially in need of such safe, Many studies have demonstrated the enriching experiences in nature through school relevance of what researchers call and community programs. Again, our most "sociodramatic play" make-believe play disadvantaged children stand to lose the most involving more than one individual to when schools divert time and money to flat- scholastic achievement in many subjects, screen versions of nature.. including reading, writing, science, and arithmetic. Studies have shown, for example, Time for Unstructured Play, that make-believe and other kinds of play help Especially Make-Believe Play young children learn to classify objects and Some high-tech companies have begun to group concepts in hierarchies, skills that have provide playrooms to try to maximize their proven resistant to formal instruction. Children employees' creativity.20 But many preschools also test and revise their immature ideas about and elementary schools are reducing or space, time, probability, and cause-and-effect eliminating play and recess from their relations during play. They test hypotheses, schedules.21 Only adults, it seems, have time to draw generalizations, and find creative, expand their minds through play. divergent ways to solve problems. All of these Few parents, policymakers, or school skills are relevant to later achievement in the administrators seem aware that a voluminous sciences.24 body of research over the last 30 years has The Smithsonian Institution is planning a decisively demonstrated that play especially major conference for the fall of 2000 to explore make-believe play contributes in unique and the connection between children's play and critical ways to children's intellectual, social, and adults' scientific and artistic innovations. "It's emotional development.22 In contrast, studies not that children are little scientists, but that
57 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 52 childhood essentials scientists are big children," explains Alison increasing emphasis on early academics, linear Gopnik, co-author of The Scientist in the Crib.25 thinking, and standardized testing in the From the child's point of view, "pretend" education of young children.26 The new focus play is worth doing because it's fun. But in the is aggressive and didactic, pushing facts and process children sharpen and integrate a wide isolated cognitive skills. Play, on the other hand, range of concepts and problem-solving skills. seems to have evolved as nature's far more They spontaneously improvise from moment to subtle strategy for motivating children to moment in a hypothetical situation. And they expand all of their capacities physical,. social, integrate their experiences and construct emotional, and intellectual in an integrated meaning from them. In other words, make- way.27 believe presents complex intellectual challenges "Seen through this lens, play is the best for young children that are intrinsically possible preparation for adulthood, especially in motivating. The more children engage in such our highly technological, competitive society," play, the more proficient they become at it, suggests Arkansas master teacher Sheila G. especially at symbolically representing actions, Flaxman. "Children have never before been objects, and abstract situations with language exposed to so much, so early. Play not only and gestures. allows them to practice with all the new Research also indicates that parents and concepts social, emotional, moral, and teachers can create an environment that intellectual they are learning so rapidly as encourages or discourages such play, and they develop, but also helps them make sense the benefits children derive from it. Smilansky of, and internalize, all the stimuli to which they has summarized the benefits that research are exposed."28 points to from sociodramatic play as follows: Substituting computer time for play time may actually reduce children's ability to play. Gains in cognitive and creative skills: Teachers report that many children of all income Vocabulary, language comprehension, problem- levels who have been exposed to heavy diets of solving strategies, curiosity, ability to take on television, computers, and other electronic the perspective of another, innovation, media now enter kindergarten not knowing how imaginativeness, attention span, ability to to play.29 More computer time at school means concentrate, overall intellectual competence. even more exposure to powerful electronic images generated by others. That seems likely to Gains in social and emotional skills: further depress children's ability to generate Playing with peers, group collaboration, peer their own imaginative dramas. cooperation, reduced aggression, increased Studies suggest that children who engage empathy, better impulse control, better spontaneously and often in make-believe tend to prediction of others' preferences and desires, be proficient at solving problems that have no overall emotional and social adjustment. one, simple solution.30 So schools that reduce free play time may be discouraging the very Researchers attribute the loss of play time in activity that best fosters innovative thinking. preschools and elementary schools to the Research also suggests that, for young childhood essentials 53 children, "high-tech toys" is an oxymoron. The socioeconomic status. But research also suggest most brain-stretching materials appear to be the that certain sensitive interventions by teachers, simplest, including water, clay, and blocks. Their parents, and other caregivers can help them very simplicity allows children the most freedom become more able make-believers and achieve in creating and experimenting with endless the developmental gains such play promotes.34 versions of their own make-believe realities.31 Schools that offer little or no time to play, As Nancy Foster, a veteran teacher in a play- however, are cheating the most disadvantaged oriented kindergarten in Silver Spring, children of a chance to catch up. Maryland, explains:
We wish to provide play materials which sup- Music, Drama, Puppetry, Dance, port and stimulate the young child's capacity Painting, and the Other Arts for fantasy play their ability to use objects in many different ways to meet their needs of the Children are born artists. They are naturally moment. A carved piece of wood may, for creative eager to sing, dance, pound example, be used as a bridge, or as a telephone, rhythmically on tabletops, act out great dramas a boat, a cradle, a delivery truck, a fish, mer- from their own shared imaginations, and design chandise for a store, a package for the mailman masterpieces with sand, shells, stones, logs, clay, to deliver, etc., etc. Younger children, of paint, crayons, or any other material that's course, may see it as just another piece of "fire- handy. Even as they enjoy the creative process, wood" for the "fires" they love to build by piling up every movable object in the room!32 they are integrating and expanding a wide range of intellectual, emotional, and social skills. The sophistication of many electronic toys Because the arts both enliven and illuminate and video games, on the other hand, limits the everything they touch, they provide powerful range of a child's creative responses. The motivation and powerful insights for students experience may be entertaining at least till and teachers. Studies have found, for example, the novelty wears off. But it is more likely to that children have more positive attitudes about stunt than to expand imagination. Many school and do better in subjects such as teachers, including Foster, have noted that spelling, writing, mathematics, and social children today often need help breaking out of studies when their classes include and a disturbing psychological fixation in their play, incorporate the arts.35 with scenes from some popular video that they The arts are especially appropriate in the have seen. A recent study reported in Walt education of children of elementary age and Disney Home Video Press confirms that younger because they learn most easily when observation.33 lessons engage their feelings and bodies as well Poor children may be particularly vulnerable as their minds. Artistic lessons encourage self- to such shortsighted classroom policies. discipline, imagination, critical thinking, Numerous studies suggest that children from originality, flexibility and divergent thinking in families of low socioeconomic status are less the face of ambiguity, and facility in using a likely to develop verbally elaborate imaginative wide range of symbolic tools, according to play than children from families of higher researchers and educators. Words and numbers
5 9 54 childhood essentials
are both sets of symbols, each representing a tactile sensibilities upon which consciousness different way of thinking about the world and itself depends."38 The arts also challenge teachers its meaning. Every form of art music, dance, to be creative in inviting children to comprehend drama, sculpture provides children with a wide range of subjects literally "in their another set of symbols for thinking about and bodies." Geometrical relationships and expressing ideas and meaning.36 multiplication tables, for example, can be taught Harvard psychologist through creative motion or Howard Gardner has pointed Experts now realize that rhythmic games, and history out that most schools focus on creating things with your comes alive when children act developing children's logical- hands helps to develop out the great dramas of the past. analytical and linguistic skills. the brain, music and Charles Fowler, the late He considers that too limited an songs cause the student well-known music educator, approach, given the "multiple to focus on sounds within pointed to how profoundly the intelligences" of human beings. words and tonal (spatial) arts can enrich children's moral The arts, he emphasizes, help relationships, while body development: develop the far broader range of movement of all kinds intelligences.37 helps produce physical, One of the arts most important contributions to the develop- Just as the arts help children mental, and cognitive ment of young people is the benefits. develop open minds, they also cultivation of their emotional help open hearts. The arts teach -KATE MOODY, and spiritual well-being. The practical emotional skills, READING SPECIALIST AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS human spirit in all its manifesta- including the self-discipline that tionsiscentral to the arts. comes from practice over time, Think of the great cathedrals, persistence, the ability to delay gratification, mosques, and temples, the paintings, sculp- ture, and music that have been created around healthy ways to reflect upon and express one's the world to put us in touch, and sustain our own feelings and the feelings of others, and the contact, with the spiritual world. Students can self-motivation for learning that stems from the be inspired by the arts to reach deeper within active, emotionally engaging challenges that the themselves to stand in awe of dimensions of arts can bring to all other subjects. life we cannot fully understand or grasp, of our And the arts can develop critical social skills. own fragile and temporal being, and of life Children who perform together in a choral itself in the vastness of the cosmos.39 group or orchestra, for example, sharpen their The current emphasis on computer tools in communication skills and learn powerful lessons elementary schools encourages children to about collaboration and the value of each produce "authentic products," such as individual's gifts and commitment if any group PowerPoint presentations that mimic the style if is to "make music" together. not the substance of adults' professional work. Physically, too, the arts are enriching. They The message is clear: the beauty of children's draw on all of the senses, leading to what Eliot own simple artistic creations is not good enough. Eisner, professor of education and art at Stanford They can and must be held to adult standards, University, calls "the refinement of visual and whether or not such standardized fare is really
60 childhood essentials 55 the most effective way to develop the individual to benefit in a wide range of academic subjects child's inner capacities for creative thinking. from the incorporation of the arts into the whole Just how sophisticated software will help curriculum. The biophysicist Martin Gardiner, children construct meaning for themselves, for example, suggests that "learning arts skills compared to less sophisticated learning tools, forces mental 'stretching' useful to other areas of such as paper and paints, is not clear. Students' learning," including mathematics.42 choices of expression, for example, are often Research also shows that individuals who severely constrained by the software programs are not educated in the arts as children are less they use, whose parameters are controlled by a likely to participate in the arts as adults.43 In whole team of software developers effect, then, sacrificing the arts and marketing professionals My observations in schools for computers in school may unknown to the students. are that drugs, crime, deprive children of lifelong Artistic approaches to hostility, indifference, and enjoyment of some of the most learning are not only far more insensitivity tend to run emotionally, culturally, and age-appropriate but also far rampant in schools that spiritually enriching cheaper than the more adult- deprive students of experiences of being human. oriented emphasis on high-tech instruction in the arts. Finally, research suggests classrooms. Yet budgets for CHARLES FOWLER, that schools rich in the arts can music and other arts, never MUSIC EDUCATOR be especially healing for at-risk generous, are now being cut children in troubled even further or eliminated in some schools to neighborhoods. The arts generate healthy help pay for equipping and maintaining high- outlets for expressing anger, sadness, and a tech classrooms.40 whole range of other confusing and painful Art, music, and physical education are not feelings, and may even be useful in preventing "frills." Research shows these multisensory violence. An immersion in the arts teaches experiences to be essential for the developing children to respect the cultures of different brain in general, and for reading proficiency in peoples, to respect themselves, and to particular. Kate Moody, an expert on reading, experience more deeply the meaning of their dyslexia, and electronic media at the University studies and of their own lives, even as they build of Texas at Galveston, reports that "experts now skills and self-confidence through artistic realize that creating things with your hands practice 44 helps to develop the brain, music and songs As Fowler noted in Strong Arts, Strong cause the student to focus on sounds within Schools: words and tonal (spatial) relationships, while My observations in schools are that drugs, body movement of all kinds helps produce crime, hostility, indifference, and insensitivity physical, mental, and cognitive benefits."41 tend to run rampant in schools that deprive Recent research further suggests that students of instruction in the arts. In the childhood may be a window of opportunity, a process of overselling science, mathematics, and technology as the panaceas of commerce, time when the brain is naturally primed to learn schools have denied students something pre- music and possibly other arts most easily and
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cious: access to their expressive communicative student in the process of science. Unfortunately, beings and their participation in creating their these activities are not widely used. It could be own world. In inner-city schools that do not because so few teachers have had opportunities offer instruction in the arts, the students have to develop skills needed for hands-on instruc- little pride and less enthusiasm, and such depri- tion. Another factor is that hands-on learning vationsapstheirlivesof vitalityand takes time and the pressure to get on with potentia1.45 the overstuffed curriculum discourages many teachers from taking that time.48 Hands-on Lessons, Handcrafts, and Other Physically Engaging Activities Teachers are under ever greater pressure today to substitute sedentary work at computer Research clearly demonstrates that hands-on. screens for more physically and emotionally experiences, at home and in the classroom, are engaging activities. Computer proponents argue powerfully motivating and particularly effective that computers are just what the latest theory of for learning in many realms, including science, learning, the "constructivist" model, calls for. mathematics, reading, and languages.46 According to this theory, students are active Integrating the arts into these subjects, as learners, constructing their own conceptual described above, is an exceptionally powerful framework, constantly "renovating" their mental example of hands-on education, because the arts representations as their understanding of the are so emotionally engaging. But children benefit world grows and changes. intellectually from a wide array of other concrete Constructivism is promoted as replacing the encounters with real materials. As with the arts, old, industrially based model of the school as a this includes classes in handcrafts such as knitting factory, in which the teachers were seen as the and woodworking, and the integration of hands- workers and the students their products on activities into academic studies. empty containers which teachers filled with A 1990 study showed that children learn knowledge. The new model, however, when spelling more easily when teachers use a applied to computerized learning, often ends up multisensory, hands-on approach that includes being treated as little more than a dressed-up first saying the spelling of a word, then writing version of the old one. In the new version, it out by hand, and then seeing it, as they have teachers become effective managers, and the themselves shaped it by hand. This approach students are the workers. The product they are proved more effective than trying to teach producing is their own learning. children by typing the letters out on a computer Under this approach, then, schools are still screen.47 viewed as similar to commercial enterprises, with Unfortunately, the solid research evidence of the emphasis on efficiency, productivity, and the the wisdom of a hands-on curriculum, like the bottom line. This narrow metaphor is hardly research on play, is rarely applied in classrooms. appropriate for the care of young children. But it F. James Rutherford, a leading science educator, makes the automation of kindergartens and the noted in 1993: elimination of such "frills" as creative play, recess, Hands-on learning activities used appropriately and the arts seem perfectly rational. After all, can transform science learning by engaging the every other workplace has been automated in the childhood essentials 57 hopes of productivity gains why not the strongly emphasizes the wisdom of hands-on classroom? activities. The department's 1993 guide, "State Because children are the "workers," we expect of the Art: Transforming Ideas for Teaching and them to sit still, at their electronic workstations, Learning Science," states: "Hands-on, inquiry- for hours on end, intellectually "constructing" as based science instruction is well established as an quickly and efficiently as possible their "product" effective teaching strategy."50 And its 1994 knowledge. Because we are narrowly focused digest, "Doing Science with Your Children," on children's cognitive processes, to the exclusion expands on this emphasis: of their emotional and physical experiences, we To give your children a firm foundation in i.e., data for mistake intellectual abstractions science, they should be encouraged to think the raw material of knowledge construction. In about and interact with the world around this context, then, the more information children them. Concrete experiences that require the can access, and the faster, the more productive use of children's senses, such as planting and workers they will be. watching a seed germinate, provide a strong "The student is still a receptacle for facts framework for abstract thinking later in life. it's just that he must learn to stuff himself, Rich sensory experiences (seeing, hearing, tast- instead of being stuffed by someone else," notes ing, touching, and smelling) can help children Steve Talbott, editor of the online newsletter becomemoreobservantandcurious. NetFuture. "I'm not sure there's much Exploring the characteristics of objects and liv- difference between the equally constipated ing things can help them learn how to classify outcome of these two approaches."49 or group things based on their characteristics. By playfully interacting with their environ- Hence, the new classroom emphasis on the ment, children understand how they are Internet. And hence our expectations that distinct from the world around .them and how children prove their progress by producing they can influence aspects of it. Science begins projects that resemble as closely as possible the for children when they discover that they can standardized reports and presentations that adult learn about the world through their own workers produce, using the same sophisticated actions, such as blowing soap bubbles, adding office equipment that adult workers use in real a block that causes a structure to collapse, or refracting light through a prism. A child best workplaces. But the most effective teaching and learns to swim by getting into the water, like- in the short run learning may not seem wise, a child best learns science by doing very efficient at all, as Rutherford notes above, or science. Hands-on science experiences, together even obviously productive. That's because hands- with conversations about what is occurring, are on and other "in-the-body" learning experiences the best method for developing children's sci- lay a foundation for creative abstract thinking ence process skills. These experiences go beyond that may not fully bear fruit until years later. improving science skills to improving reading skills, language skills, creativity, and attitudes Even the U. S. Department of Education, a toward science. Fortunately, these hands-on sci- major booster of high-tech classrooms, does not ences experiences are ones that most children emphasize computer technology in its own enjoy.51 online summaries of what research suggests actually works in science education. Instead, it Experts on science education add that
V.? 58 childhood essentials even older children, ages 9 to, 12, still learn best Overreliance on computer-generated models.56 through hands-on experiences. They note that The current interest in "Web-based children do not need expensive equipment to education" and ubiquitous Internet access for "do science." On the contrary, often everyday every student, from the age of five up, assumes life provides the best opportunities, as described that a lack of access to information has been a in one museum's guide for parents: "Sometimes major problem in elementary schools. Actually, science opportunities happen when you least experts on math and science education have expect them. Your child may notice a spider argued just the opposite. They have concluded, spinning its web on the way to the store, or soil in part based on analyses of the disappointing getting washed away on a rainy day, or a full performance of American students in moon shining. It's worth getting a little wet or international comparisons, that American dirty, or losing a little sleep sometimes."52 children have been subjected to far too broad The Education Department's guide for and too shallow a sweep of scientific parents also notes that for children, simple is information.57 A deeper, less sweeping but more often best: "Opportunities for positive science personally engaging approach exactly what experiences can be found in kitchens, yards, hands-on classes embody would serve our parks, science museums, beaches, nature children better, science educators have argued. centers, and even toy boxes... It is important to William H. Schmidt, U. S. coordinator for remember that often the simplest experiences the Third International Math and Science may produce the most profound learning."53 Study, argues that the curriculum in American Neal Lane, the president's top adviser for schools is "a mile wide and an inch deep... science and technology policy, made a similar Concentrating instruction on fewer key point in offering "holiday toy tips" to parents, concepts could substantially improve science while he was still director of the National literacy."58 Likewise, numerous studies have Science Foundation. Parents, he said, should pointed to the exploration of real phenomena in consider "simple toys that kindle their child's the physical world as the a priori of science natural curiosity," and that "stimulate creativity literacy. In a special 1999 review of what experts and thinking skills." A Slinky, he suggested, in science education recommend, Scientific teaches fundamentals of wave motion, and a American reported: "Real-world research that pocket-size illuminated magnifier "can cost less allows kids to test their own theories is best for than $10 and provides a wonderland view of teaching science."59 nature for children. Simply add insects to create But the Internet's infinite trail of links a hands-on science experience."54 discourages concentration on key concepts. Computer simulations are becoming Thomas Sherman of the Virginia Polytechnic popular classroom resources. But some Institute and State University has pointed out educators and scientists question the impact of that educators sensitive to young children's exposing young children to them.55 And developmental needs actually try to "limit scientists are beginning to call for more direct children's access to information by simplifying observation in the field and practical experience messages and sequencing contents." Their even in their own research to correct an intent is to avoid overwhelming children with
64 childhood essentials 59 information that is so outside their experience pitches of speaking and listening. All five senses they can neither understand nor assimilate it. are involved as the infant, held close, feels and Given that many adults experience hears the rhythm of the parent's heart and "information fatigue syndrome," the sheer breath, as well as the vibrations of whatever the volume of information from Web surfing could parent may say or sing. Such warm, close be very confusing to children whose intellects interactions with loving adults literally, the are still maturing, Sherman adds.6° And flashy human touch have been shown in study after software simulations, with all conditions and study to promote language and literacy skills in outcomes predetermined, are the opposite of the most powerful and natural way.62 messy real-world exploration. Building on such early, emotionally On the other hand, when urban schools engaging experiences, children learn to listen with high proportions of low-income children and to speak as social and cultural acts. Later, use computers in the classroom, they tend to they learn to read and to write that is, to emphasize "drill and kill" remedial software, "listen" to the meaning of others' written which almost seems calculated to stamp out a words, and to express themselves in writing. So child's curiosity and wonder about the science orality, as well as touch, is an essential prelude of the real world. to literacy. According to Sanders: "There is an implicit racism in the rise of Literacy fits over orality like a protective glove, mind-numbing software in inner-city schools," following every contour and outline that oral- says Judah Schwartz, co-director of Harvard ity hands it. Orality provides the rhythms, the University's Educational Technology Center. intonations, and pitches, the very feelings, that "Lock up such software in the closet."61 find final expression in writing... Children need to hear language in order to learn language. This may sound like a tautology, but a child Conversation, Poetry, must hear language spoken by a live human Storytelling, and Books Read being. Conversely, a living human being must Aloud with Beloved Adults listen to the child, and suffer through all the millions of questions and complaints. An elec- A rich diet of face-to-face, oral conversations tronically simulated voice will not work.63 with parents, teachers, and other caring adults provides the basic nourishment children need to Kate Moody, the University of Texas reading succeed in reading, writing, and many other expert, stresses the importance of a child being forms of academic learning. able to count on one or more adults who will Literacy actually begins with being held and "talk them through their world." She writes that fed, writes Barry Sanders of Pitzer College in A "conversational experience, which can be Is for Ox: Violence, Electronic Media, and the provided by any caring adult, is of immense Silencing of the Word. Nursing, Sanders notes, importance to the child's emerging abilities to provides a "fundamental, kinesthetic connection listen, pay attention, follow directions, develop to literacy." Vigorous sucking strengthens the vocabulary and interact socially. "64 infant's respiratory system, which later Such conversations are by no means simple contributes to the rhythms and patterns and exchanges of information or one-sided
65. 60 childhood essentials entertainment. Adults who are in close, poems feed children's inner powers of image- prolonged contact with a child intuitively adjust making and wordsmithing. the complexity of their communication to the Finally, literacy thrives in an environment child's growing ability to comprehend verbal that is rich in books, with ample time for adults and nonverbal cues in conversation and to to read them to and with children. Reviews of express himself within a cultural context.65 Over research indicate that reading aloud to children time, such conversation helps children develop is "the most important activity for building the their own inner voice, which then becomes an knowledge and skills eventually required for invaluable guide, in the classroom and out, in reading. "68 planning and making choices. Here too, research suggests that direct Much of a child's learning about language human contact makes the difference. What takes place through nonsense rhymes, songs, seems to make reading aloud so powerful is the and other forms of word play through verbal conversation that accompanies it, as children games with adults and other children. Other and adults actively discuss the story in an children, too, provide the human emotionally secure environment. It seems that companionship necessary to practice language parents, teachers, and other adult readers, skills. One study found that children who talk through such conversation, can guide children together while playing tend to become better to move from the words and pictures in a text and earlier readers, especially if their play to their own imaginative pictures and to includes play with language, such as silly rhymes comprehend the stories by relating them to and tongue-twisters.66 their own experiences. Narratives, or stories, are essential to both As Senator James M. Jeffords, chair of the oral and written communication. Storytelling Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions captures the imaginations of children in ways Committee, has noted: that foster intellectual, emotional, and moral No matter how much technology we apply in growth. It also provides a literacy booster for the classroom, no matter how drastically our children that even parents who cannot read well educational system may change during the themselves can provide. Children love stories 21st century, nothing will ever take the place made up just for them; they love the recounting of a good book and a caring adult to share it. of family history. Rhymes also naturally captivate The quiet space of a book sets a child's imagi- children, and prepare them to treat words in nation free. And it is this first introduction to reading that will excite a child about learning reading as individual units that represent for the rest of his or her life.69 individual sounds with meanings attached to them. Research suggests that learning to read What about reading books on computer, rhymes is easier than learning to read straight with exciting graphics added? Isn't that even prose.67 more effective in promoting literacy? Some The element of rhythm in poetry and in good teachers report that the animation and other storytelling also aids school learning, as a basic multimedia features of electronic books are so sense of timing seems to help children learn to visually diverting that they actually distract read. The imagery and playfulness of stories and children from the story." One survey of
66 childhood essentials 61 computer-based reading programs found that Given what is now known about the few "have consistently proven to be effective and importance of sharing conversations and sharing few have produced substantial achievement gains books with adults as the basis for literacy, two in students' reading performance."71 There is recent educational trends are especially some evidence that computer programs can help troubling. children who have trouble understanding First, many school libraries, habitually language with pre-reading skills in phonological underfunded even before computers, are now awareness the awareness of letting their book collections individual sounds in words. But Children growing up today dwindle and using the money it's not clear that this translates will have nearly a third to buy computer hardware and into later success in reading. 72 fewer face-to-face software instead. In 1999, the The late Jeanne Chall, who interactions over the average cost of a school library was a leading expert in reading course of their lifetimes ... book was $16, but the median research, observed in more than human conversation, so expenditure for books in 300 schools before concluding vital to children's elementary school libraries was that the critical factor in emotional, social, and just $6.73.75 interesting children in reading intellectual development, is With elementary school was not the particular method on the wane. populations rapidly increasing, or technology but the teacher. the lack of money for the "It was what the teacher did [emphasis from the purchase of books is especially troubling original] with the method, the materials, and the because they are "the very place where a wide children rather than the method itself that variety of interesting books on many reading seemed to make the difference."73 levels can lead to a lifelong love of reading."76 Nor have computer programs designed to A major research review in 1993 found that the help children learn to write been particularly amount of time that children spend voluntarily effective. That may be due to inherent aspects of reading material they chose themselves is the technology itself, according to Alison positively related to reading comprehension, Armstrong and Charles Casement: vocabulary growth, spelling ability, grammar, and writing style. It also found that providing Unlike print, which encourages reflection and a careful consideration of various points of students with a large library collection is one view, computer software urges immediate effective way to boost reading achievement.77 action. Words and images on-screen invite Linda Wood, a Rhode Island librarian constant change or substitution that is, after representing the National Association of School all, one of the things the computer and the Librarians, put it simply, in testifying to the software it runs are designed to do. And the U. S. Senate in 1999: "There is no point faster you can manipulate what you see on the teaching a child how to read if there is nothing screen, the more control you appear to have over the technology you are using. Speed and for the child to read! It is not the method of control are emphasized at the expense of teaching reading that lies at the heart of any thoughtfulness and understanding.74 reading crisis; it is access to reading material."78 The second disturbing trend is the
67 BEST COPY MAILABLE 62 childhood essentials substitution of time with computers and other improvisation and recitation. Students need to electronic media for such live interactions, at hear stories, either made up by the teacher or home and at school. Children today are already read out loud. They need to make them up spending far less time with their parents than in themselves or try to retell them in their own the past according to one estimate, about 40 words... Good readers grow out of good percent less time than 30 years ago." Now, reciters and good speakers."82 even when parents are home, children are This approach is especially well suited to increasingly spending time alone. A 1999 study families where adult literacy is an issue. by the Fortino Group in Pittsburgh estimated As Stanford University Professor Larry Cuban that children growing up today will have nearly has argued, spending on adult literacy programs a third fewer face-to-face interactions over the which will both help prepare parents for the course of their lifetimes than the preceding job market and enable them to read with their generation. The difference is due to the children is a wiser expenditure of limited increasing time that children are spending at public dollars than school computers.83 school and at home, where they are often alone Poor families rely more on school libraries in their own rooms using electronic media of for books to read at home. Yet spending on all kinds.80 unproven technologies is siphoning tax dollars The amount of time that Americans of all from this proven educational practice. ages spend interacting with computers and Parents who may still be learning to master other electronic media, instead of speaking reading themselves could be empowered directly with each other, is now being cited by immediately by the kind of practical parenting educators and health-care professionals as a education that would encourage them to tell destructive trend for the social coherence of their children their own stories. A focus on families and communities.81 Human technology they can't afford at home may be a conversation, so vital to children's emotional, social, further blow to their confidence as parents and and intellectual development, is on the wane. to their children's self-confidence in school, as Emphasizing computers in the education of they learn to devalue their own handiwork in young children seems likely to exacerbate their comparison with others' glitzy printouts. deficits in such conversational experiences, not correct it. Instead of rushing into early In summary, the educational essentials academics with computer programs, families we advocate above share five features: and schools could renew the far more Each supports the development of developmentally appropriate curriculum of the full range of a child's human gifts, spoken, shared language. not just the intellect. "Let us take youngsters out of the linguistic Each is strongly supported by limbo they find themselves in and move them research and practical experience. back into the key experience they have missed orality," writes Barry Sanders. "The teaching Each was already endangered in of literacy has to be founded on a curriculum of schools before the current enthusi- song, dance, play, and joking, coupled with asm for computers.
68 BEST COPY AVAILABLE childhood essentials 63 "Challenging the Applications: An Alternative View Each is even more threatened by on Why, When, and How Computers Should Be Used in Education," unpublished paper, 1995. the new emphasis on computers. (Valdemar Setzer may be reached at the Institute of Mathematics and Statistics at the University of Sao Each is especially critical to the Paulo, Brazil, and Monke, formerly a teacher of education of our most socially and advanced computer technology in the Des Moines economically disadvantaged children. Public Schools, is now at Wittenberg University in Likewise, when computers replace Ohio.) them, the loss most harms our most 2 Bill Joy, "Why the Future Doesn't Need Us," at-risk children. Wired Magazine, April 1999.
3See,forexample, Herbert A. Simon, The pace and the power of high technology "Scientific OpportunitiesofLearningand cries out for real educational change. But the Intelligent Systems," Symposium Proceedings June 1996: Learning and Intelligent Systems, (National moral choices our children will confront will be Science Foundation, Arlington, VA: June 1999) p. the most demanding aspect of tomorrow's 32: "...That human computing system called the high-tech agenda. Therefore, the single brain." educational reform that is most critical for 4 Valdemar W. Setzer and Lowell Monke, op. educators, parents, and policymakers to begin cit., p. 34. implementing today is to enliven our schools 5 David Elkind, "Waldorf Education in the and our homes with these healthy essentials of a Postmodern World," Renewal: A Journal for human and humane education. Waldorf Education, (Fair Oaks, CA: Association of Waldorf Schools of North America, 1997) Vol. 6, No. 1, p.8. As Valdemar Setzer and Lowell Monke conclude, in arguing that such an agenda for 6 F. Mosteller, "The Tennessee Study of Class children is truly future-ciriented: Size in the Early School Grades," The Future of Children, (Los Altos, CA: David and Lucille Packard Our hope is that the introduction of computers Foundation, 1995) Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 113-127; U. only after a childhood environment steeped in S. Department of Education, "Reducing Class Size, love, beauty, and respect for children's natural, What Do We Know?" March 1999. holistic growth may make it possible for them 7See, for example, Chapter Two, reference 60, to put these machines in their proper place... of this report. We recognize that it will take courage to with- stand the pressures against it. Perhaps the most 8 The Charles A. Dana Center, The University important thing is to try. Right now, more of Texas at Austin, "Hope for Urban Education," than anything else, we need more voices chal- Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education Planning and Evaluation Service, 1999. lengingthetrendtoward technological dominance of education.84 9 Technology editor of Forbes Magazine, as quoted by Diane Ravitch, "Technology and the Curriculum: Promise and Peril." In White, M.A. (ed.) What Curriculum for the Information Age? (LEA, Hillsdale, NJ: 1987.) 1 Thomas M. Sherman, "Another Danger for 10 David W.Orr,"Educatingforthe Children?" Education Week, June 3, 1996, pp. 30, Environment," Change (Washington, DC: Heldref 32; and Valdemar W. Setzer and Lowell Monke, Publications) May/June 1995.
69 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 64 childhood essentials
11 Stephen Jay Gould, "Enchanted Evening," 26 Doris Pronin Fromberg, "An Agenda for Natural History, September 1991. Research on Play in Early Childhood Education," in Klugman and Smilansky, op. cit., p. 237. 12 E. 0. Wilson, Biophilia: The Human Bond With Other Species, Cambridge: Harvard University 27 "Review of Researchon Achieving the Press, 1984. Nation's ReadinessGoal:Technical Report," Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education 13 Stephen R.Kellert, Kinship to Mastery: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Biophilia in Human Evolution and Development, 1993, p. 41. (Island Press, Washington, DC: 1997) p. 207. 28 Sheila G. Flaxman, "What Happened to 14 William Crain, "Love of Nature: Lessons Play?" Education Week, February 16, 2000, pp. 28, from the Lakota," Holistic Education Review, No. 8, 30. Holistic Education Press, 1995, pp. 27-35. 29 Jane M. Healy, Failure to Connect, New 15 As described by Stephen R. Kellert,op. cit.,' York: Simon & Schuster, 1998, pp. 224-225. p. 167. 30 Fergus P. Hughes, Children, Play and 16 Ibid, p. 166. Development, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1998; and Dorothy J. Singer and Jerome L. Singer, Partners in 17NationalScienceBoard,"Children, Play, New York: Harper & Row, 1977. Computers, Cyberspace," Science and Engineering Indicators 1998, pp. 8-23. 31 Fergus P. Hughes, Op. Cit.
18 As quoted in Alison Armstrong and Charles 32 Nancy Foster, "How Do You Choose Toys Casement, The Child and the Machine, Beltsville, and Play Materials for the Classrooms?" In a MD: Robins Lane Press, 2000, p. 196. Nutshell, Silver. Spring, MD: Acorn Hill Children's Center, May, 1999. 19 David W. Orr, Earth in Mind, Washington, DC: Island Press, 1994, p. 96-97. 33 Walt Disney Home Video Press Release (June 5, 1998) as quoted in The TV-Free American, 20 Dale Russakoff, "Mind Games for Tech Washington, DC: TV-Free America, 1998, Vol. 4, Success: You've Got toPlayto Win,"The No. 2, p. 6. Washington Post, May 8, 2000, p. A01. 34 Sara Smilansky, The Effects of Sociodramatic 21 Anna Murline, "What's Your Favorite Class? Play on Disadvantaged Preschool Children, New Most kids would say recess. Yet many schools are York: Wiley & Sons, 1968. cutting back on unstructured schoolyard play." U. S. "Sociodramatic Play:Its Relevance to News and World Report, May 2000, Vol. 128, No. Behaviour and Achievement in School," in Klugrhan 17, pp. 50-52. and Smilansky (eds), op. cit., pp. 18-42.
22Edgar Klugman and SaraSmilansky, 35 Much of this research is summarized by Children's Play and Learning: Perspectives and Policy Charles Fowler in Strong Arts, Strong Schools: The Implications, New York: Teachers College Press, Promising Potential and Shortsighted Disregard of the 1990, p. 251. Arts in American Schooling, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 23 Ibid,p. 255. 36 Eliot W. Eisner, "The Role of Art and Play in 24 James E. Johnson, "The Role of Play in Children's Cognitive Development," in E. Klugman CognitiveDevelopment," inKlugmanand and S. Smilansky, op. cit., pp. 43-56. Smilansky, op. cit., pp. 213-234. 37 Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory 25 Dale Russakoff,op. cit. of Multiple Intelligences, New York: Basic Books, 1983. 70 childhood essentials 65 Transforming Ideas for Teaching and Learning 38 Eliot W. Eisner, op. cit., p. 38. Science.A GuideforElementaryScience Education," Washington, DC: U. S. Department of 39 Charles Fowler, op. cit., p. 53. Education, 1993.
40 Ibid, pp.12-13; and Todd Openheimer, 51 Peter Rillero, "Doing Science With Your "The Computer Delusion," Atlantic Monthly, July Children," from the ERIC Clearinghouse for 1997. Science Mathematics and Environmental Education, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 41 Kate Moody, "Cutting School 'Frills' Puts 1994. Our Young ReadersatReal Risk,"Houston Chronicle, Oct. 3, 1999, Section C. 52 North Carolina Museum of Life and Science, "Sharing Science with Children: A Guide for 42 Martin Gardiner et al., "Learning Improved Parents" North Carolina Museum of Life and by Arts Training," Nature, May 23, 1996. Science, Durham, NC: undated.
43 Ontario Arts CounCil, The Arts and the 53 Peter Rillero, op. cit. Quality of Life: The Attitudes of Ontarians, Ontario Arts Council: Toronto: 1995, p. 28. 54 Neal Lane, "NSF Tipsheet: NSF Director Offers Science Toy Tips," Washington, DC: 44 Charles L. Gray, Transforming Ideas for National Science Foundation, Dec. 19, 1997, p. 1. Teaching and Learning the Arts, ( U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC: 1997) p. 6; and 55 Larry Miller and John Olson, "How Arline Monks, "Waldorf Approach Offers Hope in Computers Live inSchools,"Educational Schools for Juvenile Offenders," The Journal of Leadership, Oct. 1995, p. 75. Court, Community and Alternative Schools, JuvenileCourt, Community, and Alternative 56 See, for example, Cheryl Lyn Dybas, Schools Administrators of California: 1997) Vol. 9, "Appetite for Slow-Reproducing Fish Breeds Worry pp. 12-15. Over Stocks," Washington Post, Oct. 27, 1997, p. A3, which notes the concerns of some biologists that 45 Charles Fowler, op. cit., pp.12-13. their colleagues gather more data about the sustain- ability of fisheries by actually making personal, on- 46 Thomas M. Sherman, "Another Danger for the-scene observations at the fisheries. As one Children?" Education Week, June 3, 1996, p. 4D; oceanographer said: "There is a paramount need in and Jane Healy, op. cit. Also, see Arthur Harvey, the future of fisheries science for factual data on the "An Intelligence View of Music Education," Leka environment of fish and fewer theoretical assump- Nu Hou, the Hawaiian Music Educators Association tions derived by scientists working with computers, Bulletin, February 1997. out of touch with nature." 47 Anne E.Cunningham and Keith E. 57 W. Wayt Gibbs and Douglas Fox, "The False Stanovich, "Early Spelling Acquisition: Writing Crisis in Science Education," Scientific American, Beats the Computer," Journal of Educational October 1999, p. 88. Psychology (1990) Vol. 82, No. 1, p. 159. 58 Scientific American, "Six Steps Toward 48 F.James Rutherford, "Hands-on: A Means Science and Math Literacy,Scientific American, to an End," Project 2061 Today, Washington, DC: October, 1999, p. 92-93. American Association for the Advancement of Science, March 1993, Vol. 3, No. 1. 59 Scientific American, op. cit.
49 Steve Talbott, The Future Does Not Compute, 60 Sherman, op. cit. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly & Associates, 1995, p. 371. 61 Armstrong and Casement, op.cit., p. 197. 50 Mary Lewis Sivertsen, "State of the Art: 62Barry Sanders, A Is for Ox: Violence, Electronic
v 71 66 childhood essentials
Media, and the Silencing of the Written Word, New 78 Wood,op. cit. York: Pantheon, 1994, especially pp. 188-191. 79 Marilyn B. Benoit, "ViolenceIs as American as Apple Pie," American Academy of Child and 63 Ibid, p. 35. Adolescent Psychiatry News, Washington, DC: AACAP, March-April, 1997, p. 20. 64 Kate Moody,op. cit. 80 Sara Hammel, "Generationof Loners? 65 Jerome Bruner, Child's Talk: Learning to Use Living Their Lives Online," U. S. News and World Language, New York: Norton, 1983. Report, Nov. 29, 1999, p. 79. 66 A. D. Pellegrini and L. Galda,"Ten Years 81 John L. Locke, The De-Voicingof Society: After: A Reexamination of Symbolic Play and Why We Don't Talk to Each Other Anymore, New Literacy Research," Reading Research Quarterly, York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. Vol. 28, No. 2, 1993, pp. 163-175. 82 Sanders, op. cit., p. 243. 67 Marilyn Jager Adams, Beginningto Read: Thinking and Learning About Print, Cambridge: 83 Larry Cuban, "Is Spending MIT Press, 1990, p. 321. Money on Technology Worth It?" Education Week, Feb. 23, 2000. 68 Adams,op.cit.,p. 86. See also R. C. Anderson et al., Becoming a Nation of Readers: The 84 Valdemar W. Setzer and LowellMonke, op. Report of the Commission on Reading, Pittsburgh: cit., p. 35 National Academy of Education, 1985, p. 23.
69 Sen. James M. Jeffords, OfficialStatement, Hearing on the Reauthorization of the Elementary andSecondaryEducationAct,theSenate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions, U. S. Senate, May 20, 1999.
70 Armstrong and Casement,op. cit., pp. 85-86.
71 John Schacter, Reading Programs thatWork: A Review of Programs for Pre-Kindergarten to Fourth Grade, Santa Monica, CA: Milken Family Foundation, 1999, p. 19.
72 Ibid.
73 Jeanne Chall, Learningto Read: The Great Debate, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967, p. 270.
74 Armstrong and Casement,pp. 11-12.
75 Linda Wood, representing schoollibrarians, Statement at Hearing of the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee on the Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, U. S. Senate, May 20, 1999.
76 Ibid.
77 Stephen Krashen, The Powerof Reading, Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO: 1993.
72 chapter four Technology Literacy:1 Educating Children to Create Their Own Future
"My association with attempts to create programs for educational uses at the Lawrence Hall of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the University of Minnesota has been disappointing ...Like the phonograph, radio, and television, the computer will transform education Not!"
Robert W. Seidel, director of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, in an online debate about computers in education, hosted by the Chronicle of Higher Education: Jan. 14, 1998.
"TECHNOLOGY LITERACY" IS INCREASINGLY help them achieve this kind of sophisticated becoming an explicit goal of schools throughout technology literacy. We must start by the country. But few educators, parents, or recognizing that there are at least three main policymakers have a clear idea of what they aspects to the task: mean by that phrase.2 In the broadest sense, technology literacy 1. Knowing how to use or operate begins at an early age, in an informal way, long particular tools. before students begin to use computers. 2. Understanding, at least in a Whether they are banging on pots and pans to rudimentary way, how they work. make music or inventing new games with sticks 3. Developing the capacity to think and string, young children spend much of their critically, for one's self, about the time developing their tool-using capacities. entire realm of designing, using and Children's lives are full of technologies of every adapting technologies to serve kind, and they gradually develop a variety of personal, social, and ecological goals relationships with a whole range of tools. in ways that will sustain life on earth. Consequently, the first challenge in addressing this issue is to expand our own conception of technology literacy far beyond the current As children turn simple objects into tools narrow focus on computer skills. for their own use, they nearly always learn at all Older students must eventually come to three levels. They intuitively explore not only grips quite consciously with the profound and how the objects work but also how they fit into pervasive impact that technologies of all kinds the world they make for themselves. from the simplest to the most complex Unfortunately, when it comes to high have had, and will have, in their own lives and technology, schools generally focus only on the on society.3 As parents and teachers, we can first level. It is the simplest to learn, but also the
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Today leaders among our technical elite least important for students, given how rapidly ... argue that scientific and technological illiteracy have any particular high-tech tool is likely to become reached epidemic proportions, threatening outdated. Schools frequently neglect the second, national economic well-being and democracy leaving even older students mystified and itself. According to the Clinton administration, overawed by the inner workings of sophisticated "The lifelong responsibilities of citizenship hardware and software. And they almost increasingly rely on scientific and technological uniformly ignore the third, which is the most literacy for informed choices." However, if critical and the most appropriate task of the the most important knowledge about a tech- nology involves not its internal principles of three for publicly-funded education. operation butitsstructural bearing on In a democracy, the point of technology democracy, then presumably the latter kind of literacy is to prepare students to be morally knowledge should constitute the very core of responsible citizens, actively participating in technological literacy. Yet experts, even the shaping the nation's technological future, rather elite, typically know little about this first-order than merely reacting to it as passive consumers. issue not even that it is an issue. Must one not reluctantly include among the technolog- All technologies, after all, have social effects and ically illiterate in that term's socially most many have had profound moral and political meaningful sense the majority of technical repercussions as well. No technology is the experts?6 result of inevitable forces. Its design and its pattern of use reflect a series of human choices Considering the importance of preparing some explicit and some tacit. For that young people for the moral responsibilities of reason, it is possible to imagine alternative making decisions about technology, it seems designs and alternative patterns of use that scandalous how little space this issue gets in might have resulted and might yet result public discussions of education. In the interest, from different choices.4 therefore, of provoking the discourse, we offer Helping all students prepare to take part in here four suggestions for educators, parents, this kind of democratic decision-making is a and policymakers who are interested in major new challenge for educators precisely developing more thoughtful approaches to because advanced technologies have become so technology literacy. dominant in our culture. Ultimately, how well our schools and colleges educate students for 1.In early childhood and at least this kind of thoughtful technological citizenship throughout elementary school, is far more critical to the future of democracy concentrate on developing the child's than how well they train students to operate the own inner powers, not exploiting latest generation of computers. external machine power. Richard Sclove, founder of the Loka Institute and author of Democracy and Technology, argues that technology has such profound social impact Knowledgeable, caring teachers not that it is itself a form of politics.5 A thorough machines are best able to mediate between grasp of technology as politics, he suggests, is as young children and the world. Low-tech tools essential to real technology literacy as it is rare: like crayons, watercolors, and paper nourish the
74 technology literacy 69 child's inner capacities and encourage the child that occurs within themselves. We also model for to freely move in, directly relate to, and them the critical thinking skills so essential to a understand the real world. Simple objects like humane technological future. As adults they are blocks, balls, and ribbons stimulate connections more likely to feel able to choose among a range between the rich world of the child's imagination of technologies from the simplest to the most and the equally rich physical world in ways no complex based on which provides the best complex symbolic machine can. means for the task at hand. In the same way, a well-loved teacher who Incontrast, children trained from the helps draw the child's inner life and the world's earliest ages to expect that they will need outer reality together is a much more inspiring computers for even the most elementary lessons and appropriate model for the child to imitate may experience learning as a manipulation of than a programmed machine. Recent research random facts stored in an electronic box outside confirms the importance of such strong themselves, behind a seemingly all-knowing emotional bonds between children and live, screen. Such children receive a debilitating caring adults for healthy intellectual message: that they unlike generations of development. children before them are incapable of Such an emphasis in the early grades will also learning the basic skills of arithmetic, reading, boost children's confidence in their own abilities and writing without expensive and sophisticated and their own identity as active, competent machines. learners. It will prepare them to relate later to The approach recommended here is as more advanced technologies as tools that they practical as it is pedagogically sound. Parents can learn to operate with the same self- who worry about their, child's typing, word- confidence and sense of personal competence processing, spreadsheet, and Web search skills that they developed using simpler technologies. (the underlying fear, of course, is about earning Peter Nitze, global operations director at a decent living) should consider what every AlliedSignal (an aerospace and automotive- experienced technology instructor knows: all of products manufacturer), made just that point in these skills can be taught in a one-semester speaking about his own elementary education in course for older students. Must kindergarten a hands-on environment that de-emphasized students really be trained to operate high-tech technology: machinery to get a jump start on job skills? Is our economic outlook really so desperate and If you've had the experience of binding a book, knitting a sock, playing a recorder, then the development of our children's autonomy so you feel that you can build a rocket ship or inconsequential as that? learnasoftware program you'venever In fact, students who use computers touched. It's not a bravado, just a quiet confi- intensively from early childhood could find dence. There is nothing you can't do. Why themselves at a later disadvantage in the job couldn't you? Why couldn't anybody?7 market. They may suffer repetitive stress injuries As young students grow in their own skills that result in permanent impairment. They will and their understanding of the world, they have more obsolete "computer skills" to experience learning as a living transformation unlearn. And, if their early learning years are 70 technology literacy
too much focused on computers instead of constant technical retraining, perhaps out of more developmentally appropriate kinds of play, fear of being discarded themselves. But they are they may be deficient in creativity, imagination, not likely to have learned how to stand apart and problem-solving abilities the very skills from the integrated technology and decide that companies most want in young workers. whether this is the work that ought to be done, Albert Einstein, explaining his path to or the kind of life they really want to live. They formulating the theory of relativity, noted that may achieve mental flexibility within the limits as a young child he lagged behind other of the computer 'environment. But the cost children in intellectual and social development. could well be mental rigidity in shaping that It was this very slowness in developing, he environment, or venturing beyond it. Those suggested, that later served him well. It meant trained from preschool to think primarily that when he finally did consider the "within the electronic box" are likely to be the relationship of space and time as an adult, he least capable of imagining creative alternatives brought a powerful combination of intellectual apart from those suggested by the technical maturity, freshness, and a sense of childhood system itself. wonder to the task. In contrast, most other adults had already accepted the conventional 2. Infuse the study of ethics and ideas on those subjects: responsibility into every technology- training program offered in school. When I ask myself why it should have been me, rather than anyone else, who discovered the relativity theory, I think that this was due to the following circumstance: An adult does not Given the profound impact of computer reflect on space-time problems. Anything that technology on contemporary life, we have a needs reflection on this matter he believes he pressing educational responsibility to direct our did in his early childhood. I, on the other students' attention to the social issues related to hand, developed so slowly that I only began to it. This starts with simple, straightforward tasks reflect about space and time when I was grown such as teaching good "Netiquette" the up. Naturally I then penetrated more deeply appropriate manners employed in online into these problems than an ordinary child would.8 communication before students get their own e-mail accounts. It extends to complex Current high-tech tools will be updated issues regarding global responsibility and several times and probably replaced long before cultural awareness that should be a prerequisite today's first-graders graduate from high school. to Web access. (The World Wide Web didn't even exist 12 Few educators are even aware that such years ago.) It makes little sense to waste issues exist. But the issues are not new. Twenty precious time wiring the developing brains of years ago Joseph Weizenbaum, one of the young children to what will soon be yesterday's pioneers of computer science at the hardware and software. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The high-school graduates of such a system reminded his teaching colleagues that social may be well indoctrinated into the need for obligations with regard to computer technology
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"begin from the principle that the range of gradually demystify the black boxes that one's- responsibilities must be commensurate otherwise, when unthinkingly accepted, gain with the range of the effects of one's actions."9 improper authority over our lives. In the age of global telecomputing the Helping students gain a deep grasp of the range of each person's actions is enormous. And history and technology underlying the so, therefore, are each one's responsibilities. computer is hard work, however just as We are now placing in students' hands teaching physics or American history is hard machines more powerful and with a far greater work. If there is technophobia in education, it is reach than any tools young people have ever the unwillingness of educators and schools to before possessed. The demand that students be do this hard work by genuinely confronting the given the opportunities these machines afford computer. As with television's sad history, the has been loud and unrelenting. Yet the voices easiest course is just to abandon our children to grow weak when it comes to the profound whatever the technology delivers. And, as with responsibilities we all have in using these television, the easiest course is also the least powerful machines for the benefit of humanity healthy. rather than simply exploiting them for our own A high-school course that started with the personal profit or pleasure. basics of-simple electrical circuits and advanced To send young people out into the world to the fundamental design of televisions and with great skill in operating these machines but computers would help correct this omission. no ethical instruction to guide their use is Basic comprehension of these technologies educationally and socially irresponsible. Real would begin to counteract the awe and technology literacy will be based on an deference that children and adults often lavish investigation of ethical issues surrounding the on machines today. use of powerful technologies. The focus on To better understand the basic principles of ethical questions should continue throughout how computers function, students could take the time that these powerful technologies are apart and reassemble a very simple version of a made available to students in school. computer. They could learn what algorithms are, the sort of tasks for which the computer's 3. For high school students, consider algorithmic processing is proficient, and the making the study of the fundamentals kinds for which it is less useful. They could of how computers work part of the learn, for example, why computers are perfectly core curriculum. designed to sort and manage massive amounts of information that can be easily categorized. It's one thing for students simply to learn And they could learn that computers cannot how to use computers. But to develop any real be trusted to make appropriate decisions based control over them, students must understand on that information alone because they are how information technologies fit into the unable to understand the context of any history of humanity's toolmaking, and how particular situation. Through such an computers do their work. By formalizing this investigation students would come to a better study, schools can help high-school students understanding of which aspects of the human
77 72' technology literacy mind these manmade logic machines reflect, which a scientific discovery leads inexorably to a and which aspects of our humanity they do not. particular technological innovation.. This would encourage critical thinking In recent years, professional associations of about what the technology is good for, and scientists and engineers have strongly what it is not so good for. Students would then recommended that schools add the history of be prepared to analyze for themselves the vast science and technology to their regular history gulf between the spectacular gifts of mind, curricula because of the crucial roles they have body, and heart that being human entails and played in human cultures. Scholars who study the infinitely more narrow range of operations the history of technology agree that a complex that defines the most advanced machine. They dynamic exists by which human societies both would come to recognize that the computer, by shape technologies and are, in turn, shaped by its very nature as a logic machine, is capable of them. As the pace of technological change embodying more tendencies, biases, quickens, that issue looms ever larger. A assumptions, cultural imperatives, and hidden substantial literature already exists to support agendas than any other technology ever teachers who challenge students to analyze developed. And they would be intellectually critically this pressing question: Are they doing primed to explore for themselves what those the shaping, or are they being shaped? biases are. If such education is to be more than mere propaganda, however, it must help students 4. Make the history of technology as explore the full range of cultural effects a social force a part of every high school associated with science and technology what student's schooling. Howard P. Segal, professor of history at the University of Maine, calls "the mixed blessings This could be done as a separate course on of technology in America."10 Again, educators the philosophy or sociology of technology, or as will find many competing scholarly positions to an ongoing part of social studies and other draw from in helping students think about this courses, as is now done with concerns about issue for themselves. For example, students multiculturalism and gender issues or both. might study the checkered history of the The goal of such instruction would be to help automobile as both America's dream machine, students understand that technologies, from fire in terms of speed and freedom, and a leading to the most advanced information devices, have suspect in the generation of smog, flight from had profound social, political, and urban neighborhoods, and global warming. environmental consequences, both positive and They might study the more recent advent of negative, intended and unintended, throughout genetic engineering, both in animals and crops, human history. and the benefits and problems that may be Such instruction should also clarify, through realized by this technological innovation. The historical analysis, how the use of technology is issues are not hard to find that they are rooted in social choices and political processes. extremely difficult to resolve makes it all the That is, technologies are social products not more imperative that their study be undertaken the result of some inevitable chain reaction in in our schools.
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TECHNOLOGY LITERACY: Guidelines for a MoreDemocratic Future
1. In early childhoodand at least through elementaryschool, concentrate on developingthe child's own inner powers,not exploiting external machine powers. technology train- 2. Infuse the studyof ethics and responsibility into every ing program offered inschool.
the study of the fundamen- 3. For high schoolstudents, consider making tals of how computerswork part of the core curriculum. and political force a part of 4. Make the historyof technology as a social every highschool student's schooling.
Because computers and other new computer is, was, and will be a weapon. The information technologies are wielding an ever- tool can be used for other purposes, but to be expanding influence on all our daily lives, promoted as an instrument of liberation, information technologies should be a high [computer-mediated communications] should priority for this kind of critical historical be seen within the contexts of its origins, and in analysis. full cognizance of the possibly horrific future This would include, for example, the U.S. applications by totalitarians who get their hands military's leadership in funding and promoting on it.12 many of the major innovations in computer The Goal of Technology Literacy technology over the last 50 years. This reflects the pivotal role that computers played in All this should be seen as a fundamental strategic Cold War planning for using or responsibility of education in a computerized defending against nuclear weapons and their world. If we do not help our children gain a expanding role in current military strategies for sound understanding of the computer, they will using information to dominate any battlefield.11 inevitably defer to it in unhealthy ways. We By studying the motivation and purpose already see far too many cases of students behind the development of the computer and saying, "It's on the Internet. It must be right." related technologies, students will better be able These recommendations depend and build to judge the value of the inherent qualities built on a childhood that rejects a subservient into the technology and what purposes it serves attitude toward the machine. Instead, schools best, and least. Internet pioneer and technology can help children develop a healthy, expert Howard Rheingold points out that "a autonomous sense of self and a gradually
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as deeply as the other resources listed above. But it expanding, humane relationship to the world. does represent an unusual effort to help teachers and As young people move toward that goal, they students from fourth grade up go beyond mere will be able to determine for themselves the technical issues in thinking about technology. At http://KnowledgeContext.org. appropriate place for computers and other technologies in their deepening relationship with 2 See, for example, thestory of how officials at the world, rather than have that relationship the National Science Foundation coined the term "computer literacy" in the 1970s precisely because defined by the technology. "nobody can define it... It was a broad enough term Ultimately, that should be the goal of that you could get all of these programs [in comput- technology literacy: to enable young people to er-based instruction] together under one roof," as one NSF official put it. Recounted by Douglas D. develop their own creative and critical capacities Noble in "Mad Rushes into the Future: The in relating to technology, not to train them to Overselling of Educational Technology," be machine operators. Then they will clearly see Educational Leadership, November 1996, pp. 18-23. that their own choices are not limited to adjusting 3 See, for example, Langdon Winner, The Whale themselves to a 21st century determined by and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of technology. Instead, this new generation will have High Technology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, for a penetrating and readable analysis the awareness, the moral and ethical sensibilities, of the social, political, and philosophicalimplica- and the will to adjust technology to fit into their tions of technology. 21st century. 4 Richard E. Sclove, Democracy and Technology, New York: Guilford Press, 1995, especially p. 19. In this groundbreaking book, Sclove provides a com- 1 An excellent resource for educators,parents, prehensive vision for achieving a more democratic policymakers,and anyoneelseinterestedin politics of technology. technologyliteracyis ConfrontingTechnology p. 102. (www.grinnell.edu/ individuals/ MONKE/ books. html), 5 Ibid, a Website developed by computer-science educator Lowell Monke of Wittenberg University. The site 6 Ibid,p. 53. includes an annotated bibliography of texts that emphasize critical thinking in reflecting on the 7ToddOppenheimer,"Schoolingthe impact of technology, as well as our roles and Imagination," Atlantic Monthly, September 1999. responsibilities in designing and using technologies. 8 Quoted froma letter Einstein wrote to a col- Also, for innovative approaches to promoting league, the Nobel laureate James Franck, by the democratic participation in the design, use, and eval- author Albrecht Folsing, in Albert Einstein: A uation of technologies, see the website of the Loka Biography, translated from the German by Ewald Institute, www.loka.org. Osers, Viking Press, 1997, p. 13.
Also, see NetFuture, an online newsletter that 9 Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and deals with technology and human responsibility, at Human Reason: From Judgment toCalculation, www.netfuture.org. NewYork: W. H. Freeman, 1976, p.261.
Also, see the Website of Knowledge Context, a 10 Howard P.Segal, Future Imperfect: The nonprofit group in the San Francisco Bay area that Mixed Blessings of Technology in America, Amherst: offers a sample curriculum for learning about tech- University of Massachusetts Press, 1994. nology in the context of history, science, mathemat- ics, and language arts.Its curriculum does not 11 Fora clear account of the Pentagon's histor- appear, from the information posted on the Web, to ical role and continuing interest in promoting the probe technology's social and political ramifications development and the commercial success of new
80 technology literacy 75 computer technologies with important military applications,see The White House National Economic Council, National Security Council, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Second to None: Preserving America's Military Advantage Through Dual-Use Technology, The White House, February 1995. The report notes that the Department of Defense "funded nearlyall of the early R&D [research and development] in computers, setting the stage for the vibrant commercial industry... Although the role of defense investment is less cen- tral now, DoD can still accelerate and influence the direction of new technologies" (p. 15).
The National Science and Technology Council's report, Technology in the National Interest, explains that "thirty-five years ago, U.S. war planners under- took an effort to ensure the survivability of America's computing and communications capabili- ties in a nuclear first strike to preserve a credible U.S. retaliatory capability. From this initiative the first network, ARPAnet, was established, allowing geo- graphically separated researchers to share computer resources and laying the foundations for today's Information Superhighway" (Executive Office of the President of the United States, 1996, p. 66.)
12 Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community:HomesteadingontheElectronic Frontier, New York: HarperPerennial, 1994, p. 290.
rr 81 chapter five Real Costs: Computers Distract Us From Children's Needs
"I've probably spearheaded giving away more computer equipment to schools than anybody on the planet. But I've come to the conclusion that the problem is not one that technology can hope to solve. What's wrong with education cannot be fixed with technology. No amount of technology will make a dent." Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple Computer, in Wired Magazine, Feb., 1996.
OUR NATIONAL INFATUATION WITH COMPUTERS estimate. Yearly spending has more than in early childhood and elementary education is doubled since the 1994-1995 school year, rising diverting scarce resources from children's real from about $3.6-billion that year to an unmet needs. To what extent is the push to estimated $7.8-billion for 1999-2000. Those computerize childhood driven by the profit numbers are primarily based on reports by imperative and political power of high- Quality Education Data (QED), a company tech industries? How much of it is fueled by that conducts a detailed yearly survey.' It does adults' fears about their own ability to keep up not separate out figures for elementary schools. with the pace of technological and cultural Other companies also collect and sell similar change? Is it reasonable to expect that training information. But no official government young children to operate powerful machines estimate of trends in technology spending machines doomed to obsolescence long exists, let alone specific data on elementary before they apply for their first job will schools, according to the National Center on somehow inoculate them against tomorrow's Education Statistics.2 economic uncertainties? Can we afford to The high costs of computerizing early ignore what we know about the health and childhood and elementary education are likely welfare of growing children to pursue to grow much higher both in dollars spent educational policies that are fear-based and and in opportunities lost to meet children's far profit-driven? more pressing needs. The Clinton administration has been urging schools to adopt its goal of one The Real Costs of Educational multimedia computer for every five children, Technology Internet access in every classroom from U.S. public schools have spent more than kindergarten on up, and the software, training, $27 billion on computer technology and related and support services necessary to realize its expenses in the last five years, based on one vision of training all teachers to use computers
77 82 78 real costs to teach every academic subject.3 percent on technology-related training and How close are schools to meeting these professional development.9 federal goals? The Department of Education has Estimates of the total cost, over time, for estimated that 100 percent of schools are likely schools to fully realize the administration's goals to be connected to the Internet by the end of start at about $47 billion.10 Almost none of 2000.4 By the fall of 1999, 94 percent of these estimates, however, include money to elementary schools had access to the Internet, protect children from eye strain and repetitive according to the Education Department. But stress injuries. This health issue the only about 62 percent of elementary classrooms ergonomic design of computer workstations so did. And the ratio of students to that they properly fit the growing computers with Internet access was children who use them has been The initial 11 to 1 in elementary schools. largely ignored by schools, the costs of Schools that serve high federal government, and other coniputerizing proportions of low-income students proponents of school computers. classrooms are are lagging behind. Those in which Few data are available on this issue. just the at least 71 percent of the students But it seems likely to add billions or beginning. qualified for free or reduced-price even tens of billions of dollars to lunches had one computer with school computing costs." Internet access for every 16 students in the fall The initial costs of computerizing of 1999. Only 39 percent of their classrooms classrooms are just the beginning. Maintaining had computers with Internet access. Schools the machines and networks is a huge continuing with no more than 11 percent of students expense: the repair and maintenance of qualifying for free or reduced-price lunches had equipment, retraining, and the frequent one computer with Internet access computer replacement of hardware and software, given for every 7 students. And 74 percent of their how quickly they become obsolete or simply classrooms had at least one such computer.5 boring. Schools are training students and Between 1990 and 1998 the ratio of teachers to be avid educational "consumers," computers in K-12 schools went from one for demanding the excitement of one new product every 20 students to one for every 6 students.6 after another. A 1995 report from SRI Many classroom computers are older models International refers to this effect as a powerful that can't run the latest multimedia software, "technology appetite." however. Multimedia computers represented "As soon as more powerful computers are only about 57 percent of schools' instructional introduced, no one wants to use the older, hardware base in 1998-1999.7 slower machines," SRI notes. "Even if the And schools are still spending far less on school does not get new hardware, teachers' teacher training than most experts say is and students' technology activities will lead necessary at least 30 percent of total them to read about newer technologies technology spending if schools expect the available elsewhere, with an attendant new machines to do more than gather dust.8 In frustration if they cannot have the same 1998-1999, for example, they spent less than 8 technology in their own school."12
83 real costs 79 gogical approaches actually are best for A panel of President Clinton's advisers in children?18 science and technology policy urged K-12 public schools in 1997 to earmark at least 5 Schools will have to make significant percent of their total budget roughly $15 cuts in other programs to come up with billion for the academic year 1999-200013 billions more for technology.19 every year, from now on, for technology-related There is both "a relative dearth" of expenses. That would be nearly twice what high-quality software and digital content schools are now spending.14 designedfor K-12 schools,and an "absence of a demonstrably effective base Flawed Assumptions of educational software."20 A close reading of the president's advisory Teachers need three to six years to learn panel report provides compelling reasons to how to fully integrate technology into reject the panel's own advice. The report notes their teaching. But technology should be all of the following: updated every three to five years. So "a The quality of research to date on the teacher's learning curve is thus unlikely to impact of computers on academic achieve- ever level off entirely."21 ment has been low, relying partly on anecdotes. (The report cites approvingly Despite these sobering facts, the panel one such anecdote about the Christopher urged the nation to forge ahead and "deploy"22 Columbus Middle School in Union City, as much technology in schools as possible. No New Jersey, as "the most widely publicized money should be "wasted," it added, to example of the successful application of educational technology."15 That particu- research the still unanswered question of larstory,however,hassincebeen "whether computers can be effectively used discredited. The celebrated rise in test within schools."23 After all, the White House scores at the school happened before the report declares, "the probability that elementary introduction of computers, not because of and secondary education will prove to be the them.16) one information-based industry [emphasis No one has established how to use tech- added] in which computer technology does not nology in ways that actually improve have a natural role" is far too low to spend education let alone how to do so in a money on investigating the matter.24 cost-effective way, compared to alternative In ruling out this critical research question, reforms. For this reason, the report adds, a the panel here disregards its own warning about huge new federal research effort would be how dangerous such assumptions can be in critical to try to help schools figure out educational research: how to use computers wisely in the class- room.17 It is well to remember that the history of sci- ence (and more specifically, of educational Not only is there no consensus on how research and practice) is replete with examples to use technology to support the best ped- of compelling application-specific hypotheses agogy, but there is also no agreement on that seem to arise 'naturally' from well-founded an even more basic question: Which peda- theory, but which are ultimately refuted by
84 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 80 real costs either rigorous empirical testing or manifest practical failure.25 Republican-controlled Congress, for example, has established the bipartisan Web-based We cite this report at length for three Education Commission, which will recommend reasons: First, its recommendations have policy changes to promote the use of the World exerted a powerful influence on current Wide Web in educating students of all ages. educational policies. Second, the report is This 16-member group includes no current typical of government documents on the elementary-school teachers, no critics of subject, in representing a narrow range of educational technology, no child-development perspectives. The White House panel included experts, and only one high-school teacher. It two top executives of high-tech companies, does include several members of Congress and including the group's chair, and other strong three executives from high-tech companies, proponents of educational technology. Missing including the founder of OnlineLearning.net, a from the panel were classroom teachers from company that sells continuing education courses elementary or secondary schools, child- through distance learning, and the senior vice development experts, or critics of educational president of bigchalk.com, a new company that technology. Third, the report urges schools to provides educational resources via the Internet. spend much more on educational software The commission plans to issue final despite the current dearth of high-quality recommendations by November 2000. The products to provide software companies with group's mission is to "help ensure that all financial incentives to develop better products.26 learners have full and equal access to the World The same flawed thinking can be seen Wide Web." And it intends to conduct "a frequently at the state level. In 1996, for thorough study of the critical pedagogical and example, the California Education Technology policy issues affecting the development and use Task Force issued an influential report urging of Web-based content and learning strategies to the state to spend nearly $11 billion on improve achievement at the K-12 and post- technology for schools over the next several secondary levels." But its Website shows no years as the single most important measure to sensitivity to the different developmental needs "right what's wrong with our public schools." of a child in kindergarten, for example, Executives from companies like Apple compared to a college undergraduate. Instead, Computer, Hewlett Packard, IBM, and Sun the assumption seems to be that even five-year- Microsystems dominated the advisory group, olds need "full and equal access" to the Web.28 according to the Los Angeles Times.27 Of the five public hearings the commission has planned, one was held at the National The Politics of Technomania Education Computing Conference in Atlanta The Clinton administration has taken the hardly neutral territory and a second at the lead, 'but the high-tech-for-tots agenda has been headquarters of Sun Microsystems iri Silicon very much bipartisan. Democrats and Valley. One or two critics of educational Republicans alike have enthusiastically technology have surfaced at the four hearings campaigned for generous federal, state, and held so far. At the Sun-hosted hearing, for local school technology budgets. The example, the majority of witnesses represented
85 real costs 81 companies with a financial interest in promoting to protect young children from repetitive stress Web-based education, including Sun's own injuries if their lives truly involved "universal" director for the "global K-12 market" and computing at home and school. In fact, the Sun's vice-president of "global education and Education Department has never conducted research." Kim Jones, the Sun vice-president, any studies to investigate whether children urged Congress to spend more money to help using computers are at increased risk of schools purchase the products and services of repetitive stress injuries, or how to prevent such companies like her own. injuries, according to Carol Wacey, deputy Jones described Sun's vision of the future of director of the agency's Office of Educational grade-school math. "There may be only a Technology.31 handful of, say, third-grade math courses that Both major presidential candidates, Vice are the best in the world," she said. "A robust President Al Gore and Texas Governor George network that links schools and students to those W. Bush, have endorsed the continued courses ensures that any third-grader anywhere expenditure of billions of federal dollars every can benefit from the best course, no matter year to computerize schools. Much of this where it originates. This is why Congress must federal money is spent on the products or invest not only in such a network, but also in services of high-tech companies. And both the best educational content."29 candidates have conspicuously sought political The commission's presumption that Web- and financial support from high-tech industries. based instruction will improve education at all Gore, who has made computerizing schools a levels reflects a long history of wishful thinking. key plank in his campaign, helped raise about Few leaders from either party have taken note $2.6 million for the Democratic Party at a of the 30 years of disappointing research Silicon Valley fundraiser in April 2000. And findings about the likelihood that technology Bush announced his own plan to spend $3.4 will improve academic achievement. billion a year on school technology and research Even fewer seem to have considered on school technology just hours before whether such an agenda might harm young attending the first of three Republican children. The U.S. Department of Education fundraisers in Silicon Valley in June 2000. plans to issue a revised national plan for Republicans expected to raise a total of about educational technology in September 2000. $5.9 million at those events.32 Based on preliminary documents the agency posted on its Website in May 2000, it appears The Commercial Blitz: that the administration is preparing to adopt an A Mega-Scam even more aggressive computer agenda, calling Hardware, software, networking, and for "universal access to effective information telecommunication companies don't leave the technology" at home, school and in the promotion of their sales agenda to politicians community, for all students and all teachers, and alone. Many have gotten directly involved in declaring that "all teachers will effectively use financing and/or taking leadership roles in technology."30 groups like the Consortium for School These documents make no mention of how Networking, TECH CORPS, and the CEO
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Forum on Education and Technology. The Washington Post Company. The National press frequently quotes such organizations Education Association and the National School without mentioning their close links to Board Association are the only two companies with a financial interest in high-tech noncorporate members. Nearly all of the 23 schools. corporate members either sell high-tech services These groups talk about the complete and products or represent clients who do. technological makeover of K-12 education as a TECH CORPS is a nonprofit group that kind of national emergency. The CEO Forum, encourages volunteers to share their technical for example, organized a public challenge to skills with schools. Its Website has declared that every college of education in the country to TECH CORPS is "passionate about giving sign a pledge to President Clinton that they will America's students a chance to have the most train all future teachers presumably including technologically advanced education possible."35 all early childhood teachers to use and But it's primarily financed by corporate integrate technology effectively in their sponsors with profits, as well as passion, at stake teaching. The forum, joining with the secretary in emphasizing that goal. Its four national of education and two national associations sponsors are all high-tech powerhouses: Cisco related to teacher education, also challenged Systems, Compaq Computer, Intel, and the them to pledge to make technology a priority Cellular Telecommunications Industry on their own campuses in every way Association. So are most of its patrons and including funding. (About 20 percent had done partners, including America Online, Bell so by the forum's deadline, after having Atlantic, Hewlett-Packard, MCI WorldCom, received a letter that was signed by, among Microsoft, and the National Cable Television others, John S. Hendricks, the chief executive Association. TECH CORPS's Website includes of Discovery Communications, Inc.33) direct links to all of those companies' sites. In June 2000, the forum released a report TECH CORPS's guide for parents, "Child declaring that "we need to apply technology's Safety on the Information Highway," powerful tools to change the way our students, encourages parents to "get online yourself." of every age, learn." It urged schools and While noting the dangers to children of adult districts to commit to that vision and to predators and adult material, the brochure also "increase investment in digital content."34 adds: "To tell children to stop using these Of the CEO Forum's 25 members, 23 are services would be like telling them to forego from industry, including high-ranking attending college because students are executives of Apple Computer, BellSouth sometimes victimized on campus." Children, it Business, Compaq Computer, Computer adds, without specifying any age in particular, Curriculum Corporation, Discovery can learn to be "street smart," to safeguard Communications, IBM, Lucent Technologies, themselves. The TECH CORPS brochure was NetSchools Corporation, Quality Education sponsored by several Internet-related businesses, Data, ZapMe Corporation, America Online, including America Online and Prodigy Service.36 Bell Atlantic; Classroom Connect, Inc., Other authorities strongly recommend that CompassLearning, Dell Computer, and the parents closely monitor who and what their
87 real costs 83 children are exposed to online. The American man who is funding the report Bill Gates of Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Microsoft, author of The Road Ahead. The draft for example, advises: is titled: "Foundations for The Road Ahead: An Most parents teach their children not to talk Overview of Information Technologies in with strangers, not to open the door if they are Education."39 (About 76 per cent of all K-12 home alone, and not to give out information public schools and about 84 per cent of all the on the telephone to unknown callers. Most nation's school districts used instructional parents also monitor where their children go, software produced by Microsoft in 1998-1999, who they play with, and what TV shows, according to one major survey.)40 books, or magazines they are exposed to. The Consortium for School Networking is However, many parents don't realize that the same level of guidance and supervision must be another nonprofit group that includes school provided for a child's online experience. [empha- districts and other institutions. It also includes sis in original]37 many companies each with a "hot link" from the consortium's Web page directly to their Even the International Society for own. The companies involved almost without Technology in Education, in the exception are high-tech players in past an organization for It is surprising how the school market. One of the educators, has just created a new little the private sector consortium's major initiatives is corporate program "ISTE is actually donating to "building a grassroots network of 100" for "industry leaders in cover the high costs of advocates for investment in the educational technology field" educational technology. education technology," especially who are committed to the for lobbying the federal group's goal of "improving education through government. The New York Times Electronic the appropriate use of technology." This new Media Company is one of these corporate corporate arm of the group is interested in members, which puts Times reporters in an promoting technology from preschool through awkward position in covering the politics of high school. At the request of the founding such spending.41 corporate members, ISTE has invited all of its Given the keen interest of so many teacher members interested in "advocating for companies in promoting childhood computing, the effective use of technology in schools" to it is surprising how little the private sector is join its new Advocate Network. The companies actually donating to cover the high costs of this will then be able to directly e-mail them to agenda. School districts report that donations conduct marketing research for the design of and fundraising accounted, on average, for only new products.38 2.1 percent of the costs of technology in 1998- In a draft report on the high-tech future of 1999.42 education, the society proposes an ambitious set The school market is not the only corporate of technological goals for the nation's schools. incentive for promoting the use of computers The goals "are designed to support the overall by children. Parents frequently cite their goals of education." They also appear to be children's education as the reason for buying closely aligned with the business goals of the home computers. The belief that young
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children's futures hinge on early and ubiquitous companies that need to constantly expand their access to computers, then, creates an market. The competitive pressure in these opportunity for companies to sell parents the industries is famously intense. Schools and entire array of high-tech equipment, Internet families with children represent a huge market. services, and software. It also benefits major Many companies aim to establish brand loyalty media companies that are increasingly eager to with children at ever younger ages, at home and generate more traffic and more revenue school. And others count on "the whine factor" through their dot.com sites. In this way, to turn online advertising on children's sites children's "need" for computers opens the into parents' purchases. spigot for high-tech products and services to Quality Education Data, which provides flow into households. research and marketing advice to companies The resulting hard sell to parents and that sell instructional technology, publishes schools, says Alex Molnar, professor of "tipsheets" pointing out that the federal Title I education at the University of Wisconsin at program has become a major source of money Milwaukee, is "a mega-scam."43 for schools' purchases of technology. Companies can "capitalize on this funding The Dog That Didn't Bark source" by "following the money" and It seems likely that the top executives of targeting schools with higher percentages of these high-tech companies sincerely believe that Title I students. One tipsheet is actually titled: their products really will revolutionize "Title I Funding: Are You Getting Your education in positive ways. After all, to Share?"44 paraphrase an old saw, to a man with a hammer Title I was designed to improve the to sell, everything looks like a nail. academic achievement of disadvantaged But why are so many Americans buying the children, especially those attending school in pitch? Parents, policymakers, and educators high-poverty areas. By 1997-1998, schools should take note, as Sherlock Holmes were spending nearly $300 million of the suggested, of "the dog that didn't bark." If it is program's total cost of about $7.1 billion to truly a matter of competitive survival for the purchase computers and other instructional United States that young children be trained to technology.45 Schools can also use the money operate the most sophisticated tools ever to improve curricula, provide professional devised, as high-tech companies and politicians teacher development, and pay teacher salaries. keep telling us, why is it almost exclusively the The last helps schools reduce class sizes an companies with high-tech products or services educational reform, unlike technology, that is to sell that are so exercised about this issue? strongly backed by research. Why is the rest of corporate America not It is time for educators, policymakers, clamoring for such an expensive and unproved parents, and advocates for children to resist educational fix? these pressures and to refocus on children's The answer is obvious. Wiring and needs not industry's hunger for an ever computerizing America's schools is an urgent bigger market. priority not for children, but for high-tech
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Children's Real Unmet Needs poisoning among children living in poverty is The White House panel has urged the eight times that of children from the wealthiest nation to spend on the order of about $15- families. And children of color, who are more billion a year on educational technology, and all likely to live in crumbling urban neighborhoods, the related services and training, for K-12 are also disproportionately harmed. African- schools. Again, that's about twice the level of American children suffer lead poisoning five current spending. (On a pro-rated basis, it times as frequently as white children. And would be about $8-billion for students from Mexican-American children are twice as likely as kindergarten through sixth grade.) Presumably non-Hispanic white children to show toxic a large portion of this extra money would come levels of lead in their blood. An estimated 11.2 from new tax expenditures. percent of all African-American children have But what makes educational technology suffered toxic exposure; 4 percent of all such a high priority? What about other, far Mexican-American children have, and 2.3 more significant and underfunded priorities, in percent of all white children.47 terms of children's unmet needs especially This is one of America's most serious the unmet needs of our most disadvantaged educational crises. "Even when exposed to small children? How else might we spend the billions amounts of lead levels," reports the American now directed to technology, as well as the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, billions more that proponents are calling for? "children may appear inattentive, hyperactive Perhaps we could focus on some real childhood and irritable. Children with greater lead levels emergencies: may also have problems with learning and reading, delayed growth and hearing loss. At Eliminating lead poisoning high levels, lead can cause permanent brain First, we might finally make a long damage and even death."48 overdue commitment to eliminate childhood According to the Alliance to End lead poisoning. This serious, preventable Childhood Lead Poisoning, half of all the injury affects an estimated 4.4 percent of all preschool children in some of the nation's most children between the ages of one and five or blighted neighborhoods are lead-poisoned.49 about 890,000 preschoolers.46 At these ages, Teachers and health care professionals testify children's developing brains and nervous that the educational fallout is as tragic as it is systems are especially vulnerable to damage preventable. from lead exposure. Lead-based paint in houses "Over and over again, we see kids coming and residential apartments is the major source out of the same houses lead-poisoned," says Dr. of lead poisoning in this country. The problem Charles I. Shubin, director of children's health is most severe in deteriorating housing, where and family care at Mercy Medical Center in children may eat paint chips, breathe lead dust, Baltimore, which monitors and cares for about or ingest the dust by putting their hands in 8,000 lead-exposed children. "One generation their mouths after touching toys, food, or other after another, we see the same addresses, the items the dust has settled on. same blocks, the same neighborhoods, the same For that reason, the prevalence of lead landlords. Our kids are being poisoned while
90 86 real costs we watch."5° Poor children, the Sun noted, are also more In Baltimore, according to a recent report likely to be poisoned repeatedly and less likely by the Baltimore Sun, nearly seven out of every to have access to good health care and a healthy ten children tested each year in the slum diet, both of which can counter the harmful enclaves of Park Heights, Sandtown, and effects of high lead levels. Middle East show elevated lead Leadpoisoning,Needleman levels in their blood. These Why pour billions into added, "can put [children in same neighborhoods, the Sun computers at best an troubled neighborhoods] so far added, "are home to some of unproven intervention behind at the beginning of the the city's poorest performing and at worst actually race of life that they never make up the lost ground, particularly as schools, its highest violent crime harmful before first they deal withallthe other rates and its largest blocs of eliminating this toxic pathologies in their environment substandard rental housing." barrier to the academic crime, drugs, malnutrition, Dr. Herbert L. Needleman of success of so many neglect, alcoholism and partic- the University of Pittsburgh poor children? ularly if the exposure is persistent. Medical School, perhaps the Lead sets them up to fail across nation's top expert on the effects of lead on the board."51 children, doesn't think that convergence of social problems is coincidental. Here is an educational emergency that "In some populations," says Needleman, could truly benefit from the political clout of "[lead exposure] may be the most important high-tech industries. Between 5 million and 15 factor in determining a broad range of million residential properties pose lead hazards neuromotor, psychosocial and behavioral because of deteriorating paint, and the cost per pathologies poor cognitive performance, unit of lead abatement averages about $5,000, hyperactivity and aggression being particularly according to the Affiance to End Childhood well-established traits... It's a very potent Lead Poisoning. That means the total cost to metabolic poison." erase the major cause of this problem would be The classroom impact alone is dramatic. between $25 billion less than the amount Danette Murrill, instruction coordinator for an schools have spent on computer technology in elementary school in one of Baltimore's most the last five years and $75 billion. severely affected communities, estimated that The Clinton administration has proposed a one in five of the students at her school had ten-year plan to address the problem. The suffered lead poisoning. federal government would provide an average "They don't stay on task, they're very $230 million a year over current federal fidgety, they're uncooperative in class and they spending, now about $60 million a year. The have great difficulty retaining information," administration has suggested that other non- Murrill told the Sun. "As a teacher, it's very federal sources of funding that are already in frustrating because you always have at least 5 or place will take care of the rest of the problem. 6 of them in a class but you don't always Child advocates, however, are not hopeful that know who'they are." Congress will adopt even this modest proposal.52
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Why wait ten years? Why pour billions into could have access to health care. computers at best an unproven intervention As a nation we spend so little on Head Start and at worst actually harmful before first the preschool program proven to give poor eliminating this toxic barrier to the academic children and their families a boost into the success of so many poor children? school years that only about half of the children who are eligible for it are enrolled. Other Pressing Needs of Our Fully funding this program would cost $6.23 Most At-Risk Children billion more a year. There are many other challenges to the And finding safe, affordable, high-quality academic success of our children especially child care can be a nightmare for the working poor children that we can and should take poor. Providing child care assistance for another up with the same sense of mission now lavished 2.5 million children would cost $5.6 billion a year. on computers. We could, for example, invest much more in nutrition programs, health care, Critical needs of our public schools high-quality child care, and early-childhood All of these initiatives are far more pressing education for low-income families. Lack of examples of children's unmet needs. Other access to such services can pose a real threat to critical needs within public schools themselves a small child's healthy development, cognitive are also inadequately funded and must now and otherwise. compete with the siphon of technology In contrast, there is absolutely no spending. Teachers, for example, continue to evidence that the lack of computer call for smaller class sizes so they can give their technology in elementary school poses any most challenging and disadvantaged students threat at all to a child's development. the personal attention they deserve. They ask Nearly one in five children in America lives for more human resources of all kinds more in poverty, with all the pressures on parents that aides and volunteer mentors, more tutors in implies and the extra obstacles to school reading and other subjects, more social workers success. The Children's Defense Fund has and counselors, to help meet children's calculated how much we would need to spend emotional and remedial needs. To its credit, the "to give large numbers of children a fairer start Clinton administration proposed and secured in life."53 That also means a fairer start in funding from Congress for a major federal school. Another 1.7 million of our poorest initiative for smaller classes in kindergarten and citizens, for example, could be served if we the early grades. But more money is, and will spent an additional $800 million a year on the continue to be needed. federal food program designed to make sure Schools also need large sums of additional that young children and their mothers at least money to give teachers the salary increases they have enough to eat. deserve, as well as to be able to attract and Millions of children still lack health retain additional qualified individuals to our insurance. For an additional $2.3 billion a year, nation's classrooms. The latter is a particular according to the Children's Defense Fund, all challenge today, as schools brace themselves for uninsured children from low-income families a major wave of retirement among the current
92 88 real costs pool of elementary-school teachers. childhood and elementary education is Because school districts are investing so shrinking the time and money available for the much in technology, they are less able to repair simple technologies that are far more and renovate aging school buildings.' They also developmentally appropriate. Real technology find it harder to build the 2,400 new schools enrichment for children would mean increased that will be needed by the year public support for school 2003 to ease overcrowding and gardens, camping and other Once we recover from the make room for growing field trips, music and other illusion that technical enrollments.54 artistic experiences, time for innovations will revive About 50 percent of all creative play and physical education, the really public schools reported in education, hands-on science critical conversation can 1999 that they needed to fix labs, handcrafts such as begin: How can we tackle basic building problems, such woodworking, library books, the social obstacles to as leaky roofs or plumbing, smaller classes and smaller children's healthy according to the U.S. schools, and mentors at school development with renewed Department of Education. And and in the community. These social commitment? 43 percent reported at least are developmentally one environmental problem, appropriate precisely because such as poor ventilation, inadequate heating, or they are the opposite of "distance learning." poor indoor air quality.55 Two-thirds needed renovations to correct health, safety, or A New Conversation accessibility problems, such as removing The above list of children's priorities that asbestos, lead in water or paint, or problem computers distract us from is not intended to materials in underground storage tanks, be exhaustive. It is an attempt to begin a according to a 1995 report.56 Studies suggest conversation about the many ways the billions that schools need to spend more than $100 we now spend on computers for children of billion to provide all students with adequate elementary age and younger could be better buildings.57 invested if our intention is to offer every child a Research indicates that deteriorating and chance to succeed in school. overcrowded schools have negative effects on Nor do we mean to suggest that simply student achievement and behavior.58 Yet most expanding current public programs in the high- schools that reported building inadequacies of priority areas above would resolve all of these all kinds in a survey in 2000 by the National stubborn social problems. In fact, once we Center for Education Statistics "had no plans recover from the illusion that technical for major repair, renovation, or replacement in innovations will revive education, then the really the next two years."59 Again, compared to this critical conversation can begin the one we undeniably real and costly challenge, the false have been avoiding for far too long: How can sense of urgency around computer investments we tackle the social obstacles to children's seems ludicrous. healthy development with renewed Finally, the high-tech approach to early commitment? And with social, as opposed to
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Eight Billion Dollars: For High-Tech Companies or Children's Needs?
An influential presidential commission has recommended that the nation spend on the order of $15-billion a year for educational technology in public schools, K-12. Proportionately, that would be about $8-billion at the elementary-school level. How might those billions in public dollars be better spent? Consider the much higher educational priorities below especially those aimed at providing low-income children with a fairer start in life: Critical Needs of the Nation's Public Schools: Reducing classroom size. Raising teachers' salaries to attract and retain good teachers. Funding the aides, counselors, and other adult mentors children need especially children most at risk of failure. Repairing and renovating dilapidated school buildings. Building the 2,400 new schools needed by 2003. Reviving essential school programs such as music and the other arts, gardening, physical education, outdoor experiences, hands-on education of all kinds, and libraries. Critical Needs of Our Most Disadvantaged Children: Eliminating childhood lead poisoning now. Providing quality child care for children of the working poor. Insuring access to health care for all children and their parents. Meeting the nutritional needs of families in poverty. Making quality pre-school programs such as Head Start available to all children.
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94 90 real costs mere technical, creativity? For example, what our work, the work of others, and the kind of assistance do troubled neighborhoods experience of communities show to be the most need to capitalize on their own assets? Too effective practices and strategies in community often, outside aid concentrates almost building, system reform, family support, and exclusively on these neighborhoods' deficits. economic development."60 How can low-income parents be empowered to Unfortunately, no powerful coalitions of identify for themselves their families' and their hardware, software, and telecommunications neighborhoods' most pressing needs and giants are leading the charge for the empowered to work creatively to meet them? empowerment of distressed communities, for Such a conversation might draw on Making safe school buildings and lead-free housing, for Connections, a model of community proper nutrition, or for health insurance for participation being tested in 22 cities by the children whose families, working or not, still Annie E. Casey Foundation. Its aim is to spark struggle to make ends meet or for the kind and help sustain local movements that engage of low-tech, hands-on school agenda on which everyone involved residents, civic groups, children thrive. Instead, many of these powerful politicians, grassroots groups, school leaders, corporations are demanding that parents, public agencies, private organizations, and faith- teachers, and schools adopt their own agenda based groups . "to help transform tough for education, which just happens to be based neighborhoods into family supportive on the products they sell. environments." The initiative focuses on strengthening families in troubled neighborhoods by helping them to connect to 1 "Technology Purchasing Forecast 1999-2000," 5th economic opportunities, positive social ed., Denver: Quality Education Data, 2000, p. 5. relationships that boost neighbor-to-neighbor Figures cited here are based on annual surveys by QED of spending on instructional technology by support, and the full range of social services and K-12 public schools. The five years extend from the supports that can help struggling families grow 1995-1996 school year through 1999-2000. QED stronger. It also emphasizes the full estimated spending for 1999-2000 at $6.2-billion, which did not include the total subsidies that schools participation of neighborhood residents in wouldbereceivingfortheirpurchaseof designing their own futures. telecommunications services the so-called "e-rate" This democratic approach seems a far more discounts. QED said it was not able to include how much schools would be receiving in e-rate discounts promising strategy for helping our most in that estimate, because schools at the time of the disadvantaged children thrive, at home and survey did not have that information. The Schools school, than forcing computers on every teacher and Libraries Division of the Universal Service Administrative Company, however, more recently as a kind of silver bullet for school reform. estimated the total e-rate discount provided to public "Making Connections should not be thought schools and school districts for 1999-2000 as $1.6- of as a housing initiative, neighborhood billion. (Telephone interview with Mel Blackwell of the Schools and Libraries Division, August 17, 2000.) revitalization project, community safety The $7.8-billion estimate for 1999-2000, then, is program, or a school reform movement," the derived by adding those two estimates. foundation advises. "Rather, this effort seeks to 2 "Answers to Frequently Asked Questions: draw from, build on, and weave together what Educational Technology Spending," U.S. National real costs 91 Center for Education Statistics, published on the official web site of the U.S. Department of Education, 11 The cost could range from about $400 to at http://nces.ed.gov/edfin/faqs/technlgy.asp as of $3,000 per computer, based on a preliminary estimate June 21, 2000. The statistics center poses the in 1999 by an ergonomics consultant at Professional question: "How much isspent on educational Ergonomic Solutions. The company provides training technology in the US?" Its answer: "Unfortunately and products for ergonomic workstations, keyboards, there are no figures on this. No reports have been and accessories. Because of the low level of public done or studies made." awareness about this issue, we include their toll-free number here for parents and others interested in more 3 "Getting America's Students Ready for the 21st information: 888-744-ERGO. Century:MeetingtheTechnologyLiteracy Challenge," Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 12 Barbara Means and Kerry Olson, Education, June 1996. "Restructuring Schools with Technology: Challenges and Strategies," SRI International, November 1995, 4 Digest of Education Statistics, 1999, Washington, p. 32. DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1999, from Chapter Seven: "Learning Resources and 13 Based on the total day-to-day expenditures Technology"; and Challenging the Status Quo: The for public elementary and secondary schools in school Education Record 1993-2000, Washington, DC: U.S. year 1997-1998, as reported by National Center for Department of Education, May 2000, from Chapter Education Statistics,Statistics in Brief Revenues and Five: "Using Technology to Enhance Teaching and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Learning." Education: School Year 1997-98, Department of Education, May, 2000. The total that year was $285 5 National Center for Education Statistics, billion. By 1999-2000, estimating conservatively that "Survey on Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools, total spending would increase by 3 per cent a year, Fall 1999," in Quick Tables and Figures: Elementary that total would have grown to about $302-billion. and Secondary Education: Fast Response Survey System, (FRSS 75), Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 14 President's Committee of Advisors on Education, 1999. Science and Technology: Panel on Educational Technology, op. cit., p. 8. 6 U.S. Department of Education, "Challenging the Status Quo: The Education Record 1993-2000." 15 Ibid, pp. 18-19.
7 QED, op cit., derived from statistics on p. 7. 16 ABC News Nightline: "The $50 Billion Gamble: Will Computers Improve Public School 8 President's Committee of Advisors on Science Education?" Transcript for September 30, 1998. and Technology: Panel on Educational Technology, "Report to the President on the Use of Technology 17President's Committee of Advisors on Science to Strengthen K-12 Education in the United States," and Technology: Panel on Educational Technology, Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President of op. cit., especially pp.17, 107, 122, 130. the United States, March 1997, p. 48. 18 Ibid, especially pp. 34-35, 107, 123, 128. 9 QED, op. cit., based on its estimates of the average spending by school districts on both training 19 Ibid, especially p. 8. and professional development related to instructional computing, as a percent of total average spending on 20 Ibid, especially pp. 44, 116. instructional technology for 1998-1999. That was $10.81 per student. Total average spending by district 21 Ibid, especially p. 118. per student for instructional technology was $140.66. 22 Ibid, p. 131. 10 The $47 billionfigureis quoted by the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and 23 Ibid, especially p. 124. Technology: Panel on Educational Technology, op. cit., p. 59. 24 Ibid, especially pp. 93-94.
96 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 92 real costs
39 David Moursund et al., "Foundations for The 25 Ibid, p. 88. RoadAhead:AnOverviewofInformation Technologies in Education," International Society for 26 Ibid, pp. 42-43. Technology in Education, www.iste.org/Research/ index.html, as of July 12, 2000. (The draft includes 27 Leslie Helm, "High Tech Sales Goals Fuel the disclaimer that it does not represent the views of Reach into Schools," Los Angeles Times, June 9, 1997, ISTE, Bill Gates, or anyone but the authors, who are Home Edition, p. Al. staff of the ISTE.)
28 Congressional Web-Based Education 40 Quality Education Data, op. cit., pp. 121, 123. Commission, www.hpc.net.org/webcommission, as of June 23, 2000. 41 Information about the consortium is from the Consortium for School Networking's Website, 29 Press release: Sun Microsystems VP Calls on www.cosn.org, as of July 31, 2000. Congress to Invest in Network Infrastructure, Education Content, Palo Alto, CA: Congressional 42 Ibid, p. 38. Web-based Education Commission, April 7, 2000. 43 Leslie Helm, Los Angeles Times, op. cit. 30 U.S. Department of Education, "Revising the National Educational Technology Plan: Emerging 44Tipsheet #15: "Title I Funding: Are You Priorities," www.ed.gov/Technology, and Getting Your Share?" and Tipsheet #19: "10 Trends www.air.org/forum/ as of July 12, 2000. to Watch in Instructional Technology," Denver: Quality Education Data, undated. 31 Phone interview, July 11, 2000. 45 Jay Chambers, Joanne Lieberman, Tom 32 Terry M. Neal, "Bush Hits Democrats on Tech Parrish, Daniel Kaleba, James Van Campen, and Education," Washington Post, June 20, 2000, p. A6. Stephanie Stullich, "Study of Education Resources and Federal Funding: Final Report," Washington, 33 "Business and Education Leaders Push Teacher DC: U. S. Department of Education, Planning and Prep Component of President's Digital Divide Evaluation Service, 2000. Initiative," news release, Chicago: CEO Forum on Education and Technology, April 18, 2000; and 46 "Our Children at Risk: The Five Worst "Dear Colleague" letter, www.ceoforum.org/scde- Environmental Threatsto TheirHealth," colleague.cfm, March 2000. Washington, DC: NaturalResourcesDefense Council, 1997, posted at http://nrdc.org/health/ 34 The Power of Digital Learning: Integrating kids/ocar/zchapter3.asp. (Report based, in part, on Digital Content, CEO Forum, June 26, 2000. data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the U.S. Environmental Protection 35 TECH CORPS, www.ustc.org/index.html, Agency.) February 3, 1999. 47Ibid, based on data from the National 36 TECH CORPS, "Child Safety on the Research Council. Information Highway," TECH CORPS, www.ustc.org/index.html, as of June, 2000. 48 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, "Facts for Families: Lead Exposure in 37"FactsforFamilies:ChildrenOnline," Children Affects Brain and Behavior," Washington, Washington, DC: American Academy of Child and DC: AACAP, undated. Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997. 49Phone interview with Don Ryan, executive 38 International Society for Technology in Education, director, the Alliance to End Childhood Lead "ISTE 100: Partners in Educational Technology Poisoning, Washington, D.C., June 26, 2000. Leadership," Eugene, OR ISTE, www.iste.org /Members / index.html, as of July 12, 2000. 50 Jim Haner, "Lead's Lethal Legacy Engulfs Young Lives," Baltimore Sun, Jan. 20, 2000.
97 real costs 93
51 Ibid, for all of the above quotes from the Baltimore Sun.
52 Phone interview with Don Ryan, executive director, the Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning, Washington, D.C., June 26, 2000.
53 Estimates of spending for nutrition, health insurance, child care, and early-childhood education to serve more poor children and their families are from "Children Deserve a Fair Share of the Federal Budget Surplus," Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund, February 2000.
54"A Back-to-School Special Report on the Baby Boom Echo,"Washington,DC:U.S. Department of Education, Aug. 19, 1999.
55 National Center for Education Statistics, "Condition of America's Public School Facilities: 1999," Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2000.
56 U.S. General Accounting Office, "School Facilities: The Condition of America's Schools," GAO Report HEHS-95-61, Washington, DC: U.S. GAO, February 1995.
57 See, for example, U.S. General Accounting Office, op. cit.
58 For a summary and bibliography of this research, see U.S. Department of Education, "Impact of Inadequate School Facilities on Student Learning," www.ed.gov/inits/construction/impact2.html, as of July 10, 2000.
59 National Center for Education Statistics, "Condition of America's Public School Facilities: 1999."
60 "Contributing Ideas, Support, and Resources to Build on Neighborhood Strengths," Annie E. Casey Foundation, www.aecf.org /initiative /ntfd/making.htm, as of June 22, 2000.
98 chapter six
Conclusions and Recommendations
"The fundamental dilemma of computer-based instruction and other IT- based educational technologies is that their cost effectiveness compared to other forms of instruction for example, smaller class sizes, self-paced learning, peer teaching, small group learning, innovative curricula, and in-class tutors has never been proven." U.S. National Science Board, Science & Engineering Indicators 1998.
WHY ARE WE, AS A NATION, SO ENAMORED Microsoft, Compaq, IBM, Apple, and other of computers in childhood? This one-size-fits-all companies at children's expense. fix for elementary schools does seem to meet a Nor can we afford the delusion that pushing lot of adult needs. It makes politicians and young children to operate the very latest school administrators appear decisive and technological gadgets will somehow inoculate progressive. It tempts overworked parents and them from economic and cultural uncertainties in teachers with a convenient, mesmerizing the future. Nothing can do that certainly not electronic babysitter. And it is irresistible to soon-to-be obsolete skills in operating machines. high-tech companies that hope to boost sales in In the long term, what will serve them far the educational market. better is a firm commitment from parents, But a machine-centered approach does not educators, policymakers, and communities to meet the developmental needs of grade-school the remarkably low-tech imperatives of childhood. children. Nor will it prepare them to muster the Those include good nutrition, safe housing, and human imagination, courage, and will power high-quality health care for every child they will as adults need to tackle the huge social especially the one in five now growing up in and environmental problems looming before us. poverty. They also include consistent love and Young children are not emotionally, socially, nurturing for every child; active, imaginative morally, or intellectually prepared to be pinned play; a close relationship to the rest of the living down to the constraining logical abstractions world; the arts; handcrafts and hands-on lessons that computers require. This sedentary of every kind; and lastly time plenty of time approach to learning is also unhealthy for their for children to be children. developing senses and growing bodies. A new respect for childhood itself, in other What's good for business is not necessarily words, is the gift that will best prepare our good for children. We cannot afford educational children for the future's unknowns. Empowered policies that will expand the market for by this gift, our children can grow into strong, 95 99 96 conclusion & recommendations resilient, creative human beings, facing tomorrow's basic science. Children, too, need time to play uncertainties with competence and courage. with the most fundamental qualities and Some may fear that our prowess in science questions of nature to "live" them with their and technology will suffer if children are whole beings: body, heart, mind, and soul. allowed to be children. The opposite is true. How closely related this wonder-full quest of Consider the recent Microsoft ad, "Chasing the childhood is to the expansive spirit of basic Future." As companies rapidly turn out one science is neatly captured in The Scientist in the high-tech product after another, it stresses, Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Children Learn: companies and nations must "constantly "Our otherwise mysterious adult ability to do replenish their long-term reserves of intellectual science may be a kind of holdover from our capital." Research, Microsoft declares, is the infant learning abilities," suggest the authors. engine driving technical advances. So research, "Adult scientists take advantage of the natural it adds, "has never been more important."' human capacities that let children learn so much To the extent that's true, then so, too, has so quickly. It's not that children are little childhood never been more important or scientists but that scientists are big children."2 more endangered by the current push to Imagination and the spirit of play are crucial transform children into technicians. For to both child and adult forms of "basic childhood is the one period in the human science." As the anthropologist Ashley Montague lifespan naturally designed for pursuing the noted, the most creative scientists excel in most basic science of all. That's why pushing playing "let's pretend": children instead to produce PowerPoint The scientist says to himself, "Let me treat this presentations that mimic the work of adults is `as if' it worked that way, and we'll see what shortsighted. It's as shortsighted as Microsoft happens." He may do this entirely in his head argues it would be for the United States to pull or try it mathematically on paper or physically the plug on basic research and finance only in the laboratory. What he is doing is using his short-term product development. imagination in much the same way the child By supporting basic research, we give our does. The truth is that the highest praise one can bestow on a scientist is not to say of him most creative scientists the time they need to that he is a fact-grubber but that he is a man of play with the fundamental qualities and imagination. And what is imagination really? It questions of nature. In periods of great is play playing with ideas.3 productivity, scientists say, this open-ended creative process can totally dominate their lives The high-tech agenda pushes children to whether they are working, eating, sleeping, hurry up and become skilled little technicians, or socializing. In short, they live their science. experts in "accessing" other people's answers to Granted that freedom, they generate the narrow, technical questions and manipulating insights that lead to fruitful discoveries, machine-generated images. It interrupts the sometimes even paradigm-shifting creative process, the basic science, of childhood breakthroughs at the very edges of knowledge. itself the playful generation of images from Childhood, rightly protected, is the same one's own imagination. We do not know what kind of creative process the same kind of the consequences of such a machine-driven
1 010 conclusion & recommendations 97 education in adulthood will be. But we suspect schools," the report notes, "quickly sense that that they will include a narrower and more teachers and other staff members genuinely love shallow range of intellectual insights, a stunting and care for the students.... The improvements of both social and technical imagination, and a in student behavior were also influenced by the drag on the productivity that stems from changes in the extent to which children came to imaginative leaps. In short, a high- understand that they were valued School reformis a tech agenda for children seems and respected." In all nine schools, social chaIlenge, likely to erode our most precious the principals "knew all of the not a technological long-term intellectual reserves students by name and knew many problem. our children's minds. of the families. The personal School reform is a social relationships among students and challenge, not a technological problem. The school staff created a powerful context for good Education Department's own 1999 study, behavior." At all nine schools, parents too "Hope in Urban Education," offers powerful became active, engaged, creative partners. This proof. It tells the story of nine troubled schools happened because the schools clearly expressed in high-poverty areas, all places resigned to low their need and respect for the parents and expectations, low achievement, and high because the parents saw "tangible evidence of conflict where even the adults bickered and the school's concern for their children."4 blamed each other. But all transformed Larry Cuban, professor of education at themselves into high-achieving, cohesive Stanford University, has documented how U.S. communities. In the process, everyone involved education policymakers have careened from one principals, teachers, other staff members, new technology to the next lantern slides, parents, and students developed high tape recorders, movies, radios, overhead expectations of themselves, and of each other. projectors, reading kits, language laboratories, The strategies that worked in these televisions, computers, multimedia, and now schools, the study emphasizes, were the Internet sure each time that they have persistence, creativity in devising new ways discovered educational gold.5 Eventually, the of collaborating, maximizing the attention glimmer always fades, and we find ourselves focused on each child, and a shared holding a lump of pyrite fool's gold. commitment to meeting the full range of Perhaps what we're looking for is not a children's needs. technology, not a product to be bought and That intensely human approach not large sold at all. Perhaps the gold is something to be expenditures on technology is what seems to mined and refined within ourselves. have moved all nine communities from despair Could it bethat simple, and that hard? to hope. Educational technology plays only a relatively minor role in the report. The words Some of the world's most thoughtful teachers "computer" and "technology" do not even have suggested as much. John Dewey spoke of the appear in the executive summary. eight loves that mark great teachers love of Instead, much credit goes to a new quality in others, love of being with children, love of human relationships. "Visitors to these knowledge, of communicating knowledge, of a
101 98 conclusion & recommendations particular subject that one has an aptitude for, and communities. It requires commitment to love of arousing in others similar intellectual developmentally appropriate education and to interests, a love of thinking, and the ability to the full range of children's real low-tech needs inspire in others one's own love for learning itself.6 physical, emotional, and social, as well as And Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian innovator, cognitive. advised, "Accept the children with reverence. M.I.T. Professor Sherry Turkle has asked: Educate them with love. Send them forth in "Are we using computer technology not because freedom."7 it teaches best but because we have lost the Those who place their faith in technology to political will to fund education adequately?"8 solve the problems of education should look Her question deserves an answer. more deeply into the needs of children. The In view of the overwhelming evidence renewal of education requires personal attention summarized here and the urgent needs of our to students from good teachers and active children and schools, the Alliance for Childhood parents, strongly supported by their calls for the following actions:
Recommendations
1. A refocusing in education, at home and school, on the essentials of a healthy childhood: strong bonds with caring adults; time for spontaneous, creative play; a curriculum rich in music and the other arts; reading books aloud; storytelling and poetry; rhythm and movement; cook- ing, building things, and other handcrafts; and gardening and other hands-on experiences of nature and the physical world.
2. A broad public dialogue on how emphasizing computers is affecting the real needs of children, especially children in low-income families.
3. A comprehensive report by the U.S. Surgeon General on the full extent of physical, emotional, and other developmental hazards computers pose to children.
4. Full disclosure by information-technology companies about the physical hazards to children of using their products.
5. A halt to the commercial hyping of harmful or useless technology for children.
6. A new emphasis on ethics, responsibility, and critical thinking in teaching older students about the personal and social effects of technology.
7. An immediate moratorium on the further introduction of computers in early childhood and elementary education, except for special cases of students with disabilities. Sucha time-out is necessary to create the climate for the above recommendations to take place.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE 102 conclusion & recommendations 99
1 MicrosoftCorporation,"Chasingthe Future," advertisement in the Washington Post, July 10, 2000, p. A17.
2 Alison Gopnik, Andrew N. Meltzoff, and Patricia K. Kuhl, The Scientist in the Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Children Learn, New York: William Morrow, 1999, p. 9.
3 Ashley Montague, Growing Young, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983, pp. 156-157.
4 The Charles A. Dana Center, University of Texas at Austin, "Hope for Urban Education," Washington, DCZ: U.S. Department of Education Planning and Evaluation Service, 1999.
5 Larry Cuban, Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920, New York: Teachers College Press, 1986.
6 Douglas J.Simpson and MichaelJ.B. Jackson, "The Multiple Loves of the Successful Teacher: A Deweyan Perspective," Educational Foundations, vol. 12, no. 1, Winter 1998, pp.75-82.
7 As quoted by Stephen L. Talbott in The Future Does Not Compute: Transcending the Machines in Our Midst, Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly & Associates, 1995, p. 425.
8 Sherry Turk le, "Seeing Through Computers: Education in a Culture of Simulation," The American Prospect, Issue 31, March-April 1997.
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