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'Khoisan' Kinship Classifications: Geographical Distribution and Historical Interpretation

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'Khoisan' Kinship Classifications: Geographical Distribution and Historical Interpretation 'Khoisan' kinship classifications: Geographical distribution and historical interpretation Gertrud Boden Kalahari Basin Area CRP, IP 5 University of Edinburgh With support from Alan Barnard, Falko Berthold, Martina Ernszt, Linda Gerlach, Tom Güldemann, Blesswell Kure, Bill McGregor, Christfried Naumann, Lee James Pratchett. Kinship classifications: - 'Kinship classifications' refers to the way how people group their relatives terminologically into kin classes (e.g. English kin class ‘aunt’ comprises mother’s sisters, father’s sisters, uncles’ wives, etc.). - The way how relatives are grouped into kin classes differs across cultures and languages (e.g. mother’s sisters can be in the same class as mother instead of being in the same class as father’s sister). Features analyzed in this talk: - Sibling classifications - Cousin classifications - Classifications of parents’ siblings - Classifications of grandparents and grandchildren Internal classification of 'Khoisan' (adapted from Güldemann 2008:98) Lineages and branches Language(s) or dialects (DC = Dialect Cluster, † = extinct) KHOE-KWADI Kwadi single language† Khoe Khoekhoe North Eini†, Nama, Damara, ǂAkhoe-Hai||om South !Ora†, Cape varieties† Kalahari Khoe East Shua Deti†, Cara, |Xaise, Danisi, Ts'ixa, etc. Tshwa Shua, Kua, Cua, Tsua, etc. West Khwe Khwe, ||Ani, Buga, G|anda, etc. G||ana G||ana, G|ui, ǂHaba, etc. Naro Naro, etc. KX'A Eastern ǂHoan single language Ju (DC) Northwest !Xun (Angola), !Xun (Ekoka) Southeast Ju|'hoan, ǂKx'au||'en TUU Taa-Lower Nossob Taa (DC) West N|u||'en†, West !Xoon East N|amani†, Kakia†, 'N|oha, East !Xoon, Tshasi, ǂHuan, etc. Lower Nossob (DC?) |'Auni†, |Haasi† !Ui ||Xegwi†; |Xam† (DC); ǂUngkue†; N||ng (DC) Language sample !Xun !Xun Khwe ǂAkhoe- Hai||om Ju|'hoan Shua ǂKx'au||ein Damara Naro G|ui E-!Xoon 'N|oha Tshasi W-!Xoon Eastern ǂHuan ǂHoan Nama ||Xegwi N||ng !Ora |Xam Khoe Kx'a Tuu Angola !Xun Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Bleek 1929, Fieldwork Boden (West Caprivi) 2012 Ekoka !Xun Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Takada 2008 Ju|'hoan Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Marshall 1957, Lee 1984, 1993, Dickens 1994 ǂKx'au-||ein Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Bleek 1929, Fieldwork Boden/Pratchett 2011 ǂHoan Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Gruber 1973, Fieldwork Barnard/Berthold/Boden/Gerlach/ Kure 2011 ǂAkhoe-Hai||om Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Widlok 1999, Haacke & Eiseb 2002 Damara Khoe Hunter/Gatherers/Pastoralists Lebzelter 1934, Barnard 1992, Haacke & Eiseb 2002 Khwe Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Köhler 1966, Kilian-Hatz 2003, Boden 2005, Fieldwork Boden 2012 Shua Khoe Hunter/Gatherers McGregor, IP1, KBA, Manuscript 2012 G|ui Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Ono 1996, 1997 Naro Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Barnard 1976 Nama Khoe Pastoralists Hoernlé 1985 [1925], Haacke & Eiseb 2002 !Ora Khoe Pastoralists Engelbrecht 1936 Taa-West !Xoon Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2004-2011 Taa-'N|oha Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2004-2011 Taa-East !Xoon Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Heinz 1994 [1966], Traill 1994, Fieldwork Boden 2010 Taa-Tshasi Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2010 Taa-ǂHuan Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2010 N||ng Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Bleek Notebooks, Bleek 1929, Fieldwork Boden/Ernszt/ Güldemann 2010 ||Xegwi Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Potgieter 1955 |Xam Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Bleek 1924 Feature 1: Sibling classifications Type Number Social Referents of terms Dimensions 1 2 Sex of referent sister (Z) brother (B) 2 2 Relative Age younger sibling (yG) elder sibling (eG) 3 3 Relative age younger sibling (yG) Sex of referent elder sister (eZ) elder brother (eB) 4 4 Relative age younger sister (yZ) Sex of referent elder sister (eZ) younger brother (yB) elder brother (eB) 5 3 Relative gender opposite-sex sibling (osG) Relative age younger same-sex sibling (yssG) elder same-sex sibling (essG) Sibling classification 4 4 4 1 = Z/B 4 3 2 = yG/eG 5 4 4 3 = yG/eZ/eB 4 4 4 = yZ/eZ/ 2 yB/eB 2 2 2 2 5 = yssG/essG/ 2 1 osG 1 1 1 1 Khoe Kx'a Tuu Sibling classification 4 4 4 1 = yG/eG 4 3 2 = Z/B 5 4 4 3 = yG/eZ/eB 4 4 4 = yZ/eZ/ 2 yB/eB 2 2 2 2 2 5 = yssG/essG/ 1 osG 1 1 1 1 Khoe Kx'a Tuu Sibling classifications: - Type 1 is shared by languages of the Khoe (Nama, !Ora) and Tuu (| Xam, ||Xegwi, N||ng) families in the southern part of the area. - Type 2 is shared by the Taa dialects (Tuu) and Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a) family in a small central part of the area. - Type 3 is exceptional in Ju|'hoan (Kx'a), surrounded by type 4 terminologies, intermediary stage between types 2 and 4. - Type 4 is shared by languages or dialects of the Khoe (Khwe, Naro, G| ui, ǂAkhoe-Hai||om, Damara) and Kx'a (Ekoka !Xun, Angola !Xun, ǂKx'au||ein) families in in the northern part of the area. - Type 5 is exceptional among the Shua as sole representatives of the Kalahari Khoe East branch, described as „acculturated“ in the anthropological literature; possibly effect of contact with Tswana. - All possible combinations of language families: Tuu-Khoe (type 1), Tuu- Kx'a (type 2), Khoe-Kx'a (type 4). - In the KBA, types of sibling classifications do not trace language family boundaries (contra Murdock 1968). - Some sort of relative age distinction (types 2-5) in most groups with a (formerly) predominantly hunter/gather economy except for the Tuu languages spoken in South Africa which were already close to extinction when first documented. - Note that even the hunter/gatherer societies who speak a variety of Khoekhoe, a language otherwise spoken by pastoralists have a type 4 sibling terminology. Feature 2: Cousin classifications Parallel cousins: Children of parents' same-sex siblings (PssGC) Mother's sisters' children (MZC) Father's brothers' children (FBC) Cross cousins: Children of parents' opposite-sex siblings (PosGC) Mother's brothers' children (MBC) Father's sisters' children (FZC) Type Type Terms Equivalence Name 1 Generational Same terms for G = PGC siblings and cousins 2 Lineal/ Siblings distinguished G ≠ PssGC = PosGC Collateral from cousins 3 Cross/ Siblings and parallel G = PssGC ≠ PosGC Parallel cousins distinguished from cross cousins Cousin classification 1 1: G=PGC 1 3 3 2 2: G≠PssGC= 3 1 (?) PosGC 3 3 3 3: G=PssGC≠ 3 3 3 PosGC 3 3 3 3 3 (?) 2 3 1 Khoe Kx'a Tuu Cousin classification 1 1: G=PGC 1 3 3 2 2: G≠PssGC= 3 1 PosGC 3 3 3 3: G=PssGC≠ 3 3 3 PosGC 3 3 3 3 3 (?) 2 3 1 Khoe Kx'a Tuu Cousin classifications - Type 1 is to be found in most Ju dialects (Kx'a) and |Xam (Tuu). - Type 2 is found in Ju|'hoan (Kx'a) and N||ng (Tuu). - Type 3 is shared by all Khoe languages plus Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a), all Taa varieties and ||Xegwi (Tuu); ||Xegwi: data only available for MBC and FBC. - Kx'a: Generational type is possibly proto-Kx'a type; Ju|'hoan type again exceptional both, within the dialect cluster/language family and the neighborhood; isolated Eastern ǂHoan language shares type 3 with neighbors. - Khoe: Cross/parallel type seems to be common ancestry of the whole family. - Tuu: 3 different types in 4 languages do not allow to suggest a proto-Tuu type; Taa shares cross/parallel type with neighbors; N||ng possibly adopted lineal/collateral type from Afrikaans. - KBA cousin classifications trace language boundaries at least better than sibling classifications. - Terms for cross cousins in Taa and Eastern ǂHoan seem to be secondary recruitments: loan terms (Eastern ǂHoan, ǂHuan), terms for CEP (West !Xoon), term „friend“ ('N|oha, East !Xoon, Tshasi). This might be seen as evidence that these languages did formerly not distinguish cross cousins. Note: not true for ||Xegwi terms (and N||ng cousin terms). Feature 3: Classifications of parents' siblings Type Type name Formula 0 Descriptive e.g. „mother's sister”, „father’s brother” 1 Lineal/Collateral P ≠ PssG=PosG (≠ PP) 2 Bifurcate/Collateral P ≠ PssG ≠ PosG (= PP) 3 Cross/Parallel Variety of P=PssG ≠PosG a) ‘classic’: P(marker)=PssG ≠ PosG=PP b) ‘split nuncle’: P(marker)=PyssG ≠ PessG=PosG=PP c) ‘asymmetric‘ (Khoekhoe): F(marker)=FB ≠ MB=PF; M(marker)=MZ ≠ FZ=separate term d) ‘asymmetric‘ (Khwe): F(marker)=FB ≠ MB=PF M(marker)MZ=FZ e) ‘unskewed‘ (Shua) P(marker)=PssG ≠ PosG ≠ PP Classification of parents‘ siblings ? 0: Descriptive 1: P ≠ PssG=PosG 2a 3d 2: P ≠ PssG 3c ≠ PosG=PP 1 3e 1 3a: P=PssG 3c 3a ≠PosG=PP 3b 3b: P=PyssG 3a 3b 3b ≠ PessG=PosG=PP 3a 3b 3c: F=FB≠MB=PF 3b M=MZ≠FZ≠PM 3c 0 3d: F=FB ≠ MB M=MZ=FZ 0 3e: P=PssG ≠ PosG ≠ PP 3c 1 Khoe Kx'a Tuu Classification of parents‘ siblings ? 0: Descriptive 1: P ≠ PssG=PosG 2a 3d 2: P ≠ PssG 3c ≠ PosG=PP 1 3e 1 3a: P=PssG 3c 3a ≠PosG=PP 3b 3b: P=PyssG 3a 3b 3b ≠ PessG=PosG=PP 3a 3b 3c: F=FB≠MB=PF 3b M=MZ≠FZ≠PM 3c 0 3d: F=FB ≠ MB M=MZ=FZ 0 3e: P=PssG ≠ PosG ≠ PP 3c 1 Khoe Kx'a Tuu Classifications of parents' siblings: - Kx'a: data for Angola !Xun ambiguous; Ju|'hoan and ǂKx'au||ein share lineal/collateral type; Ekoka !Xun exceptional in having bifurcate/colla- teral type and PosG/PP equivalence as do many Khoe terminologies; Eastern ǂHoan shares cross/parallel sub-type with Taa (Tuu) and G|ui (Khoe) neighbors. - Khoe: some sort of cross/parallel principle present in all Khoe PG terminologies; great internal variety; unclear whether PosG/PP equivalence feature of the proto-language; Khwe shares asymmetrical sub-type with Mbukushu (Bantu) neighbors, PP term literally means „old-parent“; Shua type exceptional; G|ui shares sub-type with Taa (Tuu) and Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a) neighbors; Naro is the only Khoe language with a pervasive cross/parallel type, only one term for all joking relatives, shares the type of classification with some Taa varieties (Tuu).
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