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presents HISTORY OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS & ISLAMIC SEMINARIES OF EAST SCRATCHING THE SURFACE Instructor: MOHAMMED ABDULLAH ARTAN

Facebook:@mohammed.artan Twitter: @mohammed.artan Instagram:@mohammed.artan 2 Objectives

By the end of the webinar, you will:

 Was ’s arrival in isolated incident?

 Did Muslim society develop early on in East Africa?

 Was scholarly endeavours enriched locally? entrepreneurial

 What Islamic entrepreneurship flourished in East Africa?

 Did other Muslim scholars travel to study in East Africa?

 What were the Islamic literary sciences East Africans excelled in?

 What pioneering scholars hailed from East Africa?

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 3 Āl insān 76:1

َ َ ْ َ َ َ ْ َ ٌ َ َّ ْ َ ْ َ ُ َ ْ ً َّ ْ ُ ً هل أ ىت لَع ا ِْلنسا ِن ِحني ِمن ادلهرِ لم يكن شيئا مذكورا Was there not a period of time when man was nothing to speak of?

 “What th is m e a n s is “does e v e ry m a n w h o ". ُ َّ ُ َ َّ : ْ َّ "  وادلهر ِ الزمان الطوِي ل e x is ts re a liz e th a t he w a s n o n -e xis te n t fo r a long time, and he was not a thing worth mentioning, i.e., he «  حترير المعىن السديد وتنوير العقل اجلديد من تفسري “ .had no name and he was not spoken of » الكتاب المجيد حممد الطاهر بن حممد بن حممد الطاهر ”. “D a hr (translated here as a time] means a very long time : ) : ( بن اعشور اتلونيس المتوىف 1393هـ انلارش ادلار . Ibn ‘Ashur, M u h a m m a d , al-T a h rir wa’l T a n w ir : - اتلونسية للنرش تونس سنة النرش 1984 هـ عدد , V o lu m e s 30. (T u n is : al-D a r al-T u n is iy ya h األجزاء : v.29, p p . 345-346 30 ,(1984

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 4 INTRODUCTION

This short seminary course consists of the following sections:

 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM: , Hijra, African Muslim Identity.

 SECTION 02: ETHNOGRAPHY: Muslim sources on the geography & peoples of East Africa

 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP: Mid 13th (650/1252) to 15th (850/1446) century Networks & Influence.

 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES: Dotted Islamic Seminaries & settlements across the Horn.

 SECTION 05: DEMISE, DECLINE, AND DESTRUCTION: Economic, intellectual decline and the arrival of European power. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 5

SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM Empires, Hijra, African Muslim Identity.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 6 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

AXUMITE PERIOD:

 In 525 CE: the Aksumite King Ella Asbeha (Kaleb) invades , ruled by the Jewish Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas.

 “A force of 120,000 was to be transported in ships from the coast of East Africa…a contingent from [], which evidently meant perished, on the way to the launching of the expedition.” [Bowersock, 2013:97]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 7 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

AXUMITE PERIOD:

 In 570’s CE The Aksumite governor of Yeman Abraha (Abramos in Greek) attempted to attract who used to go to for trade and pilgrimage by building a Cathedral in San‘a.

 Kushitic and Semitic peoples of Northeast Africa, and their elephants mainly from East coast Africa (South Somalia, Kenya, Mozambique) perished in the conflicts, while others stayed behind. Some became soldiers of fortune or slaves.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

8 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

EAST AFRICANS IN YEMEN AND HIJAZ:  al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 255/869) speaks with glory about the invasion of Yemen by Northeast Africans and their attempt to invade Mecca. Al-Jāḥiẓ quotes the Blacks as saying: ْ "وحننقد ملكنا بالد العرب من دلن احلبشة إىل مكة وجرت أحاكمنا يف ذلك أمجع. وهزمنا ذا نوا س ... وأنتم لم تملكوا بالدنا"  “We were the owners of Arab lands from Abyssinia up to Mecca, and our rules were applied and obeyed by all. We overcame Dhu Nuwas and killed Himyar…but you did not own our lands.” [al-Jāḥiẓ, 1964:1.193]

 Al-Jāḥiẓ also refers to pre-Islamic poetry on ‘Abyssinian’s invasion’ over the Arab lands. SOURCE: Trials of Identity: Investigating al-Jāḥiẓ and the Zanj in Modern Pro-Black Discourse. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 9 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

EAST AFRICANS IN YEMEN AND HIJAZ:

 In an ancient poem, Quraysh is scorned for fielding Northeast African soldiers:

 Your cowardly retreat has dishonoured Quraysh, As has your recruiting Blacks with massive shoulders. (Abul-Faraj al-Isfahani, Kitab al-Aghani)

 The Battle of Badr (2/624) al-Waqidi (d. 207/822) in Kitab al-Maghazi says:

 “the Northeast Africans [habash] went off, throwing their lances.” [al-Waqidi: 1989, 1.133]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 10 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

HIJRA TO ABYSSINIA:

 The arrival of migrant refugees in Aksum early on allowed to plant roots in what is the Dahlak Islands () and the important city of Zayla‘ (Somalia).

secretly left Mecca for the port of) ﷺ  In Rajab 8bh/614 companions of the prophet Shuʿaybah, near , to board on a boat to Aksum (Modern day Ethiopia & Eritrea)

 The Najāsh, or the King [in Ge’ez] at the time of the prophet was known in Muslim .(was Armah Ella-Gabaz (r. 614–631 (أصحمة بن أجبر) sources as Asḥamah ibn Abjar [Mekouria, 1988: 560].

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 11 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

HIJRA TO ABYSSINIA:

 8bh/614, in the same year, after few months the Muslims heard rumours of Meccan peace and returned to find it hostile. Thus they returned back to Aksum, this time with larger number, over one hundred men and women.

 This is known as the 2nd Hijrah. (3rd Hijrah to Medina was 1st of Rabi‘ al-Awwal 14th year of prophethood/622).

 In 6/627/8, after Hudaybiyah, al-Najāshī accepts Islam through a letter sent to him by ُ carried by ْ َّ ْ َ ْ َ ُ َ َّ َ ُ ُ ْ َ ) also asking him to send back) ﷺ the prophet عمرو بن أمية ب ِن خوي ِ ِِل ب ِن عب ِد اهللِ الضمرِي the Muslims. [Najeebabadi, 2000: 1]  al-Najāshī is the first to accept Islam, and East Africa as bilad al-Hijra. 13/14!  In 9th/630-1, in the month of Rajab, after 3 years of being Muslim al-Najāshī died, year .[death. [Al-Jāmī, 2017: 31-32 ﷺ and half before the prophets SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

12 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY:

 He was later buried about ten miles north of Wukro, Tigray, where in the 930’s/1530’s Imām Aḥmad al-Ghāzī (912/1506-950/1543) troops visited him while on route. [ʿArab Faqīh, 2003: 351]

 In 86/705, in consolidating Umayyad control, Hajjāj b. Yūsuf fought in ‘Uman and, after losing several battles finally won, while the losers fled to East Africa, specifically to , seeking refuge.

 According to Dixon, al-Hajjaj crushed the revolt of `Abd al-Rahman b. al-Ash`ath (ended in 85/704), he was then free to deal with Oman. [al-Rawas, 1990: 87]

 Others argue that Hajjāj b. Yūsuf went to “suppress insurrection in ‘Uman by the brothers, Sa‘id and Sulayman, the sons of ‘Abbad ibn al-Julanda ibn al-Mustaqir.”

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

13 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY:

 The‘Umanis enjoyed somewhat independence since the Rashidun , but the power struggle of the Umayyads and the Zubayri’s (meaning ‘Abdallāh, born to al- Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām & Asma’ bint Abi Bakr) brought the area in the focus of ‘Abd al-Malik b. Marwan. [Dixon, 1969: 263]

 In any case, the defeated party fled, “taking with them their families, property, and those of their tribe who chose to follow them, they reached one of the districts of the Zanj [East Africa], where they abode until their death” [Hersi, 1977: 97].

 So ‘Abd al-Malik b. Marwan ibn al-Hakam (25/646–86/705), who reigned 65/685– 86/705 sent scout troops to East Africa.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

14 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY:

 In 75/694, according to anonymously authored manuscript, within nine years of ‘Abd al-Malik’s reign, one of his generals, a certain Mūsa b. Zubayr al-Khath‘amī or Mūsa Ibn ‘Umar al-Khath‘amī was sent to Mogadishu and Kilwa, already Muslim city states. [Kitab al-Zanuj, Cerulli, 1957: 238].

 These East African Muslim states stayed loyal to the and paid the taxation “kharaj”. The Umayyad promoted the Islamic education “al-Qur’an wa’l din”. This continued and “the people were obedient…to the Bani Umayyah state in , Syria until its end.” [ibid]

)وعلم انلاس قراءة القرآن وادلين وبىن بكلوى حصنا وفيه مجلة أسلحة واكنوا أهل ابلالد  هل طائعني من أولهم اىل آخرهم اىل ان انقرضت دولة بىن أمية عن دمشق الشام.( SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

15 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY:

 “In the year 149/767 arrived ‘Arab tribes from San‘a, ‘Irāq, and from other countries to [settle] in Mogadishu. They numbered 39 tribes including 12 tribes of al-Jid‘ata (al- Shāshiyūn)” [‘Aydarūs, 1950: 46].

 Due to these conflicts, groups of Arabian refugees left for Africa.

 One group moved west to North Africa and settled south of Tripoli, .

 Another migrated from ‘Uman and sailed down the coast to East Africa.

 Instead of going against the Caliph, they turned their attention instead to charity and prayer (‘ibadah). Hence they were called the ‘Ibadis.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

16 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY:

 In 92/711, because two previous naval missions had failed, al-Hajjāj b. Yūsuf appointed his nephew and youngest commander Muḥammad b. Qāsim ath-Thaqafī (c. 76/695-96/715), at 17 years, to be sent to Sind (now in southern Pakistan).

 Mandate was to punish and subdue Indian pirates based near present day Karachi that were thorn to Muslim trading ships , protected by Dahar, the Hindu king of the province of Sind.

 Muḥammad b. Qāsim’s third mission consisted of large force of East African regiments. [Baloch, 1953: 242–71].

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

17 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE ‘ABBASID DYNASTY:  The ‘Abbasids (132/750–656/1258) won against the Umayyads in 132/750.  The victorious Abbasids pursued the Umayyads. ‘Abdul Rahman I, escaped to Spain where he founded the ‘Umayyad Emirate (133/751).

 Umayyads also fled via the oceanic route to the Swahel and settled along the coasts of modern day Somalia and Kenya.

 ʿAbbāsid dynasty came to rule in 189/805 the Zanj coast. Mogadishu rebelled against the rule and authority of the fifth caliph of the ʿAbbāsid dynasty Hārūn al-Rashīd (149/766-193/809). [Kitab al-Zanuj, Cerulli,1957: 238]

 Hārūn al-Rashīd supposedly gained control over the area for ʿAbbāsid rule, but “the Sultanate of Mogadishu remained in constant rebellion”. [Mukhtar, 1995:4]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

18 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE ‘ABBASID DYNASTY:

 The ‘Zanj Rebellion’ (255-269 AH/869–883 CE) took place in this period. It is in this later Abbasid rule that forceful import of slaves on mass was conducted to drain the marshlands in Iraq, which lead to the all-out rebellion war dubbed as ‘Zanj Rebellion’ (255/869–269/883).

 The Fāṭimīyah (296/909–322/934 and 555/1160–566/1171) were Ismāʿīlī Shīʿī and its Caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb, , Sicily, the Levant, and Hijaz.

 One of its splinter groups were the Qarāmiṭa, founded by Ḥamdān Qarmaṭ ibn al- Ashʿath (260/874–286/899) originating from Yemen.

 In 318/930 the Qarāmiṭa sacked Mecca and removed al-Ḥajr al-Aswad from the Kaʿba. They ran to Basra, thereafter to Bahrain. The ʿAbbasids brought back pieces of al-Ḥajr al-Aswad in 341/952. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 19 SECTION 01: PRE & DAWN OF ISLAM

DURING THE ‘ABBASID DYNASTY:

 The remaining Qarāmiṭa running away from political persecution in Yemen and the Ḥijaz sought refuge in modern-day Tanzania. Others say, they were Sunnis, not Shīʿī fleeing the Qarāmiṭa.

 The largest group from Persia, Shiraz to come to the East African coast was ‘Ali ibn al-Hassan al-Shirazi, youngest of seven brothers of the (322/934– 454/1062). He was half black (Habashi mother). They stopped first at the Somali Banadir coast in Mogadishu.

 They did not find the place welcoming and were soon driven out. They headed further south of the coast and arrived at Kilwa, Tanzania. They settled there after negotiating with locals. [Hersi, 1977: 104, Pouwels, 1974: 68].

 Some of the scholars doubt the existence of this Sultan, and arrival. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 20

SECTION 02: ETHNOGRAPHY. Muslim sources on the geography & peoples of East Africa

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 21 SECTION 02: ETHNOGRAPHY & GEOGRAPHY

ETHNOGRAPHY & GEOGRAPHY: Early Muslim writers of geography, ethnography all write about East Africa:

 160/777: al-Fazārī, 235/850: al-Khwārizmī, 284/897: al-Ya‘qūbī, 299/912: Khurradādhbih, 341/952: al-Iṣṭakhrī, 345/956: al-Mas‘ūdī, 381/991: al-Maqdisī, 368/978: Ibn Ḥawqal al- Naṣībī, 442/1050: Al-Bīrūnī, 487/1094: al-Bakrī, 457/1165: al-Idrīsī, 626/1229: Yāqūt al- Hamawī, 685/1286: Sa‘īd al-Maghribī, 690/1291:al-Mujāwīr al-Dimishqi, 699/1300: al- Dimashqī al-Ansārī, 749/1349: Faḍl Allah al-‘Umarī, 770/1369: ibn Baṭūṭah, 759/1358: Ibn Mufaḍḍal Ibn Abī al-Faḍā’il, 821/1418: al-Qalqashandī, 846/1442: al-Maqrīzī, etc.

 Many dynasties and kingdoms were formed which generated trade and relations.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 22 SECTION 02: ETHNOGRAPHY & GEOGRAPHY

DYNASTIES OF THE HORN - ETHIOPIA: DYNASTIES OF THE HORN - ERITREA:

 Sultanate of Showa (896–1285);  Sultanate of Dahlak (1050–1557)

 Sultanate of Dawaro (900–1329);

 Sultanate of Arababni (1200–1314) DYNASTIES OF THE HORN - :

 Hadiya Sultanate (1200–1495)  Sultanate (1450–present)

(1285–1415)  Rahayta Sultanate (1600–present)

 Sultanate of (1526–1577)

 Wollo Kingdom (1760–1896)

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 23 SECTION 02: ETHNOGRAPHY & GEOGRAPHY

HORN OF AFRICA - TANZANIA: DYNASTIES OF THE HORN – SOMALI PENINSULA:

 Pemba Sultanate (1550–1829)  Warsangali Sultanate (1298–1960)

 Hadimu Sultanate (1650–1873)  Mogadishu Sultanate (1331–1860)

 Sultanate of Zanzibar (1856–1964)  Zayla Emirate (1415–1420)

 Kilwa Sultanate (957–1517)  (1415–1577)  Hiraab Imamate (1600–1860) - KENYA:  Majeerteen Sultanate (1600–1927)

 Pate Sultanate (1203–1870)  Geledi Sultanate (1843–1908)

 Mombasa Sultanate (1502–1895)  Hobyo Sultanate (1878–1925)

 Lamu archipelago (1370-present)  Dervish State (1896–1920) SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 24

SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP: Mid 13th (650/1252) to 15th (850/1446) century Networks & Influence

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 25 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY:

 Between 650/1252 and 850/1446 is considered the second golden age in Islamic era. It was also a period of time with Wars, plagues, famines, political and religious corruption are all dominant themes and they now occurred in combination and with devastating affect on Muslim society.

 The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks were Turkic slaves that ruled 648/1250 to 784/1382.  The Burji dynasty was a Circassian Mamluk that ruled from 784/1382 to 923/1517.  This political ascendency of Tukic slaves was not born in vacuum, rather the competing ethnic groups such as the Africans, almost all from East Africa were overcome the decades before.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

26 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: DAMASCUS

 RIWAQ (Colleges): Many East African scholars spent in Sham, Hijaz, Yemen to teach.

 The oldest of Riwaqs is said to be that of Zayali‘, located in Damascus, in the Jami‘ al- Umawi. It said that later the Fatimi dynasty when they build al-Azhar, they rendered similar college names and styles from al-Jami‘ al-Ummawi.

 Ibn al-Salah had passed away in 643/1245, and six years later, in 649/1251 al-Nawawi arrived in Damascus.

 In 699/1299-1300, the Mongols devastated most of Damascus. Virtually the whole of al- Salihiyya suburb to the north was pillaged and burned. [Lapidus, 1967:13]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

27 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: DAMASCUS:

 Ibrāhīm b. ‘Anbar b. ‘Abdallah al-Habashi, (626/1229-699/1300): “He came and settled in Qasiyun mount [Damascus]. He died in the era of the Tatar in Jumad al-Ula in 699/1300, having beaten severely and starved to death, May Allah have mercy on him.” [al-Dhahabi: Mu‘jam al-Shuyukh al-Kabir]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 28 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY DAMASCUS:

 Muhammad b. ‘Alī b. Abī Bakr, the Great Jurist, the scholar, Shams al-Dīn, al- Maqdishāwī, al-Shāfi‘ī 648/1250–718/1318:

 He was born in modern day Mogadishu sometime 648/1250. Shams al-Dīn al- Maqdishāwī sought to study Hadith and travelled extensively.

 Shams al-Dīn al-Maqdishāwī travelled to India, Irāq, Damascus, and performed Hajj َ َّ َ َّ َ َ َ َ .(حج مرا ت وجاو ر) many times, and stayed in Mecca  “transmitted hadith from al-Kamāl Ibn al-Dakhmīsī al-Hamawī (600/1204–671/1273), whom he met in al-Rūm.” Perhaps in Istanbul, though Ibn al-Dakhmīsī was of Greek origin. [Mu‘jam al-Shuyūkh al-Kabīr].

 al-Dahabī narrates from al-Maqdishāwī in the year 710/1310, at the age of 37 years, while al-Maqdishāwī heard it from Ibn al-Dakhmīsī in the year 670/1272 in India. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 29 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY:

 DAMASCUS:

 Muhammad al-Shams al-Zayla‘ī. (d. 863/1459).

 Born in Zayla’ and travelled to settle in Damascus.

 He became an expert calligrapher, copying over many volumes of religious sciences.

 al-Shams al-Zayla‘ī quickly amassed fame and many sought him out to learn his style.

 Biographers mentioned that in his time he taught so many that everyone worth the name ‘al-Katib’ either studied from him or his students.

 Ibn al-Qumah, a senior teachers used to boast that he studied with al-Shams al-Zayla’i.

 [Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Inba’ al-Ghumr bi anba’ al-’Umr] and his student al-Sakhawi [al-

SiblingsOfIlmSakhawi | www.siblingsofilm.com: al-Dhu’I al-Lami’ li ahl al-Qarn al-Tasi’] 30 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY : DAMASCUS:  Muhammad al-Shams al-Zayla‘ī. (d. 863/1459).  " َّ ْ ُ َ َ ُ َ ْ َ َ َ ْ ْ َ َ ْ " تعلم انلاس ِمنه وأخذ عنه َغلب أهل ابلِل وانتهت إَِلهِ رياسة الفن بِ ِدمشق  [al-Sakhawi: al-Dhu’I al-Lami’ li ahl al-Qarn al-Tasi’]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 31 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY : DAMASCUS:  Khadījah bt. Faraj al-Zayla‘iyyah (b.805/1403)

 Khadījah heard hadith from al-Jamāl al-Hanbalī, and was given ijāza by ‘Āisha bt. Ibn ‘Abd al-Hādī (723/1323–816/1413) and others. “She has also given us ijāza. She was righteous.” (Sakhāwī, Dū’ al-Lāmi‘).

 Khadījah took hadith ‘Āisha bt. Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Hādī (723/1323–816/1413), ‘the musnadah of the world’ [al-Sakhāwī], the daughter of hadīth expert Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Hādī (705/1305-744/1343) and the sister of another hadīth expert Fātimah bt. Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Hādī.

 Khadījah travelled, spent some time in Mecca after her Hajj, and later came to Jerusalem. She had a righteous father (who moved from Zayla‘) (Sakhāwī, Dū'i al- Lāmi‘). Among the many that have studied with her are, al-Suyūtī. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 32 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY : MECCA:  Sulaymān al-Maqdashī [Mogadishu] (d. 770/1369)

 Sulayman al-Maqdashī settled in Jerusalem, via Mecca, before that via Madina, before that Mogadishu.

 Sulayman al-Maqdashī “stayed in Mecca around twenty years. He got married...the laypeople and scholars alike honoured him He was one of Allahs Awlihā' attributed with Karāmāt. He died in Jerusalem in 770/1369. [Al-Fāsī al-Makkī, al-‘Uqd al-Thamīn fī Tārīkh al-Bald al-Amīn]  وحصل "هل شهرة باحلرمني واْلسكندرية وعظمه اخلاص والعام. واكن من األوَلاء هل كرامات.“

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 33 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY :  Sa‘id of Mogadishu (c. 744/1344):

 Shaykh Sa‘īd of Mogadishu is met by ibn Baṭūṭah in South India circa 744/1344, a town called Hilli (Ezhimala).

 “I met in this Masjid a jurist, pious from Mogadishu called Sa‘īd, of fine figure and character. He used to fast continually, and I was told that he had studied in Makkah for fourteen years and for the same length of time [another fourteen years] in Madinah. He had met Abu Numayy, the Amir of Makkah [r. 1254-1301] , and al-Mansūr Ibn Jammāz, the Amir of Madinah [r. 1300-1325]. He had travelled [throughout] India and China.” [Rihla: 4.41]  "ولقيت بهذا المسجد فقيها صاحلا من أهل مقدشو. يسىم سعيدا. حسن اللقاء واخللق يرسد الصوم. وذكر ىل أنه . جاور بمكة أربع عرشة سنة ومثلها بالمدينة وأدرك األمري بمكة أبا ن ىم واالمري بالمدينة م نصور بن مجاز www.siblingsofilm.com و| سافر يف SiblingsOfIlm بالد الهند والصني." 34 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY :  Sa‘id of Mogadishu (c. 744/1344):

 al-Mansūr Ibn Jammāz took over the reign of Medina from his father ‘Izz al-Dīn Abū Sanad Jammāz ibn Shīḥah ibn Hāshim al-Ḥusaynī (r. 649/1251–704/1304-5) in 704/1304. Other sources put the date as 657/1259 to 699/1300.

 His father, Jammāz ibn Shīḥah was first to seize Mecca in 687/1288 bringing the Hijaz under Mamlūk suzerainty. [al-Qu‘aitī, 2007:583]

 From this it is apparent that Sa‘īd was not only a well travelled scholar known in the ways of the world, but he obviously must have recruited many students due to his close link with the Amirs. [Joshi: 1974, 7]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 35 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY :  Sa‘id of Mogadishu (c. 744/1344):

 “Faqih Sa’id from Mogadishu […] finally settled down in the small port-town of Ezhimala and collaborated there with Faqih Husayn, possibly the author of Qayd al- jami’, the first known Shafi’ite text from Malabar. Faqih Sa’id is an epitome of many more East African scholars who arrived in the Malabar Coast and partook in its religious spectrums, and their contributions await further research.” (Kooriadathodi 2016: 209)

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 36 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY:

 Imām Fakhr al-Dīn, ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī [b. Muhajjin al-Bara‘i] b. Yahyā b. Yūnus al-Zayla‘ī, Fakhr al-Dīn, al-Hanafī (d. 743/1342):

 Not much of his early life is documented because biographical layers of great Hanafi jurists were not compiled until the late 8th/14th century. Usually Hanafi luminaries were picked from biographical layers compiled for the grammarians, Hadith experts, etc.

 He was born and raised in Zayla` and excelled in the sciences of Lughah, Nahw, Sarf, Fiqh, and Hadith before he left for knowledge.

 Historians mention that he entered Cairo in 705/1306 and “He taught, spread Fiqh and benefitted the people” as ibn Hajar puts it.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 37 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: CAIRO

 Imām Fakhr al-Dīn, ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī [b. Muhajjin al-Bara‘i] b. Yahyā b. Yūnus al-Zayla‘ī, Fakhr al-Dīn, al-Hanafī (d. 743/1342):

Fakhr al-Din has also travelled to the Hijaz and taught in Mecca for a period of time, as mentioned by his student Badr al-Dīn Mahmud b. Israil b. ‘Abd al-‘Azīz Ibn Qadi Simāwanah (d. 818 or 823/1415 or 1420).

 He was known as one of the great ones in the Madhab as illustrated by his ability and mastery of Fiqh, Hadith, Nahw and fara’id in his masterpiece Tabyin al-Haqa’iq. He is classed as sixth level Hanafi jurist (al-Tabaqat al-Sadisah). [Kawjabash, 2016: 22]

 Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Zayla`i was ascetic, simple life style, humbleness. He used to exhort his students saying; “Don’t cut short your recitation [for my sake] for I see myself like one of you. If you happen to find someone astute in certain science read to them SiblingsOfIlmso you | www.siblingsofilm.com may gain more good and benefit much more.” 38 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: CAIRO

 Imām Fakhr al-Dīn, ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī [b. Muhajjin al-Bara‘i] b. Yahyā b. Yūnus al-Zayla‘ī, Fakhr al-Dīn, al-Hanafī (d. 743/1342):

 Imam Fakhr al-Din may have studied with these great scholars of Zayla’:

 Imam Shihab al-Din Ahmed b. `Umar al-Zayla`i, al-`Uqayli (d. 704/1304). He was an expert of Fiqh, Tasawwuf, Nahw and Tafsir. He wrote works such as Thamarat al- in (ثمرة احلقيقة ومرشد السالكني اىل اوضح الطريقة( Haqiqat wa Murshid al-Salikin ila Awdhah al-Tariqah Tasawwuf.

 Imam Muhammad b. `Ali al-Zayla`i (d. 730/1330). He was an expert in fiqh and Usul. Some of the works he left behind is Sharh al-Luma`. There is a strong possibility that he may have taken knowledge from him. [Mu‘allim, 2011:76]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 39 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: CAIRO

 Imām Fakhr al-Dīn, ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī [b. Muhajjin al-Bara‘i] b. Yahyā b. Yūnus al-Zayla‘ī, Fakhr al-Dīn, al-Hanafī (d. 743/1342):

 HIS STUDENT: Imam Jamal al-Din `Abd Allah al-Zayla`i (d. 762/1361), Imam Shams al-Din Muhammad al-Sa’i` al-Nahwi (d. 777/1375), Imam Badr al-Din Ibn Qadi Simawanah (d. 823/1420).

 HIS WORK: Tabyin al-Haqa’iq Sharh Kanz al-Daqa’iq which has been a crucial source for advanced students as well as teachers since its inception; Sharh `ala al-Jami` al- Kabir by Imam Muhammad al-Shaybani (d. 189/805); Sharh `ala al-Mukhtar lil Fatawa by Imam Abi al-Fadhl al-Mawsili (d. 683/1284),

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 40 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: CAIRO

 Imām Fakhr al-Dīn, ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī [b. Muhajjin al-Bara‘i] b. Yahyā b. Yūnus al-Zayla‘ī, Fakhr al-Dīn, al-Hanafī (d. 743/1342):

 “He is reported to have left his native land, Zayla’ to settle in 705/1305 in Cairo, where he taught till his death in 743/1342. This raises an important question: if al-Zayla’; had come to settle in Cairo as a teacher rather than as a student, he must have been exposed at home to a remarkable scholarly tradition, about which the current volume provides no information.

 But if we consider the fact that by the thirteenth century many of the nomadic peoples of the region had become Muslims, and trade based Muslim principalities had been established from the 14th century, it would be reasonable to suggest that itinerant trader-scholars would have been active here too.” [Sanni, 2003,196]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 41 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: CAIRO

 Imām Jamal al-Din `Abd Allah al-Zayla`i (710/1320-762/1361),

 Jamāl al-Dīn Abū Muhammad ‘Abd Allāh ibn Yūsuf ibn Yūnus Ibn Muhammad al- Zayla‘ī.

 He is classed in the generation of Hāfiẓ Ibn Rajab (736/1336-795/1393), Ibn Musallam (724/1324-792/1390), Ibn Sayyid al-Nās (729/1329-792/1390), while being a colleague of Hāfiẓ Zayn al-‘Irāqī (725/1325–806/1404). [al-Suyūtī, Tabaqāt al-Huffāẓ: 531]

 In Hadith he studied with Hāfiẓ Abū al-Hajjāj al-Mizzī (d. 742/1341) and Hāfiẓ Shams al- Dīn al-Dhahabī (d. 748/1347), Imām ‘Alā’ al-Dīn al-Māridīnī (d. 750/1349), and in fiqh Imām Fakhr al-Dīn al-Zayla‘ī (d. 743/1342), and in Lugha Bahā’ al-Dīn ‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Abd al-Rahmān Ibn ‘Aqīl (d. 761/1360), [‘Awwamah].

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 42 SECTION 03: GLOBAL EAST AFRICAN SCHOLARSHIP

DURING MAMLUK DYNASTY: CAIRO

 Imām Jamal al-Din `Abd Allah al-Zayla`i (710/1320-762/1361),

 Qāsim ibn Qutlūbughā d. 879/1427: “the most expansive in scope and wide-ranging in collection.”

 al-Laknawī d. 1304/1887: “His takhrīj work is indicative of his depth in the field of Hadīth and narrator criticism, and his encompassing vision in the branches of Hadīth to the highest extent.”

 Shaykh Muhammad Zāhid al-Kawtharī d. 1371/1952: “His takhrīj works bear testimony to his depth and expansive scope in the disciplines of Hadīth in terms of commentary, narrator criticism, texts, and routes.”

 Shaykh Anwar Shāh al-Kashmīrī d. 1352/1933: “In my opinion, Hāfiẓ al-Zayla‘ī has better memory than Hāfiẓ Ibn Hajar.” [‘Awwamah]. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 43

SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES: Dotted Islamic Seminaries & settlements across the Horn.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 44 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

CENTRES OF LEARNING IN EAST AFRICA

 Horn of Africa is dotted by many centres of Islamic learning, for centuries, dedicated as madaris, places where beginners learn the ‘ulum, and where dedicated advanced students graduate.

 We mentioned earlier that the Umayyad promoted the Islamic education;

 وعلم انلاس قراءة القرآن وادلين وبىن بكلوى حصنا وفيه مجلة أسلحة واكنوا أهل ابلالد هل طائعني من أولهم اىل آخرهم اىل ان انقرضت دولة بىن أمية عن دمشق الشام.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 45 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

CENTRES OF LEARNING IN EAST  Somali-’Ajami writing: AFRICA: ‘AJAMI LITERATURE A text written by a husband to his wife a  ‘Ajamī sources are largely century ago, both in untapped mines of information Northern part of the for a comprehensive Somali Peninsula. understanding of diverse Islamic experiences in Africa  Husband: Salah Dirir in and beyond. Berbera to his wife Haboon Wacays in  They constitute an important Burco. and unique part of the Islamic component of “The African Library.”Ngom, 2016: 251]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 46 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

 TEACHING, WRITING, AND LITERATURE CULTURE OF MOGADISHU:

 In southern part of East Africa, specifically Mogadishu Shafi‘ī fiqh became popular.

 Imām Jamāl al-Dīn Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Samad al-Jahwi (d. 670/1272), buried in Mogadishu, known to have taught and given ijaza in Mogadishu. [Mukhtar, 1995:4]

 It was Shaykh Habib Muhammad b. 'Alawi b. Ahmed b. Al-Faqih al-Muqadam who received certification in al-Tanbīh fī’l Fiqh al-Shāfi‘ī written by Imām Abī Ishāq Ibrāhīm b. ‘Alī al-Shayrāzī (393/1003-476/1083). [Ba’alawi, Unknown:189-190]  "اكن يقرأ عليه المهذب يف سنة واتلنبيه والوسيط والوجزي يف سنة.”  [Mu‘allim, 2011:139]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 47 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

 TEACHING, WRITING, AND LITERATURE CULTURE OF MOGADISHU:

 Abū ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad ibn Baṭūṭah (703/1304-770/1369) visited the East African coast, traveling through the Sudan and Yemen, then on to Zayla‘, Mogadishu (both in Somalia), Mombasa (Kenya) and further south to Zanzibar and Kilwa.

 In 731/1331 he visited Mogadishu and mentioned its scholarship and educational institutions completely funded with bursaries for students.

 Shaykh Kamal al-Din al-Maqdashi arrived [‘Adan] from Mogadishu in 751 (begins 11 March 1350) by ship. 20 years before Ibn Batuta showed up in Mogadishu.

 “Jurisconsults (Qadis) from Mogadishu were strongly involved in the trade of books.” [Smith, 1997].

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 48 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

 TEACHING, WRITING, AND LITERATURE CULTURE OF MOGADISHU & LAMU:

 Imām al-Maqrīzī (766/1365—845/1441), mentions couple of years before he passed away while on his last Hajj, meeting Qādī Imām Muhammad b. Ishāq b. Muhammad al-Barawānī (d. 839/1436). Maqrīzī says:

 “Muhammad b. Ishāq b. Muhammad, judge of Lamu, which is one of the Zanj coastal towns on the Barabar sea [Somali coast]…Located West to the city of Mogadishu...While I was in Mecca, he arrived for Hajj, in the concluding year of 839/1436.” [al-Maqrīzī, al-‘Uqūd, 2002:3.345-346].

 After verbatim quoting similar lines, al-Sakhāwī adds that he was born in 787/1385. [Dhu’I al-Lami’]

 Maqrizi says: “I was tested by him in my knowledge of fiqh in the Shāfi‘ī madhab, and inheritance [farā'idh].” He also mentions he studied al-Hawi with him. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 49 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

CENTRES OF LEARNING IN EAST AFRICA

 Most of the Islamic education centres were located in settlements in or around agricultural areas and around water wells and many of these were later transformed into villages, towns, and cities.

 WALLO: Centers of Islamic Learning in Wallo. The following most famous centers of education were identified by Hussein (1988), with their founders and famous scholars. To shed light on a few of many:

 Graddo, Dawway founded by Mufti Dawud ibn Abi Bakr

 Shonke founded by al–Haj Jawhar bin Haydar

 Jama‘ Negus, Albukko, Central Wallo Shayk Mohammad.

 At Legot in wera Himano Shaykh ‘Umar Surur was a recognized teacher

SiblingsOfIlmIn Warra | www.siblingsofilm.com Babbo, at a place called Oda—Shaykh Abdal-Wahhab Abdel- Jalil.

50 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

CENTRES OF LEARNING IN EAST AFRICA: WALLO

 In Wallo for example, the Hanafi and Shafi‘i are represented. Broadly speaking, the shafi’iyyah has the largest number of followers in Wallo and is predominant in the lowland areas like Dawway and Ifat, whereas the Hanafiyyah is strong in high land areas such as Qallu, Borana, Warra Himano, Warra Babo and Yajju.

 According to Hussein Ahmed “Islam was introduced into Wallo from Ifat in northeastern Shawa, where it had flourished since the eleventh century, if not earlier.” [Hassen, 2000:147-151]

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 51 SECTION 04: DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC SEMINARIES:

CENTRES OF LEARNING IN EAST AFRICA

 It was estimated that one time in the Somali Peninsula, more than 80 Islamic seminary communities were functioning. [Mukhtar, 2003:127]

 DARRA:

 WALLO FIIQ: RAASO: HARAR:

 BAARDHEERE: ZAYLA’: BERBERA: HARGEISA:

 MOGADISHU: LAMU: KILWA: MERKA:

 BARAWE: MOMBASA:

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 52

Q&A

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 53

FURTHER READING

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 54 FURTHER READING

English

 Reese, Scott, eds. The Transmission of Learning in Islamic Africa, (Leiden: Brill, 2004)

 Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels, eds. The History of , (Oxford: James Currey, 2000)  I HIGHLY RECOMMEND READING THE ABOVE TWO TITLES AS INTRODUCTION.

 Omer, Ahmed Hassen. Centres of Traditional Muslim Education in Northern Shäwa (Ethiopia): A Historical Survey with particular Reference to the Twentieth Century. Source: Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1/2 (2006), pp. 13-33,

 Mazrui, Alamin M. Cultural Politics of Translation: East Africa in a Global Context. (New York & London, Routledge, 2016).

 Mazrui, Alamin M. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. (Boston & Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1986).

 Ahmed, Hussein. Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia: Revival, Reform and Reaction. (Leiden, Brill: 2000),

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 55 FURTHER READING

English

 Declich, Francesca, eds. Translocal Connections across the : Swahili Speaking Networks on the Move, (Leiden: Brill, 2018).

 Miftah, Mukerrem. Key Dimensions in Abyssinia-Ottoman Relations in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: A Critical Review of Literatures.

 Endashaw, Ibrahim. Practices and Contributions of Islamic Education to Modern : the case of Bati Azhar Mesjid. (PhD Dissertation University, 2012).

 Casale, Giancarlo. The Ottoman Age of Exploration. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)

 Krätli, Graziano, and Ghislaine Lydon, eds. The Trans-Saharan Book Trade, (Leiden: Brill, 2010)

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 56 FURTHER READING

العربية  تحقيق: د/جيالن بن خضر بن غمدا اإلثيوبي، سلسلة منشورات اثبات واجازات علماء الحبشة. المجموعة األولى. )أدس أبابا، اثوبيا: ١٤٣٦/٢٠١٥(  تحقيق: د/جيالن بن خضر بن غمدا اإلثيوبي، سلسلة منشورات اثبات واجازات علماء الحبشة. المجموعة الثانية. )أدس أبابا، اثوبيا: ١٤٣٦/٢٠١٥(  أحمد جمعالة محمد: دور علماء جنوب الصومال في الدعوة اإلسالمية )1889 – 1941م(، رسالة الدكتوراه في التاريخ، 2008م، قسم التاريخ بجامعة أم درمان اإلسالمية في السودان.  بشير أحمد صالد : التاريخ السياسي لسلطنة عدل اإلسالمي في القرن اإلفريقي ) 818هـ/1415م ــ 949هـ /1543م (، معهد التحوث والدراسات العربية ، بغداد ، قسم البحوث والدراسات التاريخية ، ذي الحجة 1407هـ ، أب 1987م ، رسالة الماجستير في الدراسات التاريخية.  حسّن معلّم محمود سمتر: مَدْرَسَة التَصَُوفْ اإلسْالمِيّ في الصَّوْمَالْ، نشْأتُها- مَرَاكِزُها – أدْوَارُها-خصائصها- ورٌوَّادُها، بحث مقدّم لنيل الماجستير في جامعة األحقاف باليمن عام 2011م/2012م. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

57 FURTHER READING

العربية  الشيخ أحمد عبد الله ريراش : كشف السدول عن تاريخ الصومال وممالكهم السبعة ، طبع بمطابع الدولة للطباعة بمقدشو 1974م.  أحمد جمعالة محمد: التعليم اإلسالمي في الصومال، ندوة التعليم في الصومال ) الماضي، الحاضر، المستقبل (، 15- 16 /1997/5م تنظيم : مركز السالم الثقافي ، لجنة مسلمي إفريقيا ، مقدشو - مكتب الصومال.  زين العابدين السراج: الحياة الثقافية بالصومال في العصور الوسطى ضمن مجلة البحوث والدراسات العربية ، العدد 13، 14، 1987م.  تصالح علي محمود "دبان": الطرق الصوفية ودورها في الدعوة والثقافة اإلسالمية في جنوب الصومال -1889 1960م دراسة تاريخية حضارية " ماجستير في التاريخ الحديث والمعاصر بجامعة سنار في السودان.  عبد الباسط شيخ إبراهيم، الدعوة اإلسالمية في الصومال من عام 1960 إلى 2010 م، رسالة الدكتوراه في

الدعوة، كلية العلوم اإلسالمية بجامعة المدينة اإلسالمية في ماليزيا، فيراير عام 2014م. SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

58

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 59 BIBLIOGRAPHY

English

 Bowersock, Glen Warren. The Throne of : Wars on the Evening of Islam. (New York, Oxford University Press: 2013).

 al-Jāḥiẓ, Abū ‘Uthmān ‘Umurū (d. 255/869). ‘Kitāb Fakhr al-Ṣūdān ‘alā al-Bayḍān’, in Rasā’il al-Jāḥiẓ. ed. ‘Abd al-Salām Muḥammad Hārūn. 4-Volume. (Cairo: Maktabat al-Khānajī, 1964) v.1, pp. 173-226.

 Ingram, Paige Mandisa. Trials of Identity: Investigating al-Jāḥiẓ and the Zanj in Modern Pro-Black Discourse. (Austin: The University of Texas, 2015).

 Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah Khan. . 3 Volumes. (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2000).

 Al-Jāmī, Muḥammad Amān. Islam in Africa Throughout History. Tr. Rasheed Barbee. (Philadelphia: Authentic Statements, 2017).

 ʿArab Faqīh, Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad, Paul Lester Stenhouse (Translator). Futūḥ al-Ḥabashah: The conquest of Abyssinia [16th Century]. ed. Richard Pankhurst. (Hollywood: Tsehai Publishers, 2003)

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY

English

 al-Bajuri, Shaykh Muhammad Al-Khudari Bak. Lessons in Islamic History. (London: Turath Publishing, 2016), p82.

 Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji, “Islam in Somali History: Fact and Fiction” in Ali Jimale, The Invention of Somalia, (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1995)

 [Lapidus, Ira M. Muslim Cities In The Later . (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967)

 al-Qu‘aitī, Sultān Ghālib, The Holy Cities, The Pilgrimage and the World of Islam: A History from the Earliest traditions till 1925 (1344H), (Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2007). p.583

 History of Medieval Deccan, 1295-1724: Mainly cultural aspects edited by P. M. Joshi p. 7.

 Kooriadathodi, Mahmood. Cosmopolis of law: Islamic legal ideas and texts across the Indian Ocean and Eastern Mediterranean Worlds. (Leiden: University of Leiden, 2016).

 Sanni, Amidu Olalekan. Arabic Literature of Africa Volume 3 Fascicle A: The Writings of the Muslim People of Northeastern Africa. Compiled by R. S. O’FAHEY (Leiden: Brill 2003), 196 pp.

SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY

English

 Donald P. Little, History and Historiography of the Mamluks (London: Variorum,1986);

 J. van Steenbergen, Order Out of Chaos: Patronage, Conflict and Mamluk Socio-Political Culture, 1341–1382 (Leiden; Boston, MA: Brill, 2006);

 Robert Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early , 1250–1382 (London: Croom Helm, 1986);

 P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (eds), The Cambridge History of Islam: Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War, Vol. 1a, (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970);

 George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), 2.

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 Burak, Guy. The second formation of Islamic law: the Hanafī school in the early Modern Ottoman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) pp.118-119.

 R. Kevin Jaques, Authority, Conflict, and the Transmission of Diversity in Medieval Islamic Law (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 17–23, 255–79

 Nükhet Varlık, “Disease and Empire: A History of Plague Epidemics in the Early Modern (1453–1600)” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2008).

 al-Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Zayla`I wa Kitabihi Tabyin al-Haqa’iq by Sawash b. Yusuf Kawjabash Thesis

 Mu‘allim ‘Alī, Muhammad Hussayn. al-Thaqāfah al-‘Arabiyyah wa Ruwwādaha fīl Sūmāl: Dirāsah Tārīkhiyyah, Hadāriyyah (Arab Culture and its Pioneers in Somalia: Historical Overview). (Cairo: Dār al-Fikr al-Ābi, 2011)

 The Life and Works of Hāfiẓ al-Zayla‘ī, Author of Nasb al-Rāyah By Shaykh Muhammad ‘Awwāmah. Translated by Muntasir Zaman. Link: https://ahadithnotes.com/archives/1195#_ftnref1

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 Ngom, Fallou. Muslims beyond the Arab World: The Odyssey of ‘Ajamī and the Murīdiyya. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

 al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Sharif al-Husayni (d. 1412). Mulakhkhas al-Fitan (book of legal decisions) from . Taken from: B.G. Martin African Historical Studies 1974. Medieval Administrative and Fiscal Treatise from Yemen: G. Rex Smith

 al-Maqrīzī, Ahmad b. ‘Alī Taqiy al-Dīn. Durar al-‘Uqūd al-Farīdat fī tarājum al-a‘yān al-Mufīdat.: ed. Mahmūd al-Jalīlī. (Beirut Dār al-Gharab al-Islāmī: 2002). 4 volumes. v.3, pp345-346

 Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji, “Islam in Somali History: Fact and Fiction” in Ali Jimale, The Invention of Somalia, (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1995)

 Hassen, Mohammed. “Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia: Revival, Reform and Reaction (review)”, in Northeast African Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, 2000, pp. 147-151

 Mohamed Mukhtar, Historical Dictionary of Somalia. African Historical Dictionary Series, 87 (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2003)

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العربية  الجاحظ، ابو عثمان عمرو بن بحر بن محبوب )869/255(. »كتاب فخر السودان على البيضان. في رسائل الجاحظ«، تحقيق وشرح: عبد السالم محمد هارون. األجزاء: 4. )القاهرة: مكتبة الخانجي، 1964/1384(. ح؛١. ص؛ ١٧٣-٢٢٦.  الواقدي، محمد بن عمر )822/207(. »المغازي« تحقيق: مارسدن جونس. )بيروت: دار األعلمي،١٩٨٩( الطبعة: الثالثة. عدد األجزاء: ٣.  الشريف عيدروس، »بغية اآلمال في تاريخ الصومال«. )مقدشو:مطبعة اإلدارة اإليطالية، 1950)  مجهول، »كتاب الزنوج«.  الحموي، ياقوت بن عبد الله الرومي )626(. »معجم البلدان«. )بيروت: دار صادر، ١٩٩٥( عدد األجزاء: 7.  الذهبي، محمد بن أحمد بن عثمان )المتوفى: 748هـ(. »معجم الشيوخ الكبير« المحقق: الدكتور محمد الحبيب الهيلة الناشر: مكتبة الصديق، الطائف - المملكة العربية السعودية الطبعة: األولى، 1408 هـ - 1988 م عدد األجزاء: 2  إبن حجر العسقالني، أبو الفضل أحمد بن علي العسقالني. إنباء الغمر بأبناء العمر. المحقق: د حسن حبشي الناشر: المجلس األعلى للشئون اإلسالمية - لجنة إحياء التراث اإلسالمي، مصر عام النشر:1389هـ، 1969م عدد األجزاء: 4 SiblingsOfIlm | www.siblingsofilm.com

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