U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs

DEC. National Institute of Justice 05

Research for Practice

Sexual Assault on Campus: What Colleges and Universities Are Doing About It

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh Street N.W. Washington, DC 20531

Alberto R. Gonzales Attorney General

Regina B. Schofield Assistant Attorney General

Glenn R. Schmitt Acting Director, National Institute of Justice

This and other publications and products of the National Institute of Justice can be found at:

National Institute of Justice www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

Office of Justice Programs Partnerships for Safer Communities www.ojp.usdoj.gov DEC. 05 Sexual Assault on Campus: What Colleges and Universities Are Doing About It

This Research for Practice is based on the authors’ congressionally mandated report, Campus Sexual Assault: How America’s Institutions of Higher Education Respond, submitted to the National Institute of Justice, October 2002, available online at www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/ nij/grants/196676.pdf.

Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. The research discussed in this publication was conducted under National Institute of Justice grant number 99–WA–VX–0008.

NCJ 205521 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

ABOUT THIS REPORT

Sexual assault on the Nation’s part, why these crimes are college campuses has been underreported. Reporting pro­ receiving more attention late­ cedures were a special con­ ly. Schools are not the safe cern of the study. Individual havens they once appeared and institutional barriers to to be; college women are at reporting were identified. higher risk for sexual assault than their non­college­bound Schools are complying with peers.1 Congress has enacted Federal law unevenly. Overall, several laws requiring schools 4­year and historically black to disclose their security pro­ institutions are doing better cedures, report crime data, than other schools. Most and ensure victims’ rights. In schools comply with the 1999, it asked the National requirement to report crime Institute of Justice to study data, but only about a third do school compliance with Fed­ so in a way fully consistent eral law. The resulting re­ with Federal laws. Anony­ search report provides a mous reporting, which comprehensive benchmark of encourages victims to come sexual assault policy on the forward, is an option at just Nation’s campuses. This Re­ half of the Nation’s schools. search for Practice presents Schools also provide basic key findings from the report. resources unevenly. Fewer than half the schools studied inform students how to file What did the criminal charges. researchers find? These findings show that Sexual assault is widely con­ schools need guidance. The sidered to be the most researchers identify promising underreported violent crime practices, recommend devel­ in America. Most sexual opment of model policies and assaults on campus are com­ guidelines, and suggest areas mitted by an acquaintance of for more research.2 the victim, which explains, in

ii SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

Heather M. Karjane, Bonnie S. Fisher, and Francis T. Cullen

Sexual Assault on Campus: What Colleges and Universities Are Doing About It

Campus crime in general and basic rights.3 The Clery Act, sexual assault in particular the most notable of these have been receiving more laws, mandates an annual attention than in the past, and security report from each concern has been expressed Federally funded school (see at the highest levels of gov­ “Recent Federal Laws on ernment. On the Federal Campus Crime”). level, Congress responded by enacting several laws requir­ In 1999, Congress asked the ing institutions of higher edu­ National Institute of Justice to cation to notify students find out what policies and about crime on campus, pub­ procedures schools use to licize their prevention and prevent and respond to re­ response policies, maintain ports of sexual assault.4 The open crime logs, and ensure resulting study revealed that sexual assault victims their schools are making strides

RECENT FEDERAL LCAWS ON AMPUS CRIME

About the Authors Starting in 1990, Congress acted to ensure that institutions of higher edu­ Heather M. Karjane, cation have strategies to prevent and respond to sexual assault on cam­ Ph.D., is coordinator for pus and to provide students and their parents accurate information about gender issues at the Com­ campus crime. The major Federal laws pertaining to this study are: monwealth of Massachu­ Student Right­to­Know and Campus Security Act of 1990 (the “Clery setts Administrative Office Act”*) (20 U.S.C. § 1092). This law, Title II of Public Law 101–542, requires

of the Trial Court. Bonnie that schools annually disclose information about crime, including specific

S. Fisher, Ph.D., and sexual crime categories, in and around campus. Francis T. Cullen, Ph.D., are faculty in the Division Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of Rights of 1992. This amendment of Criminal Justice at the to the 1990 act requires that schools develop prevention policies and pro­ University of Cincinnati. vide certain assurances to victims. The law was amended again in 1998 The Police Executive to expand requirements, including the crime categories that must be Research Forum reported. conducted some of *The act was renamed in 1998 the "Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and

the field research. Campus Crime Statistics Act" in honor of a student who was sexually assaulted and murdered on her campus in 1986.

1 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

in some areas but must con­ translates into the disturbing tinue efforts to increase figure of 35 such crimes for student safety and accounta­ every 1,000 women students. bility. After summarizing what For a campus with 10,000 is known about the nature women students, the number and extent of sexual assault could reach 350. If the per­ on campus, the researchers centage is projected to a full highlighted findings regarding calendar year, the proportion response policies and proce­ rises to nearly 5 percent of dures; reporting options; bar­ college women. When pro­ riers and facilitators; reporter jected over a now­typical training and prevention pro­ 5­year college career, one in gramming; victim resources; five young women experi­ and investigation, adjudica­ ences rape during college.5 tion, and campus sanctions. The study’s baseline informa­ Counter to widespread tion can be used to measure stranger­rape myths, in the progress in how institutions vast majority of these of higher education respond crimes—between 80 and 90 to sexual assault. percent—victim and assailant know each other.6 In fact, the more intimate the relation­ The scope of the ship, the more likely it is for problem a rape to be completed rather than attempted.7 Half of all Administrators want their student victims do not label campuses to be safe havens the incident “rape.”8 This is for students as they pursue particularly true when no their education and mature weapon was used, no sign of intellectually and socially. But physical injury is evident, and institutions of higher educa­ alcohol was involved—factors tion are by no means crime­ commonly associated with free; women students face campus acquaintance rape.9 a high risk for sexual assault. Given the extent of non­ stranger rape on campus, it is Just under 3 percent of all no surprise that the majority college women become vic­ of victimized women do not tims of rape (either complet­ define their experience as a ed or attempted) in a given rape. 9­month academic year. On first glance, the risk seems These reasons help explain low, but the percentage why campus sexual assault is

2 SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

not well reported. Less than 5 percent of completed and For definitions and explanation of terminology such as “acquain­ attempted rapes of college tance rape,” see Karjane et al., students are brought to the Campus Sexual Assault: How attention of campus authori­ America’s Institutions of Higher 10 ties and/or law enforcement. Education Respond, Oct. 2002, Failure to recognize and NCJ 196676: 2–3; for an analysis report the crime not only may of how colleges and universities result in underestimating the define sexual assault, see chap­ extent of the problem, but ter 3. also may affect whether vic­ tims seek medical care and other professional help. Thus, Definitions, even of such a special concern of the terms as “campus” and “stu­ study was what schools are dent,” are often a challenge doing to encourage victims to and contribute to inconsis­ come forward. tency in calculating the number of reported sexual assaults. Only 37 percent of Federal law and the the schools studied report schools’ response their statistics in the required manner; for example, most Institutions of higher educa­ schools failed to distinguish tion vary widely in how well forcible and nonforcible sex they comply with Clery Act offenses in their reports as mandates and respond to required by the Clery Act. sexual victimization. Overall, a large proportion of the schools studied—close to 80 The issues and percent—submit the annual the findings security report required by the Act to the U.S. Depart­ Congress specified the is­ ment of Education; more sues to be investigated than two­thirds include their (see “Study Design”). Key crime statistics in the report. areas of concern were Yet, according to a General whether schools have a Accounting Office study, written sexual assault re­ schools find it difficult to sponse policy; whether and consistently interpret and how they define sexual mis­ apply the Federal reporting conduct; who on campus requirements, such as decid­ is trained to respond to ing which incidents to cite in reports of sexual assault; the annual report, classifying how students can report crimes, and the like.11 sexual victimization; what 3 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

STUDY DESIGNa

In 1999, Congress mandated investigation of nine issues concerning how colleges and univer­ sities are responding to campus sexual assault. Most of these issues are discussed in this Research for Practice.b To collect the mandated information, the researchers studied a random sample of schools in the United States and Puerto Rico that receive student financial aid from the Federal Govern­ ment and therefore must comply with the Clery Act. Almost 2,500 schools were in the sample, including all Historically Black Colleges and Universities and all Tribal Colleges and Universi­ ties. Schools were classified using the U.S. Department of Education’s classification system. Results were reported by school type. The policy analysis was derived from almost two­thirds of the dataset of results from 4­year and 2­year public institutions and 4­year private nonprofit schools. The researchers used three methods to study how schools are complying: ❋Content analysis of the written sexual assault policies of the schools. ❋A survey of campus administrators that asked about the issues mandated for study. ❋Using 29 criteria, onsite examination of 8 schools found to use promising practices in addressing sexual assault on campus. The eight schools with promising practices were: ❋Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. ❋Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania.

❋ Lewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon.1p ❋Metropolitan Community College, Omaha, Nebraska. 2p3 ❋Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. ❋University of California at Los Angeles. ❋University of California at Santa Cruz. ❋West Virginia State College, Institute, West Virginia.

Response rates varied by type of institution. Overall, 1,015 schools sent their policies, and 1,001 campus administrators participated in the survey.

Notes

a. A complete description of the study methodology is at Karjane, H.M., B.S. Fisher, and F.T. Cullen, Campus Sexual Assault: How America’s Institutions of Higher Education Respond, final report to NIJ, Oct. 2002, NCJ 196676: chapter 2.

b. A list of the nine issues mandated for study can be found at ibid.: 12–13.

4 SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

resources are available to vic­ definitions of sexual assault. tims; and what investigation The researchers found: and adjudication procedures are followed once a report is ❋ States have their own crim­ made. Researchers also inal codes; thus, definitions examined policies that en­ of acts that constitute sex­ courage or discourage report­ ual assault vary. ing and some promising ❋ practices (see “Promising Like State definitions, Practices” on page 12). school definitions vary widely.

Definitions of ❋ A slight majority of the schools studied mentioned sexual assault acquaintance rape in their Although the Clery Act sexual assault response instructs schools to use the policy. FBI’s Uniform Crime Report crime classification system as the basis for their annual sta­ Sexual assault tistics, schools may also response policy define forms of “sexual mis­ A formal policy that address­ conduct” in their student es sexual assault on campus code of conduct. Clear is a statement of the school’s behavioral definitions— commitment to recognizing including definitions of con­ and dealing with the prob­ sent and scenarios with lem. To meet the intent of nonstrangers—can help vic­ the Federal laws, the policy tims decide whether what should be widely and easily happened to them should be accessible to students. reported to campus or law enforcement authorities. This Congress asked whether strategy, used at schools with the schools have and dis­ promising practices, directly seminate a sexual assault challenges stranger­rape response policy. The re­ myths that disguise the prob­ searchers found: lem and provide a false sense of safety. ❋ Traditional 4­year public and private nonprofit schools— Congress asked about the which educate the majority prevalence and publication of students—are the most of school and State likely to have a written sex­ ual assault response policy.

5 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

❋ About half the schools ❋ Overall, only about 4 in 10 studied spell out specific schools offer any sexual policy goals; for example, assault training. What train­ not tolerating sexual of­ ing is available is usually fenses on campus or pur­ for resident advisers and suing disciplinary action student security officers, against perpetrators. This not the general student is more common in 4­year population. institutions and Historically Black Colleges and Univer­ ❋ Of the schools that provide sities (HBCUs). training, about half train their faculty and staff in the school’s response policies Who is trained to and procedures. respond? ❋ Fewer than two in five Students who are sexually schools train campus securi­ assaulted are most likely ty personnel, even though to tell their friends first.12 formal complaints are likely Research shows that social to be reported to campus support from friends—and security. The majority of 4­ other “first responders”— year public institutions and can help the victim recognize HBCUs require this training. what happened as a violation of the school’s sexual mis­ conduct policy and potentially How do students a crime and encourage the report an assault? victim to report it to the authorities.13 For this reason If students know what to it makes sense for schools do in the event of a sexual to train students and staff in assault (for example, whom what to do if someone dis­ to notify) and what steps closes that she or he has the school will take, they are been sexually assaulted. more likely to feel reassured and report to authorities. The Congress wanted information probability of reporting is also about who is trained to re­ linked to concerns about con­ spond to sexual assault and fidentiality. Victims may be how much training is offered. embarrassed or fear reprisal; The researchers found: and victims who may have been drinking before the assault might fear sanctions

6 SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

for violating campus policy on the policies of less than alcohol use. Confidential half the schools, although, reporting can be essential in following the pattern, the these instances. Some vic­ figures for 4­year institu­ tims prefer anonymous tions are higher. reporting, which allows the crime to be “counted,” while letting the victim decide Prevention efforts and whether to file an official resources for victims report. Services for victims are Congress asked what on­ and essential, but prevention is off­campus reporting options also key. Many 4­year col­ are available to victims and leges and universities offer what procedures the schools a variety of educational follow after an assault. The programs geared to preven­ researchers found: tion, including rape aware­ ness and self defense. Many ❋ Although 84 percent of the schools also offer a combina­ schools studied offer confi­ tion of on­ and off­campus dential reporting, only 46 services. percent offer anonymous reporting. Congress asked what re­ sources are available for ❋ Contact procedures are victim safety, support, and specified in the sexual health. The researchers assault response policies found: of almost three in four schools, with campus or ❋ About 6 in 10 schools offer local police the most fre­ safety­related educational quently named contact. programs. Of the programs offered by these schools, ❋ Even though almost half of 6 in 10 address sexual schools with a contact pro­ assault. cedure listed a phone num­ ber, less than half provide ❋ Of the schools that offer service after business general educational pro­ hours. grams, less than one­third include acquaintance rape ❋ Information about filing prevention in the program. criminal charges and cam­ Even in 4­year public pus reports is included in schools, less than half do so.

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❋ Only about one­fourth of about their confidentiality. schools provide residence Others may not want to par­ hall staff with safety train­ ticipate in adjudication be­ ing, have security staff on cause they want to avoid duty in the residences, or public disclosure; they are require overnight guests not certain they can prove to register. a crime occurred or that the perpetrator will be punished. ❋ For students who have Nonstranger rapists are rarely been sexually assaulted, convicted of their crimes.14 mental health crisis coun­ seling is the most widely Congress asked what poli­ available service. cies and practices may pre­ vent reporting or obstruct justice. The researchers What discourages found: victims from reporting? ❋ Campus policies on drug The small proportion of sexu­ and alcohol use have been al assault victims who report adopted at three­fourths the offense to authorities of the schools studied. attests to the existence of At more than half of these multiple reporting barriers. schools, administrators say these policies inhibit When schools adopt sexual reporting. assault response policies, their goal is to protect victims ❋ A majority of campus and the general student pop­ administrators believe that ulation by holding the perpe­ requiring victims to partici­ trator accountable while also pate in adjudication dis­ protecting the rights of the courages reporting; about accused. But any policy that one­third of schools still compromises or restricts have such a policy. the victim’s ability to make informed choices about how ❋ Campuses may uninten­ to proceed may deter report­ tionally condone victim­ ing. At the individual level, blaming by overemphasizing some victims do not initially the victim’s responsibility recognize the assault as a to avoid sexual assault crime, or they have concerns without balancing messages

8 SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

stressing the perpetrator’s reporting. The researchers responsibility for commit­ found: ting a crime and strategies bystanders can use to ❋ Services for victims, writ­ intervene. ten law enforcement response protocols, coordi­ ❋ A trauma response, which nation between campus may involve high levels of and community, new stu­ psychological distress, dent orientations, and some of it triggered by campuswide publicity shame and self­blame, about past crimes are seen inhibits reporting. by administrators as facili­ tating reporting. ❋ The desire to avoid the perceived—and real— ❋ Administrators at almost stigma of having been 90 percent of the schools victimized also inhibits studied believe that preven­ reporting. tion programs targeting ath­ letes and students in the Greek system encourage What promotes reporting. Only about one in reporting? five schools offers such pro­ grams, however, although Because barriers to reporting over half of 4­year public exist at many levels, a single schools have them. policy or approach, such as allowing confidential report­ ❋ As noted earlier, most ad­ ing, is inadequate. The opti­ ministrators believe that a mum approach to encourage policy allowing confidential reporting would be to com­ and anonymous reporting bine a number of strategies, encourages both victims including making campus and other students to staff more responsive to report assaults. reports of sexual assault and offering prevention education ❋ Most administrators con­ for the general student popu­ sider sexual assault peer lation as well as for specific educators to be conducive groups. to reporting, but only about one in five schools offers Congress asked what poli­ this type of program. Again, cies aid in encouraging

9 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

4­year public institutions punishing perpetrators. The and HBCUs are more likely researchers found: to have such programs. ❋ Most reports of sexual Although campus administra­ assault on campus are tors believe these policies dealt with through binding encourage reporting, few administrative actions, such have adopted them. as no­contact orders.

❋ An information­gathering Investigating and or investigative process is punishing victimizers used at only one­fourth of schools overall, only one­ In responding to and adjudi­ fourth of 4­year private non­ cating reports of sexual as­ profit schools, and less sault, schools need to balance than half of 4­year public the victim’s need for justice schools. with the rights of the ac­ cused. Bringing victimizers ❋ Due process for the ac­ to justice is made more com­ cused is guaranteed in plex by the dual jurisdiction fewer than 40 percent of of campus administration schools that have discipli­ and law enforcement. Sexual nary procedures. assault may be a violation of the school’s sexual miscon­ ❋ In about 80 percent of duct policy, with the accused schools, the body that brought before a disciplinary decides whether the stu­ board or other body to deter­ dent code of conduct has mine his or her responsibility been violated is the discipli­ in violating the student code nary board. In just over half of conduct, but it is also a the schools, this body also crime and therefore within decides what sanction will the jurisdiction of the criminal be imposed. justice system to determine ❋ guilt. The most common penalty is expulsion, imposed by Congress asked what proce­ 84 percent of the schools. dures schools have adopted Many schools suspend for investigating sexual offenders or place them on assault and disciplining and probation. Offenders may

10 SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

also be censured, required Many schools either do not to make restitution, or lose have a sexual assault privileges. response policy or could not provide it for the study. The ❋ Only about half the schools larger, 4­year institutions and keep the complainant ap­ HBCUs tend to have policies, prised of the progress of often available on their Web the case; they are far more sites, but these vary in clarity likely to notify the accused. and thoroughness. This sug­ gests a model policy could be ❋ Use of protocols for coordi­ useful to the schools as a nating the responses of template in developing their campus and local law en­ own. forcement agencies were found to be a promising More could be done to in­ practice, but only about crease reporting. Practices one in four schools have that are perceived by college them, most of these 4­year administrators to discourage public institutions and or encourage reporting need HBCUs. to be examined empirically.

Because underreporting may Do schools need to be linked to the victim’s in­ do more? ability to recognize sexual victimization as a violation of The study confirmed that the school’s student code there is much confusion of conduct and, further, as among schools about what a crime, more research is the Clery Act requires. The needed into such issues as fact that only 37 percent fully the perpetuation of stranger­ comply in reporting crime rape myths, the relationship statistics indicates a need for of the victim to the assailant, guidance. The researchers use of alcohol before the recommend development of assault, and other contribu­ a policy that includes explicit tory factors. and behavioral definitions of consent, sexual offenses, and other terminology and practices.

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PROMISING PRACTICES

The researchers identified promising practices at eight schools (see "Study Design") in the areas of prevention, sexual assault policy, reporting, investigation, adjudication, and victim support services. Some examples are included here.a

Prevention

A campus sexual assault education program should include comprehensive education about rape myths, common circumstances under which the crime occurs, rapist characteristics, prevention strategies, rape trauma responses and the healing process, and campus policies and support services. To reach the entire student body, these messages should be disseminated in many forms, i.e., through student orientation, curriculum infusion, resource center trainings, campus events, and public information materials. For example, Lafayette College’s sexual misconduct policy is communicated to students where they live as well as where they learn, in a kind of “road show.” Much larger University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC), conducts a weekly saturation campaign of flier dissemination all over campus. Several schools have peer educators and advocates who present programs that feature scenarios followed by facilitated discussion. Some campuses gear prevention and intervention programs to all­male groups, such as male athletes, fraternity members, and male members of ROTC. These prevention programs stress male culpability for committing the vast majority of sex crimes, men’s individual and collective responsibility for helping to prevent these crimes, and the attitudes men may hold that foster the crimes. For example, UCSC supports a “Mentors in Violence Prevention” program that emphasizes the bystander’s role in violence prevention, in part by using a “playbook” of strategies men can use to interrupt their peers when they believe they may be edging toward criminal behavior.b

Sexual assault policy

A school’s sexual assault policy should be a reader­friendly, easily accessible, and widely distrib­ uted statement of the school’s definitions and expectations regarding sexual conduct. The policy should: ❋Clearly define all forms of sexual misconduct, including operational and behavioral definitions of what acts constitute consent and what acts constitute a sexual assault. ❋Discuss the prevalence of nonstranger sexual assault. ❋Describe circumstances in which sexual assault most commonly occurs. ❋Advise what to do if the student or someone she/he knows is sexually assaulted. ❋List resources available on campus and in the local community.

Continued on page 13

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PROMISING PRACTICES (cont.)

❋Identify a specific person or office to contact when a sexual assault occurs (preferably available 24/7) and when and where to file a complaint. ❋Strongly encourage victims to report the incident to campus authorities and to the local criminal justice system. ❋Provide for and list available reporting options, including a confidential option and preferably including an anonymous option. ❋State the school’s sanctions for violating the sexual misconduct policy. ❋Provide an official statement prohibiting retaliation against individuals who report rape or sexual assault and specifying the school’s disciplinary actions for retaliation attempts. ❋Provide an official statement noting the separate actions available to the victim, i.e., reporting; investigating the report; informal administrative actions, such as issuing a no­contact order; formal adjudication on campus; and criminal prosecution.

Reporting

All eight schools allow anonymous, confidential, and third­party reporting. Highly recommended are reporting and response policies that allow the victim to participate in decisionmaking, to exert some control over the pace of the process, and to be in charge of making decisions as she/he moves through the campus adjudication and/or the local law enforcement system. Written response protocols ensure a coordinated, consistent, victim­centered response.c For example, Oklahoma State University counsels student victims that reporting an incident, choos­ ing to prosecute, adjudicating a complaint through the University, and filing a civil action are sepa­ rate steps. Reporting the incident does not obligate the victim to prosecute, but does allow gathering of information. The student chooses whether to move to the next step in the process and is advised of the consequences of each action, what to expect, and how confidentiality will be maintained.

Investigation

Protocols to ensure confidentiality for the victim and the accused during the investigation are essential. Also important are protocols for shared collection and use of information to eliminate the need for the victim to retell the experience multiple times. One of the most promising practices is providing victims access to a trained, certified Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE). SANE practitioners provide appropriate treatment and forensic examination. Their documentation of evidence can corroborate a victim’s account.d

Continued on page 14

13 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

PROMISING PRACTICES (cont.) Adjudication

Many schools offer a range of adjudication options, from informal administrative actions that do not require a formal complaint to a formal adjudication board hearing. Proceedings should follow an established, documented, and consistent format that balances the rights of the complainant and the accused. Sexual misconduct adjudication boards are not criminal proceedings; their pur­ pose is to establish whether the accused is responsible for violating the school’s policy, not to determine the accused’s guilt or innocence.e

Victim support services

The most promising practice in this area is the formation of partnerships between the school and the community to provide student victims access to a comprehensive, coordinated network of service providers—medical, psychological, advocacy, legal, and safety. More research is needed to help schools determine which practices are best for their campus and students. Notes

a. A comprehensive review of promising practices is in Karjane, H., B. Fisher, and F.T. Cullen, Campus Sexual Assault: How America’s Institutions of Higher Education Respond, final report to the National Institute of Justice, Oct. 2002, NCJ 196676.

b. See Katz, J., ”Reconstructing Masculinity in the Locker Room: The Mentors in Violence Prevention Project,“ Harvard Educational Review 65(2)(1995): 163–174; also see Karjane et al., Campus Sexual Assault: 128.

c. See Karjane et al., Campus Sexual Assault: 133–134.

d. For more information about SANEs, see Littel, K., “Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) Programs: Improving the Community Response to Sexual Assault Victims,” OVC Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime, 2001, available online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/publications/bulletins/sane_4_2001/welcome.html. Also see Sommers, M.S., B.S. Fisher, and H.M. Karjane, “Using Colposcopy in the Rape Exam: Health Care, Forensic, and Criminal Justice Issues,” Journal of Forensic Nursing 1(1)(2005): 28–34, 19.

e. For more about adjudication protocols and practices, see Karjane et al., Campus Sexual Assault: chapter 6 and 135–136.

14 SEXUAL ASSAULT ON CAMPUS

Notes 3. These laws affect all institutions of higher education that receive stu­ 1. This finding about risk for college dent financial aid from the Federal students versus nonstudents is Government. derived from the National College Women Sexual Victimization 4. The study was mandated as part (NCWSV) survey, reported in Fisher, of the 1998 amendments to the B.S., F.T. Cullen, and M.G. Turner, Higher Education Act of 1965, Public “Extent and Nature of the Sexual Law 105–244. Victimization of College Women: A National­Level Analysis,” final report 5. Fisher et al., The Sexual Victimiza­ to the National Institute of Justice, tion of College Women: 10–11. Dec. 1999, NCJ 179977: 1–2. The finding is inconsistent with findings 6. See ibid.: 17; also see Koss, M., from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ C. Gidycz, and N. Wisniewski, ”The National Crime Victimization Surveys Scope of Rape: Incidence and Preva­ (NCVS), which found little to no dif­ lence of Sexual Aggression and Vic­ ference in risk for “rape/sexual timization in a National Sample of assault” between college students Higher Education Students,“ Journal and nonstudents—see Hart, T.C., of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Violent Victimization of College Stu­ 55(2)(1987): 162–170. dents, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, Washington, DC: 7. Fisher et al., “Extent and Nature of U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau the Sexual Victimization of College of Justice Statistics, Dec. 2003, NCJ Women”: 89–90; 123–124. 196143; and Baum, K., and P. Klaus, Violent Victimization of College 8. Fisher, B.S., L.E. Daigle, F.T. Students, 1995–2002, Washington, Cullen, and M.G. Turner, “Acknowl­ DC: U.S. Department of Justice, edging Sexual Victimization as Rape: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Jan. Results From a National­Level Study,” 2005, NCJ 206836. The authors Justice Quarterly 20(3)(2000): believe the discrepancy derives from 401–440. A study 13 years earlier very different survey methodologies. reported that 3 in 4 women (73 per­ See Fisher, F.S., F.T. Cullen, and M.G. cent) who had an experience that Turner, The Sexual Victimization of met Ohio penal code criteria for rape College Women, NIJ Research did not label the incident “rape.” See Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Koss et al., “The Scope of Rape”: Department of Justice, National 162–170. Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Dec. 2000, 9. See Bondurant, B., “University NCJ 182369: 3, 11–14. Women’s Acknowledgment of Rape: Individual, Situational, and Social Fac­ 2. See Karjane, H.M., B.S. Fisher, tors,” Violence Against Women and F.T. Cullen, Campus Sexual 7(3)(2001): 294–314. Assault: How America’s Institutions of Higher Education Respond, final 10. Fisher et al., The Sexual Victim­ report to the National Institute of ization of College Women: 23. Justice, Oct. 2002, NCJ 196676: 137–142.

15 RESEARCH FOR PRACTICE / DEC. 05

11. Campus Crime: Difficulties Meet­ Additional reading ing Federal Reporting Requirements, Washington, DC: General Accounting Extent, Nature, and Conse­ Office, 1997. quences of Intimate Partner 12. Fisher, B.S., L.E. Daigle, F.T. Violence: Findings From the Cullen, and M.G. Turner, ”Reporting National Violence Against Sexual Victimization to the Police and Women Survey, by P. Tjaden Others: Results from a National­level and N. Thoennes, Washing­ Study of College Women,“ Criminal ton, DC: National Institute of Justice and Behavior: An Internation­ al Journal 30(1)(2003): 6–38. Justice and Centers for Dis­ ease Control and Prevention, 13. Kahn, A., and V. Andreoli Mathie, 2000, NCJ 181867, available “Understanding the Unacknowl­ at www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/ edged Rape Victim,” in Sexuality, nij/181867.pdf. Society and Feminism, ed. C. Travis and J. White, Washington, DC: Amer­ ican Psychological Association, 2000: The Sexual Victimization of 337–403; Neville, H., and A. Pugh, College Women, by B.S. “General and Culture­Specific Fac­ Fisher, F.T. Cullen, and M.G. tors Influencing African American Turner, Washington, DC: Women’s Reporting Patterns and U.S. Department of Justice, Perceived Social Support Following Sexual Assault,” Violence Against National Institute of Justice Women 3(4)(1997): 361–381. and Bureau of Justice Statis­ tics, 2000, NCJ 182369, 14. See Spohn, C., and D. Holleran, available at www.ncjrs.org/ ”Prosecuting Sexual Assault: A Com­ pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf. parison of Charging Decisions in Sexual Assault Cases Involving Strangers, Acquaintances, and Inti­ Violent Victimization of Col­ mate Partners,“ Justice Quarterly lege Students, by T.C. Hart, 18(3)(2001): 651–688. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart­ ment of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2003, NCJ 196143, available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/ pdf/vvcs00.pdf.

Security on Campus, Inc., a nonprofit organization whose mission is safer campuses, maintains information about the Clery Act and other cam­ pus security issues. See www.securityoncampus.org.

16 The National Institute of Justice is the research, development, and evaluation agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. NIJ’s mission is to advance scientific research, development, and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety.

NIJ is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime.