Only 4,724 travelled ationwide,only about l, many repatriate and e were released after 'the government nor er the war. these the decline of embly and relocation ofthe few nonviolent three years of rising o expresstheir pain, mentsto the injustice il, evenso, to convey themfrom the camps. 10 MilitaryService

Since their words would not have been believed, especially in wartime, Americans] communicated by action and be- "We[Japanese "We havior. are good Americans," they said. are good neigh- bors. We are useful and productive citizens. We love America " and are willing to die for her. These messageswere communi- cated by the industry of workers and businessmen and farmers, by their service to the communities in which they live, by their behavior as good citizens, and by the war record of the 442nd. lt u)as a form of cornmunication for ushich there is no aerbal or symbolic substitute. -S. 1. Hagakawar Following the attack on Pe:rl Harbor, the War Department stopped taking JapaneseArnericans into the military, and manv already in ser- vice were released. Almost from the beginning, two institutions were exempt: the Military Intelligence Service Language School (MISLS) and the 100th Battalion. By early 1943, when Nisei volunteers were again accepted, a new Nisei unit was formed, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Many Nisei also contributed in other capacitiesthroughout the war. Approximately 33,000 Nisei served in the military during World War II.2 Although many had come frorn the campswhere their families were still detained, Nisei service was extraordinarily heroic. At war's end, their valor and the public tributes heaped upon them did much to hasten the acceptanceof ethnic Japanesereleased from the camps:

253 254 pERsoNAL JUSTICE DENIED the question of loyalty had been most powerfully answered by a bat- Many of the linguis tlefteld record ofcourage and sacriftce uments at intelligence c example, were posted i assignments included br tercepted messagesand THE MILITARY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE could anticipate enemy LANGUAGE SCHOOL avoid surprise, and stril complishment was transl listed ImP In the spring of 1941, a few alert Army intelligence officers realized it completely names. and did the san that, if war came, the Army would need Japaneselanguage interpreters bases.la Among other a and translators. After much delay, Lieut, Col. John Weckerling and battle Capt. Kai Rasmussen won approval to start a small school for training Japanese naval 1 defending the island.rs persons with some background in Japanese. On November l, 1941, to rear-r the school opened at Crissy Field in San Francisco with four Nisei In addition part in combat, adding, instructors and 60 students, 58 of whom were Japanese Americans,s persuadinge The attack on Pearl Harbor con{irmed the value ofthe program. During oners and in actual the spring of L942, while evacuation was proceeding, the school was help the Allies tran enlarged and transferred to Camp Savage in Minnesota.a Meanwhile, ard Sakakida, who early the first group had completed training, and 35 of its graduates went landing on Bataan the in to the Pacific*-half to Guadalcanal and half to the Aleutian Islands.s up and ambush a combat zor The school, no\v renamed the Military Intelligence Service Lan- linguists in part every landir: guage School (MISLS) and officially part of the War Department, began took in New Guinea, the Marir its ftrst class at Camp Savage in June 1942 with 200 students,G By the cer end of 1942, more than 100 Nisei had left for the pacific.7 By Fall 1g44, ipated in surrender over 1,600 had graduated.sWhen the school closed in 1g46, after being with about 130 differenr moved once more to Fort Snelling, Minnesota, it had trained 6,000 and they were loaned I England and China.reI men. Of these, 3,700 served in combat areas before the Japanese surrender. Ironically, the often-mistrusted Kibei-Japanese Americans range of demands on tl joir who had received formal education in fapan-proved most quali{ied This unit later commando unit. T for the interpreter's task; most Nisei had too little facility with Japanese reinforcements mi to be useful.e As Mark Murakami pointed out: We served as in' the one hand the [On] Japanese Americans were condemned for captured documel having the linguistic and cultural knowledge of Japanese, and on teered for patrol d, the other hand the knowledge they had was capitalized on and and wounded sold used as a secret weapon by the Army and Naval Intelligence.ro After we comPlt At the beginning, MISLS graduates were poorly used in the pa- sent back to New cifie. A few ended up fighting rather than using their rare language Strategic Services terrogate talent. Others were sent to remote, inactive outposts or were ineffec- JaPanes, 11 tively employed by the Army. As the war went on, however, the Japan.20 situation improved as the Army learned how to use this valuable spe- After the surrendr cialized resource. uates helped to occuP MILITARY SERVICE 255 ly answered by a bat- Many of the linguists worked in teams, translating captured doc- uments at intelligence centers around the Pacific. Large groups, for example, were posted in Australia, New Delhi and Hawaii.rz Their assignments included battle plans, defense maps, tactical orders, in- tercepted messagesand diaries. From these, American commanders could anticipate enemy action, evaluate strengths and weaknesses, avoid surprise, and strike unexpectedly.13The Nisei's first major ac- complishment was translation of a document picked up on Guadalcanal; ence officers realized it completely listed Imperial Navy ships with their call signs and code languageinterpreters names, and did the same for the JapaneseNavy's air squadrons and ra [ohn Weckerling and bases. Amsoldiers to surrender. The first Nisei to ding, the school was help the Allies in actual combat through his languageability was Rich- rnesota.aMeanwhile, ard Sakakida, who translated a captured set of Japaneseplans for a :f its graduateswent landing on Bataan early in the war; American tanks were able to move e AleutianIslands.5 up and ambush the invaders as they arrived,l6 One early group of ligenceService Lan- linguists in a combat zone went to the Aleutian Islands.lTThe linguists r Department, began tocik part in every landing in the bitter island-hopping campaign through 100students.6 By the New Guinea, the Marianas, the Philippines and Okinawa, and partic- 'acific.7 By Fall 1944, ipated in surrender ceremoniesin Tokyo Buy.tt Nisei linguistsserved d in 1940,a{ter being with about 130 different Army and Navy units, r.viththe Marine Corps, it had trained 6,000 and they were loaned to combat forces from Australia, New Zealand, before the Japanese England and China.le Arthur Morimitsu's experiences make clear the -JapaneseAmericans range of demands on the linguists: :oved most qualified This unit later joined other units to form the Mars Task Force, a hcility with Japanese commando unit. The missionwas to cut offthe enemy supply and reinforcements miles behind enemy lines along the Burma Road. We served as interpreters, questioned prisoners, translated the ,verecondemned for captured documents. We also worked as mule skinners, volun- ofJapanese,and on teered for patrol duty with advancedunits and brought down dead s capitalizedon and and wounded soldiers from the battlefields. aval Intelligence.lo After we completed our duties w-ith the Mars Task Force, I was 'orly used in the pa- sent back to New Delhi, India, assignedto the OSS, Office of their rare language Strategic Services,as head of a detachment of Nisei MIS to in- ostsor were ineffec- terrogate Japanese prisoners in preparation for the invasion of rt on, however, the Japan.20 sethis valuable spe- After the surrender, NIISLS shifted to civil matters, and its grad- uates helped to occupy and reconstmct Japan. They interpreted for 256 PERSoNAL JUSTICE DENIED military government teams, located and repatriated imprisoned Amer- THE 442ND REGIN icans, and interpreted at the war crimes trials.2r Despite their impor- Bat tance-General Willoughby, MacArthur's chief of intelligence, has said While the 100th T' that the work of the Nisei MIS shortened the Pacific war by two Regimental Combat years22-these accomplishments got little publicity; most were classi- Composed of volunte' from rt fied information during the war. Instead, the highly-publicized exploits came directlY 194 of the l00th Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team in Europe 1943 to FebruarY june first helped to show where Nisei loyalty clearly lay. the l00th. On mediately to the beac had already Pushed t June 15, the two car THE IOOTH BATTALION of the 442nd's1 The 442nd foug) The 100th Battalion began as part of the Hawaii National Guard. As ing the first half of evacuation plans were formulated on the mainland, the War Depart- July. On lulY 27, Li ment also debated the best way to handle ethnic Japanesein Hawaii.23 Fifth ArmY, awarde< On February L, 1942, Hawaiian Commander Lieut. General Delos mended the other u Emmons learned to his dismay that the War Department wanted to ing:32 release the Nisei from active duty. He needed the manpower and had You are alwaYs com been impressed with the desire of many Hawaiian Nisei to prove their have never have written a loyalty. After much discussion, Emmons recommended that a special in America. Yc Nisei Battalion be formed and removed to the mainland: General Mar- you have alwaY shall concurred. By June 5, 1942, I,432 men-soon to be known as the Fifth Arml the 100th Battalion-had sailed.2aThe battalion went to Camp McCoy, proud of You,s Wisconsin, for training and later to Camp Shelby in Mississippi. Over On August 15, a year later, the group ffnally was ordered to North Africa, arriving on jective, to crossthe September 2, 1943.% Once again, the cos From North Africa, the 100th immediately went north to Italy, more than one-fout promptly going into combat at Salerno on September 26.26From then From the Arnr until March 1944, the t00th plunged into the bloody campaign which the Vosges Mounti moved the Allies slowly up the Italian peninsula. The t00th suffered Bruyeres, which wi heavy casualties; 78 men were killed and 23g wounded or injured in the encounter, the the ffrst month and a half alone.z1 By the time the 100th ftnally pulled BruYeres will out, its effective strength was down to 521 men.28 The battalion had fought-for tou "Purple earned 900 Purple Hearts and the nickname Heart Battal- the Germans. ion."2e As Warren Fencl, who fought near the 100th, said of it: a vard onlY w hope to hold i The only time they ever had a desertion was from the hospital to get back to the front.so In the same n "Lost After a brief rest, the 100th was sent into the offensive from the rescue ofthe Anzio beachhead, where it soon joined the other Nisei unit; the 44hnd German resistanct Regimental Combat Team. Texan battalion tra N{ILITARY SI]RVICE zDl

rrisonedAmer- THE 442ND REGIMENTAT, COMBAT TEAM te tlieir impor- Ital,v, tire 412nd gence,has said \\,hile the 100th Rattalion fcrught its wa,v through in camp Shelbl'. Lcwar bv two Regimentalconrbat Team had been fonned and trained n'ranyo{'rvhom rstwere classi- Cornposedof volunteers frorn Ilarvaii and the mainland, from October licizedexploits came directly frgm relocation centers, the team trained mert from :am in Europe 1943to February 1944. Small groups lefi regularlr to reirlace rm- the l00th. On June 2, the 442ncllanded at Naples ancl rnoved mediately to the beachesof Anzio. When the 442nciarrived, the l00th had alread,vpushed toward Rorne and engaged in heavl' fighting. On became part June 1.5,the tr.vercan're together and the 100th {brlnali,v of the 442nd.11 The '1'12ndfought through Betlveclere,I-uciana, and Livomo drrr- nal Cuard. As ing the first half of the summer, finallv puliing birck for rest in late ' Cornmanderof the \\'ar Depart- Jul-v.On Jul,v27, Lieut. General N{ark W Clark, c in Harvaii.23 tsifth Armv, arvarded the l00th a Presidential Unit Citation anci com- ,leneralDelos nrencleclthe other lnits lbr their per{crrmirnceduring the rnonth, say- :nt rvanted to ing:32 rorverand had You are always thinking of your country beibrr.' \'ourselves. Yott line' You to prove their have never complainedthrough 1'ourlong periodsin the brilliant chapter in the historl' of the {ighting men that a special have written a in Arnerica. Yttu arc alrvayi ready to close with t[.ie enemv, and GeneralMar- you have always defeated him. The 34th Division is proud cl1"you, be knon'n as in" f''ifth Armv is proud of y'ou, and the rvhoie Uniteci States is )arnp\rlcCoy, Prouclof 1'ou.33 sissippi. Over on August 15, the 442nd rvent back into combat. Their lirst ob- :a, arriving on jective, to crossthe Arno River, rvasaccomplished earll,in September. Once again,the costwas great,for the unit's casualtiestotalled I"272- iOrthto Italy, more than one-{burth of its total strength.3a 26From then Frorn the Arno the 412nd moved to France to join the attack on npaign which the Vosges N.{ountai1s.3;Its {irst assignmentwas to take the trlwn of 00th suffered Rrurreres,which was won after three da-v-sof bitter fighting. I)escribing or injured in the encounter. the Seventh Arml' reported: iinallvpulled Bruveres will long be remen-rbered,for it rvas the most viciously battalionhad fought-for town ra'e liad encountered in our long march against Heart Battal- the-Germans.The enemy defended it houseby house' giving up id o{'it: a yard onl1, when it became so untcnable thcy cor'rldno longer to hold it.'6 :rehospital to hope In the same month the 442nd encounterecl its bloodiest battle- "37 "Lost and rneeting heavl' sivefrom the rescLreof the Battalion. l)eep in the Vosges llring back a rit,the 442nd German resistance, the 442nd was clrdered to find and Texan battalion trapped nine miies arva-v.F-or six days, the 442ncifought 258 nERSoNALJUSTTcEDENTED enemy infantry, artillery and tanks through forests and mountain ridggs of the 442nd until it reached the Lost Battalion, suffering 800 casualties in a single regimentalco week.s8They then pushed on for ten more days to take the ridge that udice."ae was the Lost Battalion's original objective.3eFrom Bruyeres through the Vosges, the combat team had been cut to less than half its original strength. The casualty list numbered 2,000, of whom I40 had been killed.ao After another month of ftghting, the 442nd {inally came out OTHER NIS of the line to rest.al Sam Ozaki described arriving to join the 442nd after this engagement: Although the The four others went overseas with the original 442nd. I joined bution to tht them later as a replacement. I remember November 1g44, when Nisei operatit joined the replacements the 442nd, after they had pulled back under surveil from the Battle of Bruyeres, the lost battalion. I went looking for served in otl my buddies. I found one, Ted. Harry had been in a hospital, had gunner and I been sent back to a hospital with a wound. The two others had been killed in action, saving the lost battalion.a2 with Merrill surrender of After a relatively quiet winter of 1944-45 in the south of France, Numerc the 442nd moved back to Italy in March 1g45. During its first assign- There were ment, to take.aline of ridges, Pfc. SadaoMunemori took over his squad Corps and It from a wounded leader. After destroying machine guns twenty feet guage instru ahead, he saw an enemy grenade fall into a nearby shellhole and dove the scenesit on top of it, dying while saving his comrades. For this heroism Mu- Information nemori received posthumously the Congressional Medal of Honor.a3 who had fle The 442nd now advanced into the rugged and heavily fortifted Apen- At oWI ani nines. In a surprise attack following a secret all-night ascent through propaganda the mountains, the 442nd took their assignedpeaks, thereby cracking dropped ov, the German defensive line.aa A diversionary move had turned into a full-scale offensive;a5from there, the unit continued northward until. on April 25, Gerrnan resistancebroke. By May 2, the war in Italy was over and, by May 9, the Germans had surrendered.ao IMPACT C In seven major campaigns, the 442nd took 9,486 casualties-more than 300 percent of its original infantry strength, including 600 killed. Although tl More than 18,000 men served with the unit.aT Commenting on the during the painful loss of many fellow Nisei in the European theater, Masato Ni1 "it "[i]t ination. Nakagawa admitted that was price a high to pay," but was to a posthumr prove our loyalty which was by no means an easy ltasft1."c The 442nd. A barber r was one of the war's most decorated combat teams, receiving seven Usui's stor Presidential Distinguished Unit Citations and earning f8,143 individ- returning t ual decorations-including one CongressionalMedal of Honor, 47 Dis- Comir tinguished Service Crosses, 350 Silver Stars, 810 Bronze Stars and lady s more than 3,600 Purple Hearts. As President Truman told members Iap"' MILITARY SERVICE 259

Lmountainridggs of the 442nd as he fastened the Presidential Unit banner to their "not raltiesin a single regimental colors, these Nisei fought only the enemy, but prej- "ae ke the ridge that udice. iruyeres through n half its original m 140 had been ftnally came out OTHER NISEI SERVICE r join the 442nd Although the 442nd's exploits are the most celebrated Nisei contri- 442nd. I joined bution to the war, many others played effective roles. FBl-trained rber 1944, when Niseioperatives in the prewar Philippines kept the Japanesepopulation had pulled back under surveillance. Others escaped the Army's segregationpolicy and went looking for served in other combat units. One Nisei even became an Air Force n a hospital, had group two others had gunner and flew bombing missions over Tokyo. A small served with Merrill's Marauders in Burma and a few were involved in the surrender of China.so ;outh of France, Numerous others served in lessglamorous but equally critical jobs. 3 its first assign- There were Nisei medics, mechanics and clerks in the k over his squad Quartermaster Corps and Nisei women in the WACs. Nisei and Issei served as lan- uns twenty feet guageinstructors, employees in the Army Map Service, and behind llhole and dove the scenes in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and Ofiice of War is heroism Mu- Information (OWI).5r In the latter groups were primarily younger Issei rdal of Honor.a3 'fortified who had fled after World War I to avoid political persecution. Agen- Japan At OWI and OSS, some made broadcaststo Japan, while others wrote ascent through propagandalea{lets urging Japanesetroops to surrender or pamphlets hereby cracking dropped over Japan to weaken civilian morale.s2 .d turned into a Lorthward until, war in Italy was

IMPACT OF THE NISEI MILITARY RECORD $ual1ys5_rne1s ding 600 killed. Although the exploits of the 442nd and l00th Battalion were publicized nenting on the during the war, returning veterans still faced harassmentand discrim- heater, Masato "[i]t ination. Night riders warned Mary Masuda, whose brother had earned but was to a posthumousDistinguished Service Cross, not to return to her home. l."nt The 442nd A barber refused to give Captain Daniel Inouye a haircut.s3 Mitsuo eceiving seven Usui's story is one that probably typifies the experiences of many 18,143individ- returning veterans: Honor, 47 Dis- Coming home, I was boarding a bus on Olympic Boulevard. A onze "Damn Stars and lady sitting in the front row of the bus, saw me and said, told members jap." Here I was a proud American soldier, just coming back with 260 PERSoNAL JUsrIcE DENIED

my new uniform and new paratrooper boots, with all my campaign medals and awards, proudly displayed on my chest, and this? The bus driver upon hearing this remark, stopped the bus and said, "Lady, apologize to this American soldier or get off my bus"- She got offthe bus. Embarrassed by the situation, I turned around to thank the bus driver. He said that's okay, buddy, everything is going to be okay from now on out. Encouraged by his comment, I thanked him and as I was turning away, I noticed a discharge pin on his lapel.il

Men who had served with Nisei brought home stories of their heroism, and War Department ofiicials praised the valuable service of the 442nd.55The WRA sponsoredspeaking tours by returning veterans and officers who had served with them.56 On July 15, 1946, the men 442nd were received on the White House lawn by President of the - Truman, who spoke eloquently of their bravery.sT In a few cases, military service led directly to community acceptance' In August 1946, Hawaii The Houston Press ran a story about Sergeant George Otsuka, who had helped rescue the Lost Battalion, a Texas outfit, and was now "keep When ]aPan atta being told to away" from a farm he planned to purchase' Public ancestry lived ir response to the story was strong, and Sergeant Otsuka had no further Surely, iftherer trouble moving to his farm.58 Even on the West Coast, it was difficult activitY bY Ame: to continue abusing veterans with an excellent record. danger would b' The Nisei had indeed distinguished themselves. As the acerbic most swift and s and distinguished General Joseph Stilwell said of JapaneseAmericans: ing of the sort I j They bought an arvful hunk of America with their blood. . . ' Less than you're damn right those Nisei boys have a place in the American the war-barel allow a single injustice to be ireart, now and forever. We cannot ManY factors cr done to the Nisei without defeating the purposes for which we from the gover fought.5e Hawaii wa West Coast.R: with the virule Asian feeling c' been an atteml represent the I West Coast an in the Congre supremacy ne The large It is one thin prejudice on I to disruPt a l<