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Suggesting Śāntarasa in Shanti Mandir's Satsaṅga 81 ETHNOLOGIA ACTUALIS Vol. 17, No. 2/2017 PATRICK McCARTNEY Suggesting Śāntarasa in Shanti Mandir’s Satsaṅga: Ritual, Performativity and Ethnography in Yogaland Suggesting Śāntarasa in Shanti Mandir’s Satsaṅga: Ritual, Performativity and Ethnography in Yogaland PATRICK McCARTNEY Graduate School of Global Enviromental Studies Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Anthropological Institute Nanzan University, Nagoya, Japan South and South East Asia Department Australian National University, Canberra, Australia [email protected] ABSTRACT Satsaṅga is a public domain where ideas related to transcendence and culturally- contingent “Truth” are suggested. This paper combines a longitudinal study of Shanti Mandir’s (www.shantimandir.com) satsaṅga, with close reading of local and non-local literary theories related to the performativity of satsaṅga and the doctrine of appreciating tranquillity (śāntarasavāda). This leads to the possibility of framing satsaṅga as a rasavat- kāvya (charming-literature) literary artefact; which we can regard as a type of hybrid campū-rasavat kāvya. Finally, from an interdisciplinary perspective, I provide a novel epistemological bricolage to understand the soteriological and sociological aims of satsaṅga from within the Temple of Peace (Shanti Mandir) organisation, and propose an analytical framework about how satsaṅga operates as a formal learning domain; where sādhaka-s (aspirants) attempt to gain access to a yoga-inspired disposition related to becoming (praśama), embodying and experiencing śānti (tranquillity), which occurs DOI: 10.2478/eas-2018-0005 © University of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava. All rights reserved. 82 ETHNOLOGIA ACTUALIS Vol. 17, No. 2/2017 PATRICK McCARTNEY Suggesting Śāntarasa in Shanti Mandir’s Satsaṅga: Ritual, Performativity and Ethnography in Yogaland through learning to become śāntamūrti-s (embodiers of tranquillity) by appreciating śāntarasa (the aesthetic mood of tranquillity). KEY WORDS: śāntarasa, satsaṅga, campūkāvya, Shanti Mandir, literature, epistemology, global yoga, ethnography This paper explores the educational domain and pedagogical system of satsaṅga (literally sat-truth + saṅga-assembly), from both a historical sociological and ethnographic perspective, in relation to its location within the global context of Yogaland (an emic term for the global yoga industry). A hallmark aspiration within global yoga today relates to the desire to reduce anxiety and stress. While yoga’s global popularity resides in its ability to facilitate a sense of re- enchantment in a hyper-regulated world, it is predicated by a general rhetorical strategy that suggests the goal (sādhya)1 of the seeker (sādhaka) of spiritual wisdom is to gain a direct experience (vijñāna) of “divinity,” and become established (siddha) in the natural state of one’s self (samyagjñānaprakṛtiḥ), which Rudraṭa explains is śānta (pacified)2, and possibly includes attaining mokṣa (liberation) while living3. Suggestions regarding how to obtain this potentially emancipatory knowledge often occur during satsaṅga, which is a widely popular domain for collective, participatory, religious experiences within contemporary Hinduism. Increasingly, at least for some soteriologically-focused yoga communities, it has become the formal domain for learning how to attain the fruits of listening (phala-śruti) to the guru, which culminate in the reportedly sublime experience of śānti (quietude). This involves listening to didactic stories that cultivate disenchantment (vairāgya-kathā) and promote disillusionment (nirveda) toward the mundane world, which will apparently lead to an unmediated experience of the underlying emotion (sthāyibhāva) of śānta. 1 This is a common term that is even the name of a yoga apparel. [Online] 8th March 2017 http://www.byronyogaclothing.com/sadhya-pants/. 2 See Kāvyālaṅkāra 15.15. 3 Liberation, as per Abhinavagupta, is gaining awareness of one’s nature. Abhinava Tantra (1.156a) mokṣo hi nāma naivānyaḥ svarūpaprathanaṃ hi tat. For both Abhinavagupta (10th century CE) and Rūpa Gosvāmīn (16th century CE), rasa is central to understanding religious experience (WULLF 1986:374). DOI: 10.2478/eas-2018-0005 © University of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava. All rights reserved. 83 ETHNOLOGIA ACTUALIS Vol. 17, No. 2/2017 PATRICK McCARTNEY Suggesting Śāntarasa in Shanti Mandir’s Satsaṅga: Ritual, Performativity and Ethnography in Yogaland The guru-disciple tradition aims to cultivate a profound inner transformation in the disciple through a distinctive integration of aesthetics and analysis within satsaṅga. This is employed for the overall purpose of reinforcing affective qualities of disenchantment and yearning, so that discrimination develops, and the sources of suffering can be identified. Through repeated attendance at satsaṅga, the individual may learn how to emulate a culturally specific disposition, and gain legitimacy as a knower within an in- group/epistemic community (group of learners). This article proposes an interesting analytical framework about how satsaṅga operates as a formal learning domain; where sādhaka-s attempt to gain access to a yoga-inspired disposition related to becoming (praśama), embodying and experiencing śānti. Satsaṅga is situated as an educational domain where culturally specific knowledge about how to embody śānti and become a śāntamūrti (one whose body is calmed) are suggested. This occurs through a combination of the charming rhetorical style of the guru’s didactic exposition (pravacana) with the other performative elements (viśiṣṭa- samāgrī), which are inherent in this ritualised domain. Inspired by Pollock’s ideas related to the historicity of the South Asian literary and performative traditions (2003: 43), Marriot’s (1989) ethno-sociological model that uses local concepts and theories, the ethno-philological method of Pinkney (2013), and the “rasa-consciousness” meta-narrative lens of Sundaram (2014)4, I endeavour to explore the performativity of satsaṅga using an applied, emic, aesthetic methodology. As an entry point to a broader discussion about the form of education and the role of apperception in satsaṅga, the Indian literary and performative tradition’s theory of aesthetics (rasālaṁkāraśāstra) proves useful. It describes the universalising principle of sādhāranīkāraṇa (making commonly shared). Sādhāraṇīkāraṇa can be understood as the communal experience of euphoria that is generated by group participation, which leads to the reaffirmation of shared identity and moral unity, or sāttvika-bhāva (virtuous internal- emotion). This is said to occur through a process of deindividuation and involvement in a 4 Sundaram (2014:ii) posits “the concept of ‘rasa-consciousness’ as the audience’s metanarrative lens that transforms emotive cues and signposts in the dramatic work into sentiment through a process of aesthetic ‘remembering.’ This lens is constituted through a complex interaction between culture, empire, and modernity that governs the spectator’s memorializing process.” DOI: 10.2478/eas-2018-0005 © University of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava. All rights reserved. 84 ETHNOLOGIA ACTUALIS Vol. 17, No. 2/2017 PATRICK McCARTNEY Suggesting Śāntarasa in Shanti Mandir’s Satsaṅga: Ritual, Performativity and Ethnography in Yogaland communitas, which occurs through identifying with the group mentality, and which ultimately leads to the feeling of collective effervescence (LAW 2011). This theoretical discussion is built upon a grounded methodological approach, which is combined with a fifteen-year longitudinal study of the learning process specifically within satsaṅga, as experienced at the Shanti Mandir (Temple of Peace) ashram in Gujarat, India (www.shantimandir.com). The founder of Shanti Mandir, Svāmi Nityānanda Sarasvatī (1967-) explains that: “satsaṅg [sic]5 means the company of truth. We come together and chant and meditate. We allow the mind to become still so that we can understand our true nature, so we can experience the divinity of our true Self” (SHANTI MANDIR 2011c:1). However, there is more to just chanting and meditating in satsaṅga, which is the formal learning domain where ideas and expressions of Shanti Mandir’s ideal yogic lifestyle, disposition and identity are discussed, celebrated and embodied. This is because satsaṅga is a performative arena within which certain emotions (bhāva-s) and aesthetic moods (rasa-s) are consciously cultivated. Satsaṅga and kāvya (literature) share the similar aim of evoking in an audience6 the “universal, impersonal and non-empirical aesthetic experience” of rasa (ROSSELLA 2004:16). Storytelling plays a prominent role in the didactic methods of gurus in satsaṅga7. This is one reason why we can look more expansively at what we consider literature to be. It is also why I assert that satsaṅga is a part of the 5 Shanti Mandir prefers the Hindi nomenclature, which elides the inherent vowel in word-final, Sanskrit consonants. 6 Implying an early development in the field of audience reception, Ānandavardhana’s principal successors, Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka and Abhinavagupta, took the focus of this theory from a textual locus towards the audience’s response (POLLOCK 2003:44). 7 In the guru-centred mystical tradition, satsaṅga represents both continuity of tradition and change, which represents an ideal that can refer to more than just scriptural references, texts and teachings, while including “oral and written selections specially infused with the guru’s intentionality and, more particularly, their own words, teachings, and interpretations”
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