European Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 1450-2267 Vol. 56 No 3 April-May, 2018, pp.297-310 http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com/
Type of Gardens that Reduce the Intensity of an Urban Heat Island
Ilham S. M. Elsayed College of Engineering, King Faisal University P. O. Box 8967, Alahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +966-50782-5505
Abstract
This study investigates type of gardens that ameliorate air temperature and reduce the intensity of the urban heat island of Kuala Lumpur the capital city of Malaysia. Previous studies show that, there is an increase in the intensity of the urban heat island of the city. In 2004, the increase was 1.5oC, which is a recognized increase whenever human health and comfort are the concern. This research examines four main gardens and parks within the city. For the purposes of the study, the selected parks were Main Lake Gardens, KLCC Park, Titiwangsa Lake Gardens, and National Zoo Park. The research uses data collected at the four sites.The study finds that, more mature and large areas gardens have lower temperatures. The study concludes that, the intensity of the urban heat island is directly affected by area and creation date of the garden not by the location or the distance of the garden from the nucleus of the urban heat island of the city.
Keywords: Type of Gardens, Intensity of Urban Heat Island, Kuala Lumpur City.
1. Introduction Malaysia has 14 metropolitan regions with populations over 75,000 people. Kuala Lumpur (KL) is recognized as the largest metropolitan area within Malaysia with a population of 1504300 in 2004 and is expected to reach 1475337 by 2020 (Elsayed, 2007). Although many executive and judicial branches of the federal government have moved to Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia and is thus the country's legislative capital. Kuala Lumpur is also the economic and business center of the country and rated as a global city, making it the only global city in Malaysia. Urbanization is affecting climate and changes the physical surface of the land. Urban activities produce a significant amount of heat, which contributes to the increased intensity of the urban heat island. The expansion of cities has been reducing the size of surrounding rural communities. In Asian cities, many rural communities have recently been integrated into cities in the interest of urban expansion. Urbanization in 30 urban centers in Malaysia, including Kuala Lumpur, has a quite significant role in changing the urban air temperature pattern (Shaharuddin and Mohamed, 2005; Elsayed, 2006). Environmental deterioration has been remarkably noticeable following the rapid urban growth and industrial expansion of Kuala Lumpur and the concomitant Klang Valley conurbation (Malaysia 2000). Land used for open spaces and recreational areas, termed “open space”, including parks, playgrounds, golf courses, race courses, sports clubs and all other areas used for open air recreation and scenic purposes, has been reduced by 2.2%(Malaysia, 2000).Within the city of KL, many open areas are covered with blocks of marble, granite or tile. Although these materials store less 297 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018) heat than black tarmac, they still absorb large amounts of heat from direct sunlight and release the heat during late afternoons, evenings and early nights(Elsayed, 2006). Urban material surfaces act as a transition point for energy distribution and transmit to the sub-surface for storage. Non-porous materials, such as concrete, store large amounts of heat energy compared to porous materials. Previous studies (Eliasson, 1993; Shashua- Bar and Hoffman, 2000; Sham, 1987; 1990/1991; Elsayed, 2006; 2009) proved that green areas moderate urban temperatures. Moreover, Elsayed (2006) showed that increasing the number of parks in a city improves this situation and significantly reduces the intensity of the UHI, as was measured in December 2004. Areas with fewer plants always have higher temperatures, while central business district areas have the highest temperatures. Elsayed (2009) proved that with more open spaces, recreational and agricultural/ fishery/ forest lands, the intensity of the urban heat island for the city of Kuala Lumpur is reduced. Green areas have a positive effect on the temperature of the city. The following factors increase production of anthropogenic heat and UHI intensity: Replacing grass, soil and trees with asphalt, concrete and glass; replacing the rounded, soft shapes of trees and bushes with blocky, angular buildings and towers; artificial heat from buildings, air conditioners, industry and automobiles; efficient disposal of precipitation in drains, sewers and gutters, preventing surface infiltration; and emitting contaminants from a wide range of sources, which can cause chemical reactions that create an unpleasant urban atmosphere (Bridgman, Warner and Dodson, 1995).Sailor (1994) found that a low evaporative heat flux in cities is the most significant factor in the development of an UHI. When vegetation is placed on urban surfaces, thermal balances can shift to new conditions that are closer to the cooler conditions of rural areas. This study focuses on gardens and parks that ameliorate air temperature and reduce the intensity of the urban heat island of Kuala Lumpur. For this study, four parks were selected; Main Lake Gardens (MLG), Kuala Lumpur City Center Park (KLCC), Titiwangsa Lake Gardens (TLG), and National Zoo Park (NZ). This study compares the four gardens and determines the types of parks that contribute most towards reducing the intensity of the urban heat island of the city.
2. Literature Review Kuala Lumpur the capital city of Malaysia is located in Peninsular Malaysia. It is situated between latitudes 3 o 08 ′ North and 3 o 11 ′ North, about two hundred miles from the equator. It is specifically located in the Klang Valley between latitude 3 o 08 ′ North and longitude 101 o 44 ′ East. It has low variations of temperature throughout the year. Kuala Lumpur experiences a wet tropical climate, in which the months of April-May and October-November can be considered as wettest months, whilst December-March and June-September are the driest. The small variation of mean monthly temperature range is recorded in Kuala Lumpur. The annual temperature range is only around 1.5 o C but a much higher daily temperature range is experienced in Kuala Lumpur, i.e., between 6º C and 10º C. During the day, the temperature is around 29 - 32 o C, while a temperature of about 22 - 24ºC is recorded at night (Shaharuddin, 1995). For the purposes of the study four main gardens were selected.
2.1 Gardens and Parks The gardens selected wereMain Lake Gardens (Taman TasikPerdana), Kuala Lumpur City Center Park (Taman Tasik Permaisuri), Titiwangsa Lake Gardens (Taman TasikTitiwangsa) and National Zoo Park (Zoo Negara). Main Lake Gardens, Titiwangsa Lake Gardens and Kuala Lumpur City Center Park are located within the city of Kuala Lumpur, while National Zoo Park is located outside KL in the northeastern fringes of KL. MLG is located in the west periphery of the city center of KL, while TLG is located outside and adjacent to the city center of KL. Although both MLG and KLCCP are located within the city center of KL, KLCCP is located within the core of the city center of KL. Conversely, National Zoo Park is located outside KL in the northeastern fringes of KL.
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2.1.1 Main Lake Gardens MLG is Kuala Lumpur's first large-scale recreational park. During the time period when Main Lake Gardens was built, Kuala Lumpur lacked open space for recreation, and the largest open area was Main Lake Gardens, which is different from other gardens in terms of its type and age of plants (Malaysia, 2000). This garden is located in the heart of the city and was established in 1888.This garden includes sprawling green parkland with a lake and is the city's most popular park. Built around an artificial lake, the garden encompasses 91.6 hectares of undulating greenery interspersed with flowering shrubs, shady trees, exceptional botanical gardens, and other notable features, such as a spacious children's playground, jogging tracks, exercise stations, and a large mosque. Among the notable gardens and places within this garden are the orchid garden, the hibiscus garden, Kuala Lumpur bird park, the Malaysian national monument, deer park, Carcosa Seri Negara, and the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM).The Orchid Garden contains over 800 species of orchids, while the hibiscus garden is a small terraced garden with a variety of hibiscus plants. The Butterfly Park houses approximately 6,000 butterflies from over 120 species. This park is an imitation of the butterfly's natural habitat. The park includes more than 15,000 plants from 100 species that have been used to recreate a Malaysian rainforest atmosphere. There is a nursery and breeding area for the butterflies. Moreover, the Kuala Lumpur bird park is the largest bird park in South-East Asia. The bird park contains thousands of birds, representing nearly every major bird species from this part of the world. Malaysian National Monument is one of the world's largest freestanding bronze sculptures. The Monument commemorates those who died in Malaysia's struggle against the Communist insurgency in the 1950s. Besides the National Monument, this park contains the ASEAN Gardens and the Memorial TunRazak, which houses memorabilia of Malaysia's second Prime Minister, the late Tun Abdul Razak Hussein. Deer Park is located in the undulating slopes and sprawling valley of the Lake Gardens. Close to the bubbling stream at the edge of the valley are several mouse deer. The mouse deer is the smallest hoofed animal and is a popular figure in local folklore, due to its legendary humor. Carcosa Seri Negara is located on a hilltop overlooking the Lake Gardens and is a pair of nineteenth-century British colonial mansions. The Carcosa Seri Negara was the residence of the British Governor and British High Commissioners. Today, this residence has been converted into an attractive hotel. The FRIM is a sprawling forest science park. FRIM contains several experimental plant arboreta, as well as extensive reforested areas, which provide a semblance of natural forest conditions. The Institute includes jungle trails, waterfalls, a herbarium, a library and a museum.
2.1.2 Kuala Lumpur City Center Park KLCC Park is a public park located in the vicinity of Suria KLCC. This park was created in 1980. The park has been designed to provide greenery for the Petronas Twin Towers and surrounding areas. This parkis one of the city's newest well sophisticated parks and is located in the center of the KLCC development with an area of20.24 hectares. This park is an oasis of abundant trees complete with a waterfall and a man-made lake. The park also contains a cluster of trees that were specially selected from jungles that include the diversity of the Malaysian flora. The park includes a fountain pool and a 2acre area that features a children's playground, a wading pool, shelters and benches, patterned foot paths, sculptures and murals. This park features many combinations of man-made designs, such as cement, water features and natural features, such as trees, shrubs, stone and wood. Conservation and bio-diversity was a major influence in the creation of this park. Twenty-three mature and rare specimens were saved from the old Selangor Turf Club and transplanted into the park grounds. One thousand nine hundred indigenous trees and 66 species of palms were planted in the park to promote bio-diversity. The trees were deliberately selected to attract local and migratory birds. The 10,000squaremeter manmade lake with water fountains was built in the middle of the park directly in front of the Suria KLCC mall and the Petronas Twin Towers.Near the middle of the park, there is a 43meter elevated bridge that crosses the lake. There is a 1.3km jogging track covered with EPDM rubber, a special rubberized material for comfort and safety. Rest areas are provided along
299 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018) interconnecting footpaths and numbered on the local Malaysian map. The children’s playground, which has a public pool, is located on the west side of the park. The park embraces one of Kuala Lumpur’s most beautiful mosques along with various waterfalls, fountains, and cascade and reflecting pools.
2.1.3 Titiwangsa Lake Garden Titiwangsa Lake Garden is the second oldest and largest lake park in Kuala Lumpur with an area of 44.5 hectares (Hamidahet al, 1990). This park is one of the most popular metropolitan recreational parks located in the northern region of Kuala Lumpur. The park is the closest Lake Garden to the Kuala Lumpur City Center. Two of the famous landmarks in Kuala Lumpur, namely, the Petronas Twin Towers and the Kuala Lumpur Tower (Menara Kuala Lumpur),can be seen clearly from this park. The garden is located next to JalanTunRazak in the center of KL. The garden is close to the National Library, Istana Budaya, National Gallery and the Sutra Dance Theatre. The garden is a recreational public park and has several large lakes near its center. The park is equipped with facilities suitable for jogging, canoeing, aqua biking and other outdoor activities. Two of the most unique attractions of the parks are the radio control car racing track and the horse riding facility. There is also a floating restaurant at the edge of the lake. In 2007, the Eye on Malaysia, a large observation wheel, was formerly located at the center of Lake Garden but was later moved to the historical town of Malacca.
2.1.4 National Zoo Park National Zoo Park is the first local Malaysian zoo created and managed by the Malaysian Zoological Society, which is a non-governmental organization. This zoo is now 48 years old and has matured into a wellknown zoo around the world. The zoo embraces over 5446 specimen from 476 species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. The park covers 44.5 hectares of land in UluKlang, near Taman Melawati, which is 5 km from the city of Kuala Lumpur. The park has transformed into an open concept zoo with over 90% of its animals kept in spacious exhibits with landscape similar to those found in nature. The park was officially opened in 1963, received MS ISO 9001:2008certification in 2007 and is a member of SEAZA, the South East Asian Zoos Association.
2.2 Intensity of the Urban Heat Island of KL The urban heat island of Kuala Lumpur was first studied by Sham (1973) during the early 1970s. This researcher performed studies in 1972, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1980, 1984, 1986, 1987 1989 and 1990/ 1991 (Elsayed, 2012a;b). Previous studies showed the intensity of the urban heat island of Kuala Lumpur as described below: • The intensity of the UHI of KL in 1972 and 1975 were similar with values of 4.5ºC and 4.4ºC, respectively (Sham,1978). • By 1980, the intensity increased to 6.7ºC (Sham, 1986). • In 1985, the intensity of the city was lower than in 1980. This 1985 intensity was 4.0ºC (Sham, 1986; 1987). • In 2004, the heat intensity was 5.5ºC (Elsayed, 2006). Thus, the increase in the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur was 1.5 degrees Celsius. According to this latest quantitative research, which was performed to measure the intensity of the UHI of the city, the increase in temperature is due to continuous human activity and development around KL. In recent decades, the city of KL experienced rapid changes in concentration of human activities and in the location of the population. KL has been occupied by multi-story and other tall commercial buildings. These multi-story buildings dominate the skyline and have a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city. Construction in the city has replaced vegetation and greenery. Furthermore, the residents of KL intensify the amount of heat produced in the city. Humans have become a primary source of heat, due to transportation systems, industrial plants and HVAC systems that are installed for cooling buildings to lower indoor temperatures to suit human thermal comfort 300 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018)
inside buildings. Therefore, the intensity of the UHI of the city of KL has increased from 4.0ºC in 1985 to 5.5ºC in 2004, which is a considerable increase for human health and comfort.
2.3 Causes of the Urban Heat Island of KL Several factors result in temperature differences between urban and rural areas, stemming from changes in the thermal properties of surface materials to alterations of topography and human activities in the city. There are at least six causes and factors that control the urban heat island of the city.
2.3.1 Urban Fabric The vegetation, crops and soil of the countryside are replaced in the urban environment by bricks, concrete, steel, asphalt and glass. Thus, compared to the rural area, the city is generally a drier, denser, less pervious and more rigid surface. Thus, the thermal properties for rural and urban surface areas are significantly different. Particularly, it is usual to assume the urban fabric possess a much higher conductive capacity and hence a greater ability to absorb and store daytime solar radiation, resulting in a time lag in the diurnal temperature and a subsequent release of the stored heat during the night. Primary constituents of urban construction, such as asphalt cement and roofing tile, have a much larger heat capacity than forest vegetation and other natural features that have been increasingly displaced within metropolitan regions such as the city of Kuala Lumpur. As a result, urban structures absorb a large quantity of thermal energy during the daylight hours and slowly re-emit this stored heat during the late afternoon and night.As the city grows, buildings and paved surfaces replace the natural landscape. Hard inert surfaces absorb heat, causing their temperature to rise steadily with increasing exposure. Dark colored surfaces, such as roofs, roads and parking lots, absorb the greatest amount of heat. Large masses of tarmac, concrete and steel buildings absorb and store large amounts of heat, which is then radiated into the surroundings. Elsayed (2007) mentioned that as the city of Kuala Lumpur grows, two important effects occur: the number of trees is reduced, and there is an increase in the ambient temperature.
2.3.2 Nature of the City The effective surface area of a city is much larger than that of a rural countryside of equivalent size. Due to the canyon-like topography of urban areas, especially the urban cores, one might expect a city to have a greater ability for exchanging heat through radiative and turbulent transfer. Shortwave radiation is more efficiently absorbed in urban areas than in rural areas. The canyon topography leads to an increase in the active absorbing surface and allows for multiple reflections of solar radiation, resulting in the shortwave radiations’ being more easily absorbed than in rural areas. However, the configuration of the buildings tends to trap radiation within the city and reduces the turbulent transport at street level, due to stagnation between roughness elements. This effect subsequently leads to strong heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere that are directly above the ground. For an urban area, such as KL city, that is occupied by multi-story buildings, tall buildings dominate the skyline and have a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city. Large metropolitan city has a considerable impact on the climate of the immediately surrounding areas. These effects include the creation of heat sources and dramatic changes in airflow and wind speed. KL city is occupied by many tall buildings as Petronas Twin Towers, which of course have their own reflection on the nature of the city structure.
2.3.3 Artificial Heat Production The amount of artificial heat that is produced to cool homes and offices, to operate industrial plants and to propel automobiles is one of the recognized factors causing increases in temperature within urban areas. In tropical modern cities, such as Kuala Lumpur, to produce a cooling effect in buildings with air-conditioning requires that a considerable amount of hot air must be pumped into the atmosphere.Shaharuddin (1995) conducted a research in the City of Kuala Lumpur, the west side of
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Titiwangsa Lake. His results indicated that, he outdoor air temperatures play a significant role in influencing the indoor environment in most urban residential areas under study. The use of air conditioners is essential in many flats. Generally, housing units at high-rise flats in Kuala Lumpur could have a nice indoor environment if the indoor-outdoor air circulation is properly regulated. Nevertheless, the indoor environment is directly related to outdoor environment.
2.3.4 Evapotranspiration The displacement of vegetation and soils further enhances heat retention by limiting the effectiveness of a natural cooling mechanism known as evapotranspiration (Sham, 1987). The largely reduced evapotranspiration caused by the rapid run-off of precipitation into drains and by the limited amount of vegetation in urban areas is a contributing factor that affects the urban heat island. Urban areas typically replace natural surfaces with artificial surfaces in many areas within the city (Elsayed, 2012a; b). A city has acres of concrete and has a high thermal conductivity and heat capacity. Heat easily flows into the concrete during the day and is stored. At night, as the surface cools, there is an upward heat flow to balance the surface heat loss. Thus, with high thermal admittance, the city stores heat during the day and releases heat at night. By contrast, trees and natural vegetation use the sun’s energy for photosynthesis to produce food. These plants use sunlight instead of storing it as heat. The plants also absorb water from their roots and transpire through their leaves, which is an evaporation process through which heat is absorbed from surrounding surfaces. Tropical forests are always cool, even at the hottest times of the day.
2.3.5 The Unique Property of the Urban Environment The unique property of the urban environment is its envelope of air pollution. The atmosphere of urban areas typically has higher pollution levels than that of surrounding rural areas. The anthropogenic heat sources and aerosols from pollutants is one of many factors that contribute to the formation of the urban heat island. Climatically, air pollution’s most effective role is modifying the component fluxes of the radiation balance (Sham, 1987).The areas that are most affected by this magnitude of heat are the metropolis and the city center, and this is known as the urban heat island phenomenon. Haze is an additional type of pollution that is related to the UHI effects.
2.3.6 Urbanization and Human Activities Atmospheric modifications through urbanization have been noted. Climatically, one obvious consequence of urbanization is the creation of the heat island (Sham, 1987). In KL, man has altered the roughness of the earth’s surface. Small features have been changed, such as trees, bushes, houses and the spaces between each. In most situations, cities have rough features and surfaces compared to the open countryside. Increased surface roughness affects wind structure and causes a major modification in the vertical wind profile, reducing wind speed near the surface. Man, through his urban constructions, has affected the exchange of energy and moisture within the system by altering the physical qualities and materials of the earth’s surface. Furthermore, man has become a primary source of heat production within a city. These changes, ranging from the heat release of fossil fuel combustion to that of the human metabolism, have been documented. There are other factors related to human activity that contribute to the formation of the urban heat island, such as anthropogenic heat sources. These anthropogenic heat sources come indirectly from transportation system hot air exhaust, industrial manufacturing processes and HVAC systems for commercial and residential buildings (Elsayed, 2006). Moreover, the absence of vegetation and greenery that were replaced by homes, offices and buildings increase heat.
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2.4 Effects of the Urban Heat Island 2.4.1 Human Thermal Comfort In many developing countries, towns are expanding and an increasing proportion of the land is used for urban purpose, replacing fields, farms, forests and open spaces and resulting in distinct unpleasant climatic conditions, which are experienced by the majority of urban inhabitants in the world today (Shaharuddin, 1997). His study described how development and changes of urban land use in Kuala Lumpur- Petaling Jaya over time are related to the modification of ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind speed, and therefore human comfort. This study found that the annual effective temperature increased by approximately 1.0ºC from 23.1ºC in the 1970s to 24.1ºC in the 1980s, while Elsayed (2006) found an increase in the intensity of the UHI of the city of 1.5 ºC. Increased thermal load in the warm and hot environments of a tropical city, such as Kuala Lumpur, increases feelings of discomfort. The excess warmth within the urban layer causes an increase in human heat stress, leading to greater cooling demands and a concomitant increase in energy usage. The outdoor air temperature has a significant role in influencing the indoor environment. Unless the outside temperature is suitable, humans cannot experience comfortable indoor environments and feel thermal comfort.
2.4.2 Human Health The implications of urban warming for human health within affected regions can be substantial. Environmental temperatures affect human well-being and, in extreme circumstances, can affect human health. The effect that the city has on ambient temperatures may result in serious considerations. High environmental temperatures are deleterious to health and comfort, and prolonged exposure to these temperatures can lead to the incidence of a stroke, heart disease and pulmonary disorders. Heat wave mortality is highest in areas with high poverty and housing vacancy rates. Air conditioning is a protective factor for heat wave mortality. Streutker (2003) described a devastating heat wave that killed over 500 people in Chicago in 1995. With vast urban populations, urban heat waves pose a major threat to a large number of people across the United States and around the world. For an average year, over 1000 deaths in the United States are attributed to extreme heat, which is greater than the number of deaths from any other type of weather-related event by nearly an order of magnitude. Heat-related deaths most often occur during periods of prolonged high temperatures, which are known as heat waves. Heat waves and the resulting mortalities can be exacerbated within cities by increased temperatures due to the urban heat island. Although temperatures are highest during the day, extreme night temperatures resulting from the urban heat island are believed to have a more deleterious effect on mortality. This effect occurs because inhabitants of urban areas experience heat stress during both the day and night. The total mortality rate during a heat wave increases exponentially with maximum daily air temperature. Stronger heat islands are therefore more likely to increase mortality rates. Streutker (2003) added that increases in pollution levels lead to higher incidences of respiratory illnesses, representing another effect of the urban heat island on public health.In KL City, an additional kind of pollution related to the UHI and its effects is the haze. It is considered as one of the effects of UHI in increasing the levels of pollution. Continuous hazy conditions affect human health(Oliver et al, 2011), especially high-risk groups such as children, senior citizens and people who smoke, people who work outdoors or sufferers of asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, chronic lung diseases, cardio-vascular problems, or allergies (Elsayed, 2012a).
2.4.3 Economics The effects of urban heat islands in cities around the world have been estimated to cost millions of dollars annually, mostly due to increased need for cooling buildings. Higher temperatures in urban heat islands result in increased energy use, mostly due to a greater demand for air conditioning. As power plants burn more fossil fuels, they increase both the pollution level and energy costs. The heat island intensity of 4ºC - 6ºC influences air pollution dispersion and energy demand for cooling in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley conurbation (Sham, 1987). The effect of UHI has obvious farreaching 303 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018) implications. The UHI not only affects human thermal comfort, health and energy utilization for air conditioning, but also affects the Malaysian national economy. Haze is considered as one of the effects of UHI that affect Malaysian economy. The estimated value of the haze damage to Malaysia from August to October 1997 is RM802 million (Table 1. below). The per capita haze damage is RM37, while the value of the haze damage is 0.30 per cent of the GDP. The aggregate value of the cost of the haze is quite significant as various social projects could have been established within Malaysia if money had not been spent on the haze (David and Timothy, 1999).
Table 1: Aggregate Value of 1997 Haze Damage
Type of Damage RM Million US$ Million Percentage Adjusted cost of illness 21.02 8.41 2.62 Productivity loss during the state of emergency 393.51 157.40 49.07 Decline in tourist arrivals 318.55 127.42 39.72 Flight cancellations 0.45 0.18 0.06 Decline in fish landings 40.58 16.23 5.00 Cost of fire-fighting 25.00 10.00 3.12 Cloud seeding 2.08 0.83 0.26 Expenditure on masks 0.71 0.28 0.09 Total damage cost 801.90 321.00 100.00 Source: David and Timothy (1999)
2.4.4 Pollution Higher ambient temperatures increase air conditioning energy use. Thus, power plants burn more fossil fuels, directly raising pollution levels. Urban heat islands are smoggier than rural areas. Smog is created by photochemical reactions of pollutants in the air. These reactions are more likely to occur and intensify at higher temperatures. In Los Angeles, for every degree Fahrenheit the temperature rises above 70°F, the incidence of smog increases by 3%. Higher temperatures result in an increase in the formation and concentration of smog. Haze is an additional type of pollution that is related to the UHI effects in KL City. The haze phenomenon, which was first characterized in the early 1960s, has become a nearly regular feature of the Malaysian environment, particularly during the dry months of February-March and June- August (Sham, 1990/1991). The effects of the haze reached their zenith in 1997 when the sky had large levels of pollution from August until November of that year. The 1997 haze reached record levels of intensity and duration, causing inconveniences and disruptions to the Malaysian economy. The haze aggravated respiratory diseases, decreased crop and fishing yields and disrupted transport services, manufacturing output and the tourism industry. During this haze, the Air Pollution Index (API) reached 500 for the first time, and a state of emergency was declared in Sarawak for a ten-day period. The API monitors air quality by measuring fine particles, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone, which are hazardous to health. The API can be used to ascertain the effects of air quality on health.
2.4.5 Meteorological and Climate Effects Climate changes that result from urban heat island effects on cities include the increase of air turbulence and reduction of relative humidity. Moreover, the chemical composition of the air changes, gains and losses of radiation are both reduced, temperatures increase and rainfall increases in certain cases. Buildings and other structures in the urban area further complicate the airflow pattern in the city and therefore air pollution dispersion (Sham 1987). The urban heat island effect can also be studied as a small-scale version of global warming. The urban heat island magnitude is typically on the order of several degrees Celsius (Elsayed, 2011), similar to the predicted temperature increase from global warming over the next century. The urban heat island effect is believed to play a role in altering other meteorological phenomena in and around urban areas, including the development of clouds and fog, 304 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018) the frequency of lightning strikes, the development of thunderstorms, and changes in precipitation rates.
5. Methodology Thestudy applies methods of exploratory research for Kuala Lumpur City. The first step is site investigation. Site visits to Kuala Lumpur were done at early December 2004. The preliminary choice of the parts of the city was studied. Secondary data was collected from related authorities; reviewing literature and official documents. On the other hand, a survey was carried out to collect the data at the four selected gardens. Data gathered at the gardens for seven days of one week, late December 2004. The temperature was taken simultaneously in each site from 21:00 to 22:00 local Malaysian time. The data gather from primary sources were combined and collaborated with that from secondary data. Analysis to the combined data related to city was done in order to identify the specification and type of gardens that contribute to the reduction of the intensity of the urban heat island of the city.
6. Results and Discussion As mentioned previously, there are six factors that contribute to the formation of urban heat islands. Among these factors, four are directly related to garden and green-area availability. Urban fabric, nature of the city structure, evapotranspiration and urbanization in KL has a significant role in increasing the intensity of the UHI of the city. The level of urbanization for KL will reach 50% by the end of year 2000 and will further increase to more than 60 percent by year 2025. Southeast Asian countries are estimated to experience an increase in urbanization levels, with Singapore being the most urbanized (100%) followed by Malaysia (58%) in the year 2000 and KL being the most urbanized city within Malaysia (Elsayed, 2006). The urban fabric of KL city is changing such that as it grows, the number of trees is reduced and there is an increase in ambient temperature. Moreover, the nature of the city structure of KL leads to an increase in the active absorbing surface and allows for multiple reflections of solar radiation, resulting in shortwave radiation being more easily absorbed than in rural areas. KL is occupied by multi-story buildings and tall buildings that dominate the skyline, which has a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city with a considerable impact on the climate of the immediate surrounding areas . The displacement of vegetation and soils further enhances heat retention by limiting the effectiveness of the natural cooling mechanism that is known as evapotranspiration. The large reduction in evapotranspiration, caused by the rapid run-off of precipitation into drains and the limited amount of vegetation in urban areas, is a contributing factor affecting the urban heat island. Urban areas typically replace natural surfaces with artificial surfaces, and therefore there is a marked lack of vegetation in the urban environment. The city with its acres of concrete has a high thermal conductivity and heat capacity. Heat easily flows into the concrete during the day and is stored. At night, as the surface cools, there is an upward flow of heat to balance the surface heat loss. Thus, the city, with high thermal admittance, stores heat during the day and releases heat at night. By contrast, trees and natural vegetation use the sun’s energy for photosynthesis to produce food. They use sunlight instead, transferring the light to heat. These plants also absorb water from their roots and transpire through their leaves, which is an evaporation process through which heat is absorbed from surrounding surfaces. Tropical forests are generally cool, even at the hottest time of day. Nevertheless, in KL, man has altered the roughness of the earth’s surface. Man changes small surface features, such as trees, bushes, houses, and the spaces between them. The city, in most situations, has rough features and surfaces compared to the open countryside. Increased surface roughness affects the wind structure and causes a major modification in the vertical wind profile such that wind speed near the surface is reduced. Man, through urban constructions, has affected the exchange of energy and moisture within the system by altering the physical qualities and materials of the earth’s surface. The relative humidity 305 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018) in green areas is higher than in non-green areas, due to land cover and the level of evapotranspiration. Usually, green areas contain natural surfaces with soil that is able to absorb and store water, while non- green areas have either impermeable or semi-permeable pavements. In non-green areas, evapotranspiration level is largely reduced, due to rapid run-off of precipitation into drains and by the limited amount of vegetation. The data gathered shows that, there is a variation in temperature from a garden to another. Figure 1, below, illustrate the records of temperatures at the four gardens.
Figure 1: Temperature variations in KLCC, MLG, TLG & NZ, December 2004
Temperature OC 27
26.5
26
25.5
25
24.5
24
23.5
23 Mon Tues Wed Thru Fri Sat Sun Day of the week
KLCC MLG TLG NZ
6.1 Location of Garden Previous studies show the nucleus of the UHI of KL is located at the city center of the city at Puduraya area. Figure 2. Below shows the variation in the distance between each of the four gardens and Puduraya.
Figure 2 : Distance from Puduraya in Km
6.2 Area of Garden Figure 3. below shows the variation in area for the four gardens under study.
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Figure 3: Area in Hectares for KLCC, MLG, TLG & NZ
6.3 Data of Establishment There is a great variation in the date of creation of these gardens. While MLG was created in the nineteen century, KLCC and NZ were created in the twenty century. Figure 4. below illustrates this variation. The oldest garden is MLG, while the newest is KLCC. Concerning TMG, although there is no enough data to show the exact date of creation, literature reviewed shows that, the garden was available during 1940s.
Figure 4 : Year of Establishment of MLG,NZ and KLCC
Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. above show thatMLG is the coolest, nearest (to the nucleus of the UHI of KL), largest and oldest garden among the four gardens. On the other hand, KLCC is the smallest and the hottest garden. KLCC Park has the smallest area, which is approximately one forth the area of MLG and half the area of both TLG and NZ Park. By contrast, TLG and NZ Park have nearly the same area, and equivalent temperature. Although MLG and KLCC are both located within the city center of KL and are both very close to Puduraya the nucleus of the UHI of the City, their area, creation date and type of flora and fauna are typically different. MLG was created one century earlier than KLCC. Moreover, its temperature was always under 25.0 oC, while KLCC wasnever lower than 25.5 oC. Therefore, the study confirms that the location of the garden has nothing to do with the intensity of the UHI.The data indicates that, older and larger gardens were having lower temperatures. Thus, the intensity of the UHI is directly affected by the area and creations date of the garden not its location.
307 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 56, Issue 3 April (2018) 5. Conclusion Outdoor environments affect indoor environments to the extent that they can create risks for human comfort and health. The urban heat island is one of much environmental deterioration caused by development and human activities. Different strategies were used to enhance the outdoor environment and reduce the intensity of the UHI in the city of KL. Among these strategies was a tree-planting program. Moreover, in a recent study, a plant cover strategy is recommended for mitigating the UHI of the city. Nevertheless, no study has been performed to evaluate the type of plant cover that contributes most robustly to the mitigation of the UHI of cities. This study examines four gardens located inside and outside the city of KL, including MLG, KLCC Park, TLG, and NZ Park.MLG has the largest area of the four gardens and the lowest temperature. KLCC Park has the smallest area, which is approximately one fourth the area of MLG and half the area of TLG and NZ Park. This study shows that KLCC Park has the highest temperature. Although MLG and KLCC Park are both located within the city center of KL and very close to Puduraya the nucleus of the UHI of the city, their area, creation date and type of flora and fauna are typically different. MLG was created one century earlier than KLCC. Therefore, this study concludes that,older and larger gardens are having lower temperatures regardless their location. consequently, the intensity of the UHI is directly affected by the age and area of the garden. Although the main strategy for mitigating and reducing the UHI of KL is a well-planned tree- planting program (Elsayed, 2012b), more studies are needed to assess the effectiveness of such programs. She suggested the creation of small city parks to mitigate the UHI of the city. This study found that the area of a garden is inversely proportional to the intensity of the UHI. Therefore, it is recommended that political leaders, policy makers, urban planners, and engineers consider the area of the park and type of plant cover when making decisions.
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