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'French Like the Others' ‘French like the others’ Colonial Migrants in Wartime France, 1939-1947 by David J. Smith A Thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by David J. Smith 2013 ‘French like the others’: Colonial Migrants in Wartime France, 1939-1947 David J. Smith Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2013 This dissertation explores the largely unknown history of how migrants from across the colonial empire experienced the Second World War in France. By the 1930s France possessed the second-largest colonial empire in the world. Although people from across the French empire had resided in the métropole during the interwar period, the declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 necessitated the recruitment of thousands more French colonial subjects to serve as workers for the war effort. There were perhaps 100,000 from across the French empire living in France at the start of the war, and this number swelled to more than 140,000 by June 1940. While historians have recently begun to uncover the history of migration between France and its colonies, this is the first study to comparatively examine the heterogeneous mix of Southeast Asians and North Africans living on metropolitan soil. Placing colonial migration in a comparative framework reveals the extent to which racial perceptions and hierarchies within French colonial thought impacted the existence of people of color in France. I have deliberately eschewed previous ways of examining how colonialism affected French society, which tend to favor representation or exoticism, and instead constructed a social history of race and immigration geared around daily life. Utilizing over twenty public and private archival collections, this dissertation is focused on quotidian interactions between ii colonial workers, French men and women, employers, and officials from the French state. This reveals the dynamic between local and national issues in shaping the experience of colonial migrants in France; gives insight into how access to food, employment and social welfare was determined by colonial status; and the extent to which fears over policing, health, and non-white migration animated exclusionary policies. This dissertation argues that France should be viewed as a colonial and metropolitan space where migrants from across the empire met forms of colonial knowledge, power, and discipline. Focusing on the inherent tension between France and its empire, rather than constructing an intellectual framework that subsumes France and empire together, reveals the true impact of colonialism on metropolitan society. My focus on the 1930s and 1940s, which crosses the Third Republic, Vichy, and Liberation eras, demonstrates the treatment of colonial migrants was not just about specific political regimes but firmly rooted in the French imperial project and entrenched racial stereotypes that persist in France today. iii Acknowledgements _______________________________________ As with many other dissertations, this one has a story. It began as an effort to investigate how colonial subjects living in France managed the Vichy period and has now become something much more complex than I anticipated. After spending many years thinking about the place of colonialism in twentieth-century French society, it is now my belief that the origins of current debates over multiculurialism and immigration cannot be understood without recognizing their origins in many of the pages that follow. I hope that this work helps to clarify the complicated nature of France’s relationship with its former empire. This project would not have been possible without the financial and moral support of numerous people and organizations. Eric Jennings embraced this study from the outset and his advice, encouragement, kindness, unwavering support – and digital photography skills – have made it much richer as a result. Jennifer Jenkins has been a constant presence during my time at the University of Toronto and her thought-provoking comments throughout this process have always forced me re-evaluate my conclusions for the better. Many thanks to Rick Halpern for taking time out of his busy schedule, and Paul Cohen and Jack Veugelers for joining this project at the end. I would especially like to thank Prof. Mary D. Lewis of Harvard University for acting as the external examiner. Her own scholarship served as a model for this dissertation and has challenged me to think about new ways to write French history. iv Research for this dissertation was carried out all over France – from national to departmental to business archives – and it is a testament to the hard work of archivists and librarians that this subject was even feasible. While I extend my sincere thanks to all who aided me during my travels, I would like to single out a few individuals who went above and beyond the call of duty. Mme. Patricia Gillet at the Archives Nationales in Paris helped orient my research from the beginning and pointed out several archival collections that provded enormously useful. M. Jacques Dion at the Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer guided me through the extensive archival holdings in Aix-en-Provence and was always willing to help me find something. Mme. Marie-Claire Pontier of the archives départementales du Gard, and M. Frédéric Barthe of the archives départementales de la Loire, guided me through the initial stages of my local research and were patient with my numerous questions about the mining archives in Nîmes and Saint-Etienne. Mme. Emmanuelle Combet and M. Jean Luquet of the archives départementales de la Savoie kindly sent inventaires – free of charge! – allowing me to make the most of my short time in Chambéry. Staff at the archives départementales de Saône-et-Loire and archives départementales de la Dordogne located uncatalogued material that proved extremely useful for my project. I would especially like to thank Mme. Antoinette Maux-Robert for allowing me to consult to the private papers of her father, and Mme. Jenny Piquet at the Intitut pour l’histoire de l’aluminium for facilitating access to the business archives of Alais, Froges et Camargue. Finally, Mme. Louisa Zanoun and her staff at Génériques in Paris have contributed to my research perhaps more than anyone. It was only because of their efforts that I would have thought to visit Digne or Périgueux searching for material on Vietnamese and North Africans in wartime France. v The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the University of Toronto, and the Centre des Études de la France et du Monde Francophone at the University provided funding for research. I would particularly like to thank M. Noël Coulet and the Fondation Paul Avril Février in Aix-en-Provence for subsidizing my trip to the region. This project has also benefitted enormously from my conversations with other scholars. Caroline Douki and Hervé Joly both provided great advice about finding archival information in Lyon. Clifford Rosenberg suggested I explore the archives in La Courneuve, which yieled several important documents. Joshua Cole, Norman Ingram, Sean Kennedy, Simon Kitson, Kenneth Mouré, and Alexis Spire provided sound advice and encouragement as well. Earlier versions of this research were presented at the French Colonial Historical Society in Toronto, the Society for the Study of French History in Cambridge, UK, and the Toronto Area French History Seminar; my sincere thanks to all of those that gave such valuable feedback and advice. I am also greatful for those that have supported me along the way. Peter Kent and Sean Kennedy at the University of New Brunswick – Fredericton were instrumental in transforming me into a historian and I cannot thank them enough for all they have done. John Hellman at McGill University challenged me to think about French history in new ways. Thanks to Eric Jennings, Lori Loeb and Russ Kazal for acting as Gradudate Coordinators during my time in Toronto, as well as the Department of History staff at the University of Toronto. Finally, I would like to thank my family: my parents, John and Gail Smith, and my brother Matthew Smith. They are not only a source of unfailing support, but also an important reminder that completing a PhD should not monopolize one’s life. And to Robyn Cauchy, who contributed more to this project than she knows. vi Table of Contents _______________________________________ Abstract ii-iii Acknowledgements iv-vi Abbreviations viii Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter One: Human Reservoirs to Human Capital: Worker Recruitment in la France d’outre-mer .................................................................. 48 Chapter Two: Peasants into Workers: Managing Colonial Bodies in the Métropole, 1939-1940................................................... 89 Chapter Three: France for the French: Work, Welfare, and North African Belonging under Vichy, 1940-1942 ....................... 135 Chapter Four: The Immoral Economy: Race, Rationing, and Vietnamese Workers during les années noires ............................ 187 Chapter Five: Beyond the Color Line: North African Mobility, Vichy Sovereignty, and the Dynamics of Collaboration........ 233 Chapter Six: Colonial Citizens: North Africans and Vietnamese in postwar France, 1944-1947..................................... 276 Conclusion: ‘The Illness
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