Bird Names and Folklore from the Emberá (Chocó) in Darién, Panamá

Data, Methods & Taxonomies

Stephanie C. Kane

Author Address: Department of International Studies, School of Global and International Studies, Indiana University, 355 North Jordan Avenue, Bloomington, IN 47405-1105 USA. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper presents data on folklore and names of birds collected among native speakers of Emberá in the moist tropical forests of Darién, Panamá. The naming data was collected by systematic elicitation of names from pictorial representations of birds. It is organized here to facilitate analysis of various aspects of folk taxonomy in relation toscientific taxonomy. Folklore about birds collected in natural contexts is also included to indicate the role of birds and their names in symbolic processes that exceed the limits of literal reference.

Keywords: Emberá (Chocó), Bird classification, Darién forest, Panama, Bird folklore

Supplementary Files available at ojs.ethnobiology.org/index.php/ebl. Introduction they live in fairly egalitarian, politically autonomous, This paper presents data on names (see Appendix 1) extended family households dispersed along the and folklore (Appendix 2) of birds collected among rivers. However, under the mid-twentieth century native speakers of Emberá1 in the moist tropical push for rural development, the Emberá began forests of Darién, Panamá in 1984 and 1985.2 In most concentrating riverine household sites into villages of Panama, the Emberá are popularly known as the and electing representatives who became actors in Chocó, a name taken from the Department of Chocó regional and national politics. By this means, they in Colombia, from whence many crossed the low worked to legally establish and to protect cultural and mountain range into the Darién to settle. The name geographic autonomy and to receive government Chocó also includes a sister linguistic group of the resources for, among other things, health clinics, and Emberá named the Wounaan, who live closely among primary schools (Herlihy 1985, 2003; Kane them. The Catio and Chami are also closely related 1994/2004; Cansarí 1996; Chapin 2001; Cahn 2004; indigenous groups. The Emberá and Wounaan are Colin 2010). principally distinguished by their languages, which are This data was collected as a small part of a larger related (almost 50% agreement of cognate roots) but ethnographic research project on the cultural dimen- mutually unintelligible (Loewen 1963a, b). Most sions of village formation and national integration.4 speakers are bilingual in either Emberá or Wounaan The project was carried out in two villages on two and Spanish. Emberá and Wounaan use Spanish to interior rivers. Avian data collection was carried out in speak to each other and to the ethnographer. In his the smaller and newer of the two, a village of only 10 early linguistic work in the Chocó River Basin, households not far from what has since become the Loewen (1958:1) identifies nine Emberá and three Darién Biosphere Reserve, National Park, and Wounaan dialects based on phonological, morpholog- UNESCO World Heritage Site. The data provide ical, and lexical features associated with particular documentary evidence of the linguistic and ethnobi- localities.3 The bird name data presented here reflect ological diversity of a unique, narrow stretch of variations derived from these differences in dialect tropical forest that bridges South and Central America and locality of origin. at a time and place still relatively protected from the The Emberá build open thatch-roofed homes on inexorable impact of regional deforestation. Bird stilts along the many rivers. They hunt, fish, gather habitat was still plentiful. Unlike the youngsters who wild foods and medicines, and grow corn, rice, learned Spanish in village schools, elders learned to bananas, plantains, manioc, and medicinal plants speak Spanish through market contacts with nonin- (Kane 1995; Dalle and Potvin 2004). Traditionally, digenous people of Panama and Colombia. The

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 32 Data, Methods & Taxonomies villagers among whom this data was collected relied to collect data in a manner that did not disrupt almost completely on the animals and plants of the everyday life. As an interesting visual object, once riverine forest for subsistence and inspiration. introduced and held in my hands, the book became a Probably because of the intense violence in the region conversation piece. Its well-drafted images of species since the late 1980s, published ethnozoological that varied beautifully in form and color made the research among the Emberá of Darién was and page-layout itself a pleasurable and stimulating remains scarce.5 Indeed, to my knowledge, since the elicitation device. The origin of the book and the larger ethnographic project that provided a context unreadable text within it clearly signaled its foreign- for the collection of this avian data, there has been no ness, but the images it contained were legible and in-depth ethnographic research published. familiar, and so the book worked well as an elicitation The naming data was collected by systematic tool. It was a well-received artifact that promoted and elicitation from colored pictorial representations of coordinated sociality for about an hour or two per birds.6 Except to share Emberá bird names, the session. elicitation groups used Spanish to communicate with Each set represents a consensus elicitation from the ethnographer.7 Data are organized to facilitate two to ten people. They were a mix of generation and analysis of particular aspects of folk taxonomy such as gender although there was no group that included contrast, level, and ranking of taxa; hierarchic only children or youths. Through discussion each inclusion and depth in taxonomic structures (Berlin group would decide on one name for each bird they 1992, Berlin 1976; Conklin 1969; Kay 1971); grading identified; they took it upon themselves not to present within categories (Kempton 1978; Lakoff 1972); multiple names. Where several people were present taxonomic space (Hunn 1976) and comparison of one or two more knowledgeable elders dominated the folk and scientific taxonomies (Berlin et al. 1966; discussion. Other than deference to elders with more Berlin 1973). In this format, the data can be com- knowledge, there were no noticeable differences in pared, contrasted or combined with other ethnobi- power or authority that affected the outcome of ological data. consensus. In addition to the taxonomic data, which were Bird names are listed here in such a way that the elicited in contexts that were contrived by me, relationship between Emberá and scientific names folkloric data, collected in more or less natural stands out. Each Emberá name is listed together with contexts, are also presented here. The folkloric data the plate and identification number of each species provides examples of the metaphorical connections designated, the corresponding scientific name, the between names and their referents (Bean 1975; general common name in English, a list showing Dougherty 1982; Johnson 1974; Rosaldo 1972). My which of the nine elicitation groups (here represented interlocutors shared the folklore in the form of as capital letters "A" through "I") make the identifica- stories, conversations, and reflections on avian life tion and the total number of groups that make the happening around us as, for example, we canoed on identification as an expression of inter-group consen- the river, rested from cleaning bush, walked through sus.8 the forest, or sat by the hearth. My interlocutors also There are various limitations to this kind of contributed folklore in the context of the group elicitation procedure. Information on one plate could elicitation sessions. To reflect the two distinct inform another, e.g. where an early identification was modalities of data collection and the style in which the unclear, a later more typical example might clarify. As data were conveyed, the ethnographer’s voice shifts as the elicitation process proceeded, informants had I move between taxonomic and folkloric sections. more information at their disposal with which to make a judgment and therefore the level of accuracy Elicitation Procedures probably is not consistent. On the other hand, in I presented 32 color plates from Ridgely's (1976) some cases where scientific genera happened to be Birds of Panama, in order of their appearance in the separated on non-consecutive plates, informants did book, to nine independent groups of people in their identify them with the same Emberá name, indicating homes, or in one case, in a work setting. The design that they could transcend the restrictions imposed by was opportunistic; that is, I took advantage of book order (e.g. the genus Cranioleuca on Plates 8 and situations conducive to data collection and did not 14, both identified as jorójoró9). In addition, because attempt to control group composition. The aim was

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 33 Data, Methods & Taxonomies each group had more than one person in it (a factor Dialectal variation is reflected both at the lexical and shaped by the social conditions of fieldwork among phonological levels. I have indicated phonological extended families), the nine elicitation groups are variation of particular names with the superscript "v" more diverse then nine single informants would be. and list the variants at the end of the taxonomy data. Furthermore, because names were elicited from a Lack of accurate migration data on all informants and printed page rather than from birds in their natural the methods of elicitation used precludes analysis of habitat, certain physical criteria tended to dominate nomenclature in respect to dialects. the identification process, e.g. beak type was a more Where names are combinations of words or distinguishable feature than variation in size and morphemes, part or all of which I can translate, I set behavioral and functional criteria were only available these off from each other by a dash and indicate a in the form of memory associations. dictionary listing with a superscript "d". These translations appear in the supplementary file linked to Presentation of Taxonomic Data this document (Supplementary Table 1). I have only Each category identified by an Emberá name that is a included Spanish loan words when there is no Emberá primary lexeme (one which cannot be translated name corresponding to the same category. These are directly) is listed in alphabetical order in Appendix 1. noted with the superscript "Sp." Names which combine a lexeme with a modifier are listed under the main lexeme (e.g. ansabidá [kingfisher] Note on the Classification of Emberá and Scien- is the lexeme listed alphabetically under which will tific Bird Names appear ansabidá chikaibéa [little kingfisher] and meabéma- There are interesting comparisons to be made ansabidá [forest kingfisher]). Within that ordering of between the folk and scientific taxonomies (Appendix categories, the different scientific species identified by 1). While in some cases one Emberá name exactly or the same name are listed from highest consensus to almost exactly corresponds to one scientific genus lowest consensus. Where the consensus ratings are (e.g. kokarrá and the genus Odontophorus, chákoro and equal, they are listed in the order in which they appear the genus Icterus), in most cases there is a different in the book. Where the relationship between one kind of "fit.” So, for example, the Emberá, like lexeme and another is not manifested in the form of English speakers, have only one name for all hum- the name, but is commented on by a speaker, the mingbirds, while the scientific taxonomy breaks these more general name is listed in curly brackets under down into 35 genera. Clearly, the physical attributes specific name (e.g. chilingó [cacique] is a kind of necessary for systematizing these birds from an kumbarrá [a category including caciques, oropendolas, evolutionary point of view are not relevant to Emberá and antbirds]). In compound names in which one of speakers. There are cases, however, in which the the names may or may not be spoken, or in names Emberá taxon is more elaborated than the scientific. which may or may not have particular endings, For example, there is a general name karé and four straight brackets [ ] will appear around the optional specific names that correspond to a single scientific segment.10 genus Amazona. For the Emberá, this kind of bird is distinctive not only because of its bright plumage and Notes on Emberá-English Translation noisy behavior, but because it is also a source of food. The Emberá language has 12 vowels: a, e, i, ʌ, o, u There is also a varying relation between the most (pronounced as in Spanish except for the /ʌ/ which typical species representing a group of genera that is somewhere between i and u) and the same sounds together constitute a taxon and the size of the taxon. ẽ nasalized: ã, , ĩ, λ, õ, ũ. The consonants are pro- So, for example, Pulsatrix perspicillata Latham Strigidae nounced the same as in Spanish, i.e. j is pronounced is the species of owl that most represents "owlness" to as the English h; dz is pronounced as English j. the Emberá and the name for that species, bombóra, Where name-segments are emphasized with a stop, includes eight genera within its reference. While a this is indicated by an apostrophe (') after the seg- name like jorójoró, represented with best consensus by ment. Taraba major Vieillot Thamnophilidae includes 27 As mentioned above, there are 12 dialects in the genera within its reference. All these variations of fit language of Emberá corresponding to 12 geographic between Emberá and scientific taxonomies of birds areas in Colombia from whence the Emberá came can be considered in relation to other folk taxonomies before they migrated to Panama (Loewen 1958). of birds as well as folk taxonomies of other biological

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 34 Data, Methods & Taxonomies classes, in order to develop a cross-cultural under- language transcription skills, Brian Stross for introduc- standing of the principles of category formation and ing me to ethnosemantics and encouraging me to more generally how human beings think about the publish these data, Harriet Klein for reading earlier natural world. versions of this manuscript, and Semantha Bertram Folkloric examples presented in Appendix 2 and Jonathan Dombrosky for assistance with data were collected as they emerged spontaneously in the input and formatting. context of everyday life and suggest the important role that birds play in the encoding of cosmological as Declarations well as social and utilitarian thought. The songs and Permissions: None declared. calls of particular bird species are located between the Sources of Funding: My 1984-1985 dissertation fieldwork invisible and the human worlds as they inform people with the Emberá was funded by a fellowship from the of new birth and impending death. Because songs and Organization of American States and the Institute of calls depart and are distinct from the avian bodies that Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin. produce them, they can travel across the space of the Conflicts of Interest: None declared. imagination as well as physical space. In Emberá cosmology, an otherworld accompanies the mundane References world. Birds symbolically mediate the two worlds. Aguirre Licht, D. 2006. Choco Language. In Encyclope- They have the power to tell about matters as small as dia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition, edited by the time of day and as great as the events that K. Brown, pp. 367-381. Elsevier, Oxford. happened when the world changed. Indeed, before Bean, S. 1975. Referential and Indexical Meanings of the world changed, animals were people. And, Amma in Kannada: Mother, Woman, Goddess, Pox, although this happened in ancient times, the world and Help! Journal of Anthropological Research 31:313- could change back any day. So say the Emberá when 330. they observe the widening rivers, the atypical flooding patterns and the long dry seasons that are accompany- Berlin, B. 1973. Folk Systematics in Relation to ing the transformation of the downstream forests into Biological Classification and Nomenclature. Annual fields and pastures. Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:259-271. Conclusion Berlin, B. 1992. Ethnobiological Classification: Principles of Taxonomic and folkloric modes of knowledge, Categorization of Plants and Animals in Traditional together, suggest the significant role that birds play in Societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Emberá life. They illuminate relationships between biodiversity and cross-cultural bird knowledge in the Berlin, B. 1976. The Concept of Rank in Ethnobiolog- lowland riverine tropical forest. When geopolitical ical Classification: Some Evidence from Aguaruna conditions allow future ethnobiologists to do research Folk Botany. American Ethnologist 3:381-399. in the interior of the Darién, whether inside or Berlin, B., D. Breedlove and P. Raven. 1966. Folk outside the biosphere reserve, the data presented here Taxonomies and Biological Classification. Science can provide a baseline for comparison and departure 154:273-275. Doi: 10.1126/science.154.3746.273. point for conversation. Further study will not only lead to a better understanding of how the Emberá Bittner, K. 2003. Diversity of Mammals and their Uses and enroll nature in their conceptions of a mythic universe Perceptions by the Embera of Maje, Bayano Region, in which animals are communicating co-spirits, but Panama. School for International Training, Panama. will also lead to a better understanding of Emberá Cahn, D. E. 2004. Homeless for Generations: Land thoughts about their place in the dynamic environ- Rights for the Chocoe Indians from Mogue, mental history of the Darién. Panama. Fordham International Law Journal 28:232- 290. Acknowledgements My thanks to the Emberá people who accepted and Cansarí, R. 1996. The Scientific Community and the protected me and who generously shared their Indigenous Emberá Community of Panama. In knowledge of the forest. I thank Larry Gilbert for Protecting Biological Diversity: Roles and Responsibilities, introducing me to field biology and rainforest edited by M. Kranzel, G. Seutin and C. Potvin, pp. logistics, Joel Sherzer for teaching me indigenous 26-40. McGill-Queen’s University Press, Quebec.

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Chapin, M. and B. Threlkeld. 2001. Indigenous Land- C. Rätsch and J. Baker, pp. 185-206. Verlag für scapes: A Study in Ethnocartography. Center for the Wissenschaft und Bildung, Berlin, Germany. Support of Native Lands, Washington, DC. Kay, P. 1971. Taxonomy and Semantic Contrast. Colin, F. L. 2010. “Nosotros no Solamente Podemos Language 47:866-887. Vivir de Cultura”: Identity, Nature, and Power in Kempton, W. 1978. Category Grading and Taxonom- the Comarca Emberá of Eastern Panama. Un- ic Relation: A Mug is a Sort of Cup. American published Doctoral Dissertation, Carlton University. Ethnologist 5:44-65. Conklin, H. 1962. Lexicographical Treatment of Folk Lakoff, G. 1973. Hedges: A Study of Meaning Criteria Taxonomies. In Problems in Lexicography, edited by and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts. Journal of Philosoph- F.W. Householder and S. Saporta, pp. 119-142. ical Logic 2:458-508. Indiana University Research Center in Anthropolo- gy, Folklore, and Linguistics, Bloomington, IN. Loewen, J. 1958. An Introduction to Epera Speech: Sambú dialect. Ph.D. dissertation. Interdepartmental Crandell, R., ed. 2008. Emberá Stories of Panama. Linguistics. University of Washington, Seattle, WA. Translated by Rogelio Cansarí. Rainforest Press. Loewen, J. 1963a. Chocó 1: Introduction and Bibliog- Dalle, S.P. and C. Potvin. 2004. Conservation of raphy. International Journal of American Linguistics Useful Plants: An Evaluation of Local Priorities 29:239-263. from Two Indigenous Communities in Eastern Panama. Economic Botany 58:38-57. Loewen, J. 1963b. Chocó 2: Phonological Problems. International Journal of American Linguistics 29:357-371. Dougherty, J. and C. Keller. 1982. Taskonomy: A Practical Approach to Knowledge Structures. Racero-Casarrubia, J. A., C. C. Vidal and O. D. Ruiz. American Ethnologist 9:763-774. 2008. Percepción y Patrones de Uso de la Fauna Silvestre en Comunidades Indígenas Emberá-Katíos Drewal, H. J., ed. 2008. Sacred Waters: Arts for Mami de la Cuenca del Río San Jorge, Zona Amortiguado- Wata and Other Divinities in Africa and the Diaspora. ra de PNN – Paramillo. Revista de Estudios Sociales Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. 31:118-131. Herlihy, P. 1985. Settlement and Subsistence Change Ridgely, R. 1976. A Guide to the Birds of Panama. among the Chocó Indians of the Darién Province, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Eastern Panama: An Overview. Cultural Survival Quarterly 9:43-45. Rosaldo, M. 1972. Metaphors of Folk Classification. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 28:83-99. Herlihy, P. 2003. Participatory Research Mapping of Indigenous Lands in Darien, Panama. Human Runk, J. V., M. Martínez Mauri, B. Quintero Sánchez Organization 62:315-331. and J. Sarsaneda del Cid, eds. 2011. Pueblos Indígenas de Panamá: Una Bibliografía. Acción Cultural Ngóbe, Hunn, E. 1976. Toward a Perceptual Model of Folk Panama. Biological Classification. American Ethnologist 3:508- 524. Sara, S. I. 2001. A Tri-lingual Dictionary of Emberá- Spanish-English. Lincom, München. Johnson, A. 1974. Ethnoecology and Planting Practices in a Swidden Agricultural System. American Supplementary Files are linked to the online version Ethnologist 1:87-101. of the paper at ojs.ethnobiology.org/index.php/ebl. Kane, S. C. [1994] 2004. The Phantom Gringo Boat: Shamanic Discourse and Development in Panama. Biosketch Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.; Stephanie C. Kane is a cultural anthropologist and Second Edition. Cybereditions, Rochester, MN. Professor in the Department of International Studies at Indiana University. She is the author of The Phantom Kane, S. C. 1995. Emberá (Chocó) Medicinal Plant Gringo Boat, AIDS Alibis, and Where Rivers Meet the Sea. Use: Implications for Planning the Biosphere Reserve in Darién, Panama. In Yearbook for Ethno- Notes medicine and the Study of Consciousness, No. 4, edited by 1Readers may view images of the Emberá in the

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 36 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

Darién forest by visiting the Indiana University Image ty of Texas IRB to do ethnographic research among Collections Online. the Emberá of Darién. 2For in-depth ethnography of the Emberá in the 7I was trained in the transcription of Central and Darién see Kane 1994/2004. For Emberá medicinal South American indigenous languages. As part of my plants see Kane 1995. For Emberá folktales see larger project I was working with an Emberá youth to Crandell 2008. For a comprehensive bibliographic record and transcribe Emberá myths and folktales. index of writings on the indigenous people of 8Since Ridgely’s (1976) book, authorities have changes Panamasee Runk et al. 2011:77-162. some species names. The Appendix reflects current 3For recent linguistic research see Sara 2001 and usage. Aguirre Licht 2006. For many other sources see Runk 9For orthography and transcription see Note on et al. 2011:77-162. Language below. 4As an ecologist with a specialty in tropical forest 10To prioritize the legibility of consensus ratings in zoology at the Masters level I keep my interest alive Appendix 1, scientific and popular bird names are through collection of ethnobiological data in the listed only in the main category for each Emberá bird course of larger holistic ethnographic projects. name. Genus and species names are left blank in the 5For more recent ethnozoological research in the subcategories. Wherever there is a subcategory blank, region outside the Darién see Bittner 2003, Bejarano the key plate/image # indicates which genus and et al. 2004 and Racero-Casarrubia et al. 2008. species name from the main list is relevant. For English popular names, wherever there is a blank, 6I received permission from the First Cacique of the readers should apply whichever name is listed most Emberá to do ethnographic research in two specific directly above it. villages. I also received permission from the Universi-

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 37 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

Total 1 1 8 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Identifications C I ABCDEFHI EHI ACI CHI I I I G C G G D BD BD C B G A D C I C I

Spix Cuculidae Spix

Lawrence Thamnophilidae Lawrence

Hermann Thamnophilidae Hermann

Temminck Accipitridae Temminck

Gmelin Alcedinidae Gmelin

LathamAlcedinidae

Linnaeus Alcedinidae Linnaeus

Vieillot Falconidae Vieillot

CabanisPtiliogonatidae

PallasAlcedinidae

CassinConopophagidae

Vieillot Falconidae Vieillot

Muller Galbulidae Muller

Cuvier Galbulidae Cuvier

Linnaeus Alcedinidae Linnaeus

Pucheran Motacillidae Pucheran

Lafresnaye Vireonidae Lafresnaye

Scientific name (current) name Scientific ruficollis Micrastur chimachima Milvago torquata Megaceryle amazona Chloroceryle inda Chloroceryle americana Chloroceryle ruficauda Galbula aurea Jacamerops aenea Chloroceryle brachyura Myrmotherula michleri Pittasoma fulviventris Epinecrophylla leucophrys Vireo phasianellus Dromococcyx lutescens Anthus caudatus Ptilogonys uncinatus Chondrohierax

English common name common English Falcon Caracara Kingfisher Jacamar Kingfisher Antwren Antpitta Kingfisher Antwren Kingfisher Vireo Cuckoo Pipit Flycatcher Kite

Plate/# 2/7 3/8 10/10 10/7 10/9 10/11 10/5 10/6 10/8 10/7 10/8 10/10 15/5 16/8 10/7 10/9 10/7 10/11 15/7 10/11 24/10 6/11 24/16 23/3 2/11

sasá

}

= amparrá =

bada

}

ansabidá

chikaibéa dó dromá meabéma wẽra zaké

jombʌ

imbaná jãĩmbaná

------

nẽjõmbʌ

- -

{

ansabidá

{nẽjõmbʌ}

nẽjõmbʌ

d d

{

Emberá name Emberá ájombʌ amparrá zési ansabidá ansabidá ansabidá ansabidá ansabidá ansabidá ansabidá meabéma nunsí antumiá antumiá antumiá ao

AppendixEmberá 1: Bird Classification on (continued next page)

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 38 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

I I A A CDFGI CH E A AEFG H H E BD I C F BF CI F H G G

Lawrence Furnariidae Lawrence

Deppe Accipitridae Deppe

Neuwied Furnariidae Neuwied

Bourcier & Mulsant & Trochilidae Bourcier

Bertoni Furnariidae Bertoni

Gmelin Icteridae Gmelin

LathamAccipitridae

Gmelin Icteridae Gmelin

CabanisPsittacidae CabanisPsittacidae

sp.

Linnaeus Psittacidae Linnaeus

Bonaparte Psittacidae Bonaparte

SalvinPsittacidae SalvinPsittacidae

sp. Hermann Furnariidae Hermann sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Wied sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Gray Furnariidaesp.

sp. Cherrie Furnariidae Cherrie sp.

Linnaeus Psittacidae Linnaeus Psittacidae Linnaeus

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Temminck Picidae Temminck sp.

Harpagus bidentatus bidentatus Harpagus anthracinus Buteogallus mexicanus Quiscalus oryzivorus Molothrus pertinax Eupsittula severus Ara hoffmanni Pyrrhura finschi Psittacara severus Ara hoffmanni Pyrrhura finschi Psittacara pyrilia Pionopsitta aureliae Haplophaedia Picumnus Dendrocincla Sittasomus Glyphorynchus Lepidocolaptes Xiphorhynchus Deconychura Dendrocolaptes Campylorhamphus rubiginosus Margarornis

Hawk Grackle Cowbird Parakeet Macaw Parakeet Macaw Parakeet Parrot Macaw Parakeet Puffleg Parrot Piculet Woodcreeper Scythebill Treerunner

2/12 3/4 26/13 26/16 5/4 5/1 5/5 5/6 5/1 5/5 5/6 32/15 5/1 5/1 5/6 5/5 5/5 5/5 32/5 32/15 13/all 8/19

pauwará

bagará

ãrĩãrĩ ãwẽnsõ bagará bagará eyá purrú chiboró bagará chikuará bagará Jiwá basusú

(continued from (continued previous page) on (continued next page)

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 39 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 1 1 1 1 8 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

G G C G D ABCDEFGH I BC C I I CDGI E EI EI I I I B H A A A G

Lichtenstein Dendrocolaptidae Lichtenstein Dendrocolaptidae Lichtenstein

Sclater Dendrocolaptidae Sclater Dendrocolaptidae Sclater

Sclater Onychorhynchidae Sclater

HartlaubTityridae

Gould Ramphastidae Gould

Lafresnaye Bucconidae Lafresnaye

Neuwied Furnariidae Neuwied

Gmelin Ramphastidae Gmelin

Bourcier & Mulsant & Trochilidae Bourcier

Pelzeln Furnariidae Pelzeln

SalvinPipridae

CassinRamphastidae

Sclater & Salvin & Galbulidae Sclater

LathamAccipitridae

d'Orbigny & Lafresnaye Fringillidae & Lafresnaye d'Orbigny

Temminck Furnariidae Temminck

Sclater Fringillidae Sclater

sp. Bertoni Furnariidae Bertoni sp.

Gould Pipridae Gould

CabanisFringillidae

von Pelzeln Tyrannidae Pelzeln von

Nelson Trochilidae Nelson

Linnaeus Thraupidae Linnaeus

sp. Hermann Furnariidae Hermann sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Wied sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Gray Furnariidaesp.

sp. Cherrie Furnariidae Cherrie sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Temminck Picidae Temminck sp.

Campylorhamphus trochilirostris Campylorhamphus pusillus Campylorhamphus cayanensis Leptodon albescens Synallaxis erythrocercus Philydor torquatus Pteroglossus panamensis Malacoptila prasinus Aulacorhynchus spectabilis Selenidera trochilirostris Campylorhamphus pusillus Campylorhamphus grossus Saltator parvus Conopias minuta Euphonia fulvicrissa Euphonia laniirostris Euphonia vitellinus Manacus aurantiacus Manacus versicolor Pachyramphus Picumnus Dendrocincla Sittasomus Glyphorynchus Lepidocolaptes Xiphorhynchus Deconychura Dendrocolaptes Campylorhamphus bella Goethalsia aureliae Haplophaedia salmoni Brachygalba sulphureipygius Myiobius

gleaner

Foliage

Scythebill Kite Spinetail Aracari Puffbird Toucanet Scythebill Grosbeak Flycatcher Euphonia Manakin Becard Piculet Woodcreeper Scythebill Hummingbird Puffleg Jacamar Flycatcher

13/17 13/18 2/10 14/1 14/6 11/10 11/1 11/6 11/7 13/17 13/18 30/5 19/7 27/2 27/3 27/6 17/4 17/5 18/4 13/all 32/4 32/5 32/16 20/2

}

nẽjõmbʌ

{

imbisú

pá

jarámia koróchia wído

- d

- - -

basusú beséamiá betókorró bichí bichí bidó bidó bidó bimbím birábirá bitábitá

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 40 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

5 4 5 6 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

D B B B B CDGHI CFGI ACEGI BCDFGH DE DH BCE A A A G G G G

Linnaeus Tyrannidae Linnaeus Tyrannidae Linnaeus

PallasIcteridae

Linnaeus Tyrannidae Linnaeus Tyrannidae Linnaeus

Swainson Ardeidae Swainson

LathamStrigidae

Linnaeus Tyrannidae Linnaeus Tyrannidae Linnaeus

Such Ardeidae Such

Boddaert Ardeidae Boddaert

GrayIcteridae

Boddaert Ardeidae Boddaert

Daudin Strigidae Daudin

CassinStrigidae

Lichtenstein Tyrannidae Lichtenstein Tyrannidae Lichtenstein

sp. Bonaparte Tyrannidae Bonaparte sp.

Vieillot Strigidae Vieillot

sp. Thunberg Tyrannidae Thunberg sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Kaup Strigidae sp.

sp. Lesson Strigiformes Lesson sp.

sp. Lacépède Tyrannidae Lacépède sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Swainson Tyrannidae Swainson sp.

sp. Kaup Strigidae sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Brisson Strigidae Brisson sp.

Sirystes Sirystes Myiodynastes Legatus Tyrannus Myiozetetes Conopias Megarynchus Pitangus pitangua Megarynchus sulphuratus Pitangus lictor Pitangus cayanensis Myiozetetes wagleri Zarhynchus decumanus Psarocolius Megascops virgata Ciccaba Asio Pulsatrix Lophostrix perspicillata Pulsatrix Asio clamator cristata Lophostrix pileatus Pilherodius lineatum Tigrisoma mexicanum Tigrisoma fasciatum Tigrisoma pitangua Megarynchus sulphuratus Pitangus lictor Pitangus cayanensis Myiozetetes

Sirystes Flycatcher Kiskadee Flycatcher Kiskadee Flycatcher Oropendola Owl Heron Flycatcher Kiskadee Flycatcher

19/all 19/9 19/10 19/11 19/12 26/8 26/11 6/1 6/7 6/6 6/8 1/22 1/27 1/28 1/29 19/9 19/10 19/11 19/12

bĩrũrĩ bʌsesé bombóra bokaká boróparí

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 41 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

9 8 7 6 1 2 1 1 1 9 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

ABCDEFGHI ABCEFGHI ABCFGHI ABCDGI C DE H D D ABCDEFGHI DH DI CD H DI D D D C D D C C C

Neuwied Thraupidae Neuwied

Lawrence Grallariidae Lawrence

Verreaux & Verreaux Cotingidae Verreaux & Verreaux

Lafresnaye Thamnophilidae Lafresnaye

Boddaert Rallidae Boddaert

Gmelin Icteridae Gmelin

Strickland Icteridae Strickland

Lawrence Rallidae Lawrence

Wied

Linnaeus Thraupidae Linnaeus

Lafresnaye Icteridae Lafresnaye

Muller Rallidae Muller

Gmelin Polioptilidae Gmelin

CassinIcteridae

WaglerIcteridae

Boissonneau Cotingidae Boissonneau

WaglerPicidae

Lesson Icteridae Lesson

Reichenbach Picidae Reichenbach

Nelson Thraupidae Nelson

sp. Bonaparte Tyrannidae Bonaparte sp.

sp. Thunberg Tyrannidae Thunberg sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Lacépède Tyrannidae Lacépède sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Swainson Tyrannidae Swainson sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

Quiscalus mexicanus Quiscalus

Icterus mesomelas mesomelas Icterus chrysater Icterus auricapillus Icterus prosthemelas Icterus tricarunculata Procnias episcopus Thraupis fucosa Tangara palmarum Tangara nattererii Cotinga plumbea Polioptila uropygialis Cacicus loricatus Celeus castaneus Celeus Sirystes Myiodynastes Legatus Tyrannus Myiozetetes Conopias Megarynchus Pitangus perspicillatus Hylopezus naevioides Hylophylax maculatus Pardirallus albigularis Laterallus cajaneus Aramides

Oriole Bellbird Oriole Tanager Cotinga Gnatcatcher Grackle Cacique Woodpecker Sirystes Flycatcher Kiskadee Antpitta Antbird Rail Crake Rail

26/1 26/2 26/3 26/4 18/13 26/3 26/4 26/1 26/2 28/5 28/1 28/4 18/12 24/1 26/13 26/6 12/13 12/14 19/all 16/7 16/3 1/2 1/6 1/7

=ohíhí

chákoro

chákoro tumiá

- -

chákoro patá chía champachí chángame chárro chiá chichárra chijí chikámia chilakó

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 42 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 4 4 3 1 1 1 8 2 1 1 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

C ACGI ACEI ACI I D D ABDEFGHI BC F ABCDEFHI ADGHI ADI AI H D C I D E G D

Deppe Icteridae Deppe

Bonaparte Thraupidae Bonaparte

ShawThamnophilidae

Lafresnaye Thraupidae Lafresnaye

Lafresnaye Passerellidae Lafresnaye

Bonaparte Thraupidae Bonaparte

Sclater Thamnophilidae Sclater

Gmelin Vireonidae Gmelin

Trudeau Cardinalidae Trudeau

Lafresnaye Icteridae Lafresnaye

Swainson Cardinalidae Swainson

Lawrence Rallidae Lawrence

CabanisCardinalidae

Hellmayr Thraupidae Hellmayr

SparrmanFurnariidae

Sclater & Salvin & Thraupidae Sclater

Lawrence Cardinalidae Lawrence

sp. Sclater Thamnophilidae Sclater sp.

sp. Cabanis sp. Thamnophilidae

sp. Sclater Thamnophilidae Sclater sp.

Vieillot Cardinalidae Vieillot

Linnaeus Icteridae Linnaeus

sp. Sclater Thamnophilidae Sclater sp. Thamnophilidae Sclater sp.

Linnaeus Ardeidae Linnaeus

sp. Gray sp. Thamnophilidae

sp. Cabanis & Heine Thamnophilidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

Aramides axillaris Aramides uropygialis Cacicus cela Cacicus holosericeus Amblycercus punctatus Thamnophilus Terenura Dysithamnus Myrmotherula Microrhopias Cercomacra Myrmeciza Gymnocichla Cercomacra nigricans Cercomacra icteronotus Ramphocelus passerinii Ramphocelus arcaei Bangsia dimidiatus Ramphocelus rubica Habia fuscicauda Habia leucoptera Piranga palmeri Tangara bidentata Piranga carmioli Habia aurantiirostris Arremon gujanensis Cyclarhis minutus Xenops cocoi Ardea

Cacique Antshrike Antwren Antvireo Antwren Antbird Tanager Sparrow Peppershrike Xenops Heron

1/8 26/6 26/7 26/5 14/13 15/all 15/13 28/7 28/8 28/2 28/2 28/12 28/13 28/11 28/3 28/8 28/10 28/14 30/15 24/5 14/4 1/23

}

=ingé

=ingé =ingé [purrú]

]

kumbarrá

{

purrú

[paima] pauwará [

chitrré

- - -

chilingó chingé trʌmia chingé=kue chingé [paima] chingé chingé chĩmpáwi chipauwará chitrré chombʌ

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 43 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

4 1 1 3 1 2 5 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 9 1 9

EFHI C D CDG G DG AEFGI AEFI C A C C CE CE AB C A D ABCDEFGHI G ABCDEFGHI

Lawrence Thamnophilidae Lawrence

Hartert Polioptilidae Hartert

Gosse Rallidae Gosse

Lawrence Ramphastidae Lawrence

Gmelin Alcedinidae Gmelin

Bonaparte Thraupidae Bonaparte

Boddaert Rallidae Boddaert

Lawrence Corvidae Lawrence

RidgwayCorvidae

CassinConopophagidae

d'Orbigny & Lafresnaye Formicariidae Lafresnaye & d'Orbigny

Hellmayr Pipridae Hellmayr

Linnaeus Jacanidae Linnaeus Jacanidae Linnaeus

Gmelin Tinamidae Gmelin

Linnaeus Jacanidae Linnaeus Jacanidae Linnaeus

sp. Bonaparte Tyrannidae Bonaparte sp.

sp. Thunberg Tyrannidae Thunberg sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Nelson Trochilidae Nelson sp.

sp. Lacépède Tyrannidae Lacépède sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Swainson Tyrannidae Swainson sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Reichenbach Trochilidae Reichenbach sp.

flaviventer Hapalocrex mcleannani Phaenostictus maculicoronatus Capito altera Corapipo americana Chloroceryle jacana Jacana spinosa Jacana concolor Amaurolimnas Sirystes Myiodynastes Legatus Tyrannus Myiozetetes Conopias Megarynchus Pitangus argentigula Cyanolyca cucullata Cyanolyca spinosa Jacana jacana Jacana analis Formicarius major Tinamus michleri Pittasoma schistaceigula Polioptila passerinii Ramphocelus Klais Goldmania

Crake Antbird Barbet Toucan Kingfisher Jacana Crake Sirystes Flycatcher Jay Jacana thrush Ant Tinamou Antpitta Gnatcatcher Bird Tanager Hummingbird

1/24 1/5 16/6 11/4 16/8 10/11 1/12 1/11 1/3 19/all 11/11 11/12 1/11 1/12 16/10 1/20 16/8 24/2 all 28/8 7/all

]

waib´ʌa

[

bata hẽhẽ kʌmámia kʌmbarrá lé

- - - - -

garsasp chorĩho chuchu dĩrĩrĩ dó dõ do do do dundún imbaná imbichú

(continued from (continued previous page) on (continued next page)

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 44 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

ACDEFG

sp. Boie Trochilidae Boie sp.

sp. Swainson Trochilidae Swainson sp.

sp. Gould Trochilidae Gould sp.

sp. Bonaparte Trochilidae sp.

sp. Swainson Trochilidae Swainson sp.

sp. Gould Trochilidae Gould sp.

sp. Reichenbach Trochilidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Gould Trochilidae Gould sp.

sp. Reichenbach Trochilidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Gould Trochilidae Gould sp.

sp. Swainson Trochilidae Swainson sp.

sp. Boie Trochilidae Boie sp.

sp. Reichenbach Trochilidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Gould Trochilidae Gould sp.

sp. Lesson Trochilidae Lesson sp. Trochilidae Lesson sp.

sp. Lawrence Trochilidae Lawrence sp.

sp. Bonaparte Trochilidae Bonaparte sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Trochilidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Gould Trochilidae Gould sp.

sp. Lesson Trochilidae Lesson sp.

sp. Boie Trochilidae Boie sp.

sp. Spix Trochilidae Spix sp. Trochilidae Spix sp.

sp. Mulsant, Verreaux, & Verreaux Trochilidae Verreaux & Mulsant,Verreaux, sp.

Hylocharis Hylocharis Lepidopyga Thalurania Chlorostilbon Florisuga Phaeochroa Amazilia Damophila Chalybura Heliothryx Anthracothorax Lophornis Microchera Heliomaster Doryfera Discosura Heliodoxa Colibri Phaethornis Threnetes Glaucis Selasphorus Calliphlox Lampornis Lophornis Panterpe Eupherusa Campylopterus Colibri Elvira

8/1

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 45 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 9 8 6 5 1 1

BH B H D D H H H CEG CDG EG G H H G C ABCDEFGHI ABCDEFHI ACEFHI ADFHI A A

Lichtenstein Dendrocolaptidae Lichtenstein

Lawrence Vireonidae Lawrence

Leadbeater Momotidae Leadbeater

Llave Trogonidae Llave

Temminck Thamnophilidae Temminck

Lichtenstein Momotidae Lichtenstein

von Spix Momotidae Spix von

Sclater & Salvin & Galbulidae Sclater Salvin & Galbulidae Sclater

Sclater Scleruridae Sclater

PallasAlcedinidae

Linnaeus Momotidae Linnaeus

Swainson Trogonidae Swainson

Muller Galbulidae Muller Galbulidae Muller

Cuvier Galbulidae Cuvier Galbulidae Cuvier

Bourcier Trochilidae Bourcier

Gmelin Trogonidae Gmelin

Gould Trogonidae Gould

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

Linnaeus Trogonidae Linnaeus

sp. Sclater Furnariidae Sclater sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Cherrie Furnariidae Cherrie sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Spix Furnariidae Spix sp.

Brachygalba salmoni salmoni Brachygalba salmoni Brachygalba

barroti Heliothryx trochilirostris Campylorhamphus aurantiifrons Hylophilus Syndactyla Cranioleuca Philydor Sclerurus Furnariidae Lafresnaye Margarornis Thripadectes Pseudocolaptes Premnoplex mocinno Pharomachrus melanurus Trogon massena Trogon ruficauda Galbula aurea Jacamerops aenea Chloroceryle viridis Trogon violaceus Trogon mexicanus Sclerurus mentalis Dysithamnus martii Baryphthengus platyrhynchum Electron momotula Hylomanes momota Momotus ruficauda Galbula aurea Jacamerops

gleaner gleaner

gleaner

- -

Foliage Foliage

Jacamar Hummingbird Scythebill Greenlet Spinetail Foliage Leaftosser Treerunner Treehunter Tuftedcheek Barbtail Quetzal Trogon Trogon Jacamar Kingfisher Trogon Leaftosser Antivireo Motmot Jacamar

32/16 7/15 13/17 24/12 8/14 9/1 9/3 9/4 10/5 32/16 10/6 10/8 9/10 9/11 14/9 15/2 10/2 10/1 10/4 10/3 10/5 10/6

birábirá chikuará

- -

purrú

ingé jaragú jarú jarugú jarugú jĩõjĩõ jiújiú jʌdʌ

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 46 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 8 2 2

H BD G DI CG CG B B G C H ABCDEGHI AH FH

Temminck Cuculidae Temminck

Gould Trogonidae Gould

Lichtenstein Momotidae Lichtenstein

Linnaeus Momotidae Linnaeus

Gmelin Trogonidae Gmelin

Linnaeus Thraupidae Linnaeus

Vieillot Trogonidae Vieillot

sp. Llave Trogonidae sp.

sp. Vieillot Thamnophilidae Vieillot sp.

Lawrence Trogonidae Lawrence

Vieillot Thamnophilidae Vieillot

Linnaeus Trogonidae Linnaeus

Gmelin Trogonidae Gmelin

sp. Gray sp. Thamnophilidae

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp. Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Sclater & Salvin & Thamnophilidae Sclater sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp. Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Vieillot Furnariidae Vieillot sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp. Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Spix Furnariidae Spix sp. Furnariidae Spix sp.

sp. Illiger Furnariidae sp.

sp. Lesson Thamnophilidae Lesson sp.

sp. Brisson Trogonidae Brisson sp.

Neomorphus geoffroyi geoffroyi Neomorphus momotula Hylomanes momota Momotus Pharomachrus Trogon viridis Trogon violaceus Trogon collaris Trogon aurantiiventris Trogon rufus Trogon bairdii Trogon grossus Saltator major Taraba Synallaxis Cranioleuca Xenops Automolus Philydor Automolus Sclerurus Thamnistes Thamnophilus Taraba Cymbilaimus Syndactyla Cranioleuca Philydor Sclerurus Furnariidae Lafresnaye Margarornis

gleaner gleaner gleaner gleaner

- - - -

Cuckoo Motmot Motmot Quetzal Trogon Grosbeak Spinetail Xenops Foliage Leaftosser Antshrike Foliage Spinetail Foliage Leaftosser Foliage Treerunner

6/14 10/4 10/3 9/2 14/14 14/all 8/14

zaké

pauwará

jʌdʌ jʌdʌ jojó jorójoró

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 47 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1

EH E F F H G G G EGI C C C E E H

ShawThamnophilidae

LathamAccipitridae

Lafresnaye Bucconidae Lafresnaye

Deppe Accipitridae Deppe

Sclater Accipitridae Sclater

Gmelin Accipitridae Gmelin

CabanisTroglodytidae CabanisTroglodytidae

Lafresnaye Troglodytidae Lafresnaye Troglodytidae Lafresnaye

Swainson Cardinalidae Swainson

Daudin Accipitridae Daudin

Daudin Falconidae Daudin

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

Lesson Accipitridae Lesson

sp. Sclater Furnariidae Sclater sp.

sp. Kaup Accipitridae sp.

sp. Gray sp. Bucconidae

sp. Cherrie Furnariidae Cherrie sp.

sp. Lesson Accipitridae Lesson sp. Latham sp. Accipitridae

sp. Richmond Semnornithidae Richmond sp.

sp.

sp. Vieillot Accipitridae Vieillot sp.

sp. Merrem Falconidae Merrem sp.

sp. Vieillot Falconidae Vieillot sp.

sp. Sclater Bucconidae Sclater sp.

sp. Bonaparte Capitonidae Bonaparte sp.

sp. Spix Falconidae Spix sp.

sp. Viellot Capitonidae Viellot sp.

sp. Lacépède Accipitridae Lacépède sp.

Thripadectes Thripadectes Pseudocolaptes Premnoplex panamensis Malacoptila Malacoptila Nonnula Eubucco Capito Semnornis modestus Cantorchilus leucotis Cantorchilus bidentata Piranga punctatus Thamnophilus modestus Cantorchilus leucotis Cantorchilus urubitinga Buteogallus Buteo Leucopternis Buteogallus Spizaetus Daptrius Geranospiza Milvago Caracara Buteogallus Busarellus princeps Morphnarchus anthracinus Buteogallus ornatus Spizaetus meridionalis Buteogallus rufigularis Falco

eagle

Treehunter Tuftedcheek Barbtail Puffbird Nunlet Barbet Wren Tanager Antshrike Wren Hawk Hawk‑eagle Caracara Hawk Caracara Hawk Hawk Hawk Falcon

11/1 11/1 22/1 22/2 28/10 14/13 22/1 22/2 3/3 3/all 3/2 3/4 3/5 3/10 2/1

}

nẽjõmbʌ

{

juámia juángoro juápipi

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 48 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 6 4 4 7 4 2 1 1 9 8 1 1 5 2 1 1 1

I I BI AC F B B H CG C C G B H CDEFGI CDGI CDGI ABCDEFH CEGH BC B E ABCDEFGHI ABCEFGHI C E ACEFH AE A D B

SalvinAccipitridae

Lawrence Accipitridae Lawrence

Gould Ramphastidae Gould

Lawrence Grallariidae Lawrence

Gmelin Psittacidae Gmelin Psittacidae Gmelin

Gould Ramphastidae Gould

Bonaparte Passerellidae Bonaparte

Lesson Ramphastidae Lesson

Sclater Thamnophilidae Sclater

Linnaeus Accipitridae Linnaeus

Cassin PsittacidaeCassin

Gmelin Accipitridae Gmelin

CassinRamphastidae

Linnaeus Psittacidae Linnaeus

LathamAccipitridae

Muller Psittacidae Muller

Boddaert Ardeidae Boddaert

Vieillot Falconidae Vieillot

Boddaert Psittacidae Boddaert

d'Orbigny & Lafresnaye Formicariidae Lafresnaye & d'Orbigny

Daudin Accipitridae Daudin

Daudin Falconidae Daudin

LathamAccipitridae

nigricollis Busarellus magnirostris Rupornis nitidus Buteo rufigularis Falco plumbea Cryptoleucopteryx semiplumbea Leucopternis ruficollis Micrastur ornatus Spizaetus superciliosus Accipiter tyrannina Cercomacra analis Formicarius lineatum Tigrisoma perspicillatus Hylopezus farinosa Amazona autumnalis Amazona ochrocephala Amazona lineola Bolborhynchus jugularis Brotogeris ochrocephala Amazona conirostris Arremonops swainsonii Ramphastos spectabilis Selenidera prasinus Aulacorhynchus sulfuratus Ramphastos

eagle

Hawk Falcon Hawk Falcon Hawk Hawk Antbird Antthrush Heron Antpitta Amazon Parakeet Amazon Sparrow Toucan Toucanet Toucan

3/10 3/11 2/4 3/1 2/1 2/2 2/3 2/7 3/5 2/8 15/10 16/10 1/27 16/7 5/11 5/10 5/12 5/10 5/12 5/11 5/12 5/12 5/2 5/3 5/12 30/14 11/8 11/7 11/6 11/9 11/8

}

]

[

ará

chipurru

nẽjómbĩ

{

chijué

]

pa ará=karézromad

jurá

- -

karé

juápipi juejué juémiájo jurá káikate karé [ karé karé kuará chiboró karé kekerré kewará kewará

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 49 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

5 2 2 1 1 8 5 1 1 2 2 2 7 4 4 2 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

ACEFI DI BH E G ACDEFGHI CDEGI E G CG EH DH ABCEFGH ACEF ACEF AC AC BCDEFGI ACDEI A A A A A A F B B F H C C

Gmelin Thamnophilidae Gmelin

Sclater Onychorhynchidae Sclater

Linnaeus Pipridae Linnaeus

SalvinOdontophoridae

Gmelin Odontophoridae Gmelin

SalvadoriFesta & Troglodytidae

Gould Odontophoridae Gould

Wetmore Odontophoridae Wetmore

Gosse Rallidae Gosse

Lafresnaye Passerellidae Lafresnaye

Gould Odontophoridae Gould CabanisTroglodytidae

Tschudi Troglodytidae Tschudi

Sclater & Salvin & Psittacidae Sclater

Boddaert Rallidae Boddaert

Temminck Cuculidae Temminck

Boddaert Rallidae Boddaert

BangsRallidae

Vieillot Troglodytidae Vieillot

Lawrence Rallidae Lawrence

Lafresnaye Icteridae Lafresnaye

Muller Rallidae Muller

Lawrence Rallidae Lawrence

Temminck Rallidae Temminck

Boddaert Heliornithidae Boddaert

Linnaeus Icteridae Linnaeus

haematotis Pionopsitta geoffroyi Neomorphus erythrocephala Ceratopipra mexicanus Onychorhynchus aurantiirostris Arremon uropygialis Cacicus cela Cacicus gujanensis Odontophorus erythrops Odontophorus leucolaemus Odontophorus dialeucos Odontophorus guttatus Odontophorus cajaneus Aramides axillaris Aramides columbianus Neocrex maculatus Pardirallus concolor Amaurolimnas exilis Laterallus flaviventer Hapalocrex albigularis Laterallus fulica Heliornis rutilus Pheugopedius leucopogon Cantorchilus surinamensis Myrmotherula leucosticta Henicorhina leucophrys Henicorhina

Toucanet Toucan Parrot Cuckoo Manakin Flycatcher Sparrow Cacique Quail Rail Crake Rail Crake Sungrebe Rail Wren Antwren Wren

11/9 11/8 11/9 11/6 11/8 5/9 6/14 17/3 20/14 30/15 26/6 26/7 1/17 1/13 1/14 1/15 1/16 1/7 1/8 1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/10 1/8 22/7 32/17 15/4 22/10 22/11

=chipá

}

chikeré[o]

kumbarrá

idziará pá zromá

{

zaké

- - -

dada pichumá

dzedzémia dzímia trʌmiá

- -

- - -

[kewará] kewará kewará kewará kewétaka kidá kidá kirókiró kokarrá kotedé kotedé kué kué kué

(continued from (continued previous page) on (continued next page)

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 50 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 9 9

BDEH FG FG E E H A A AI AI BCD B E C ABCDEFGHI ABCDEFGHI

Bonaparte Icteridae Bonaparte

Lafresnaye Bucconidae Lafresnaye

Lesson Icteridae Lesson

PallasIcteridae

Cassin Thamnophilidae Cassin

GrayIcteridae

Lafresnaye Icteridae Lafresnaye

Linnaeus Psittacidae Linnaeus

Lesson Accipitridae Lesson

sp. Lesson Accipitridae Lesson sp.

Lesson Accipitridae Lesson

sp. Kaup Accipitridae sp.

Linnaeus Icteridae Linnaeus

sp. Latham sp. Accipitridae

sp.

sp. Gray Falconidae sp.

sp. Vigors Accipitridae sp.

sp. Vieillot Accipitridae Vieillot sp.

sp. Sundevall Acciptridae Sundevall sp.

Lacépède Accipitridae Lacépède

sp. Merrem Falconidae Merrem sp.

Accipitridae Brisson sp.

sp. Vieillot Falconidae Vieillot sp.

sp. Spix Falconidae Spix sp.

sp. Linnaeus Falconidae Linnaeus sp.

Psarocolius decumanus decumanus Psarocolius guatimozinus Psarocolius montezuma Psarocolius uropygialis Cacicus cela Cacicus nudiceps Gymnocichla wagleri Zarhynchus panamensis Malacoptila menstruus Pionus Falco Leucopternis sp. Buteo Micrastur Accipiter Leptodon Chondrohierax Harpagus Buteogallus Spizaetus Daptrius Geranospiza Milvago Caracara Buteogallus Busarellus

eagle

Oropendola Cacique Antbird Oropendola Puffbird Parrot Falcon Hawk Falcon Hawk Kite Hawk Hawk Caracara Hawk Caracara Hawk

3/all

26/11 26/9 26/10 26/6 26/7 15/12 26/8 26/11 26/9 26/10 26/10 26/9 26/11 11/1 5/8 2

torró purrú

- -

chikidá chikidá droma

- - -

pá

kumbarrá kumbarrá kumbarrá kumbarrá makuá michitá nẽjõmbʌ

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 51 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

9 3 1 1 6 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 2 2

ABCDEFGHI ACI G C CDEHI CDI DI DG G H ACG DI DI DI D D C E DG E EGI FH GI GI

Lawrence Tyrannidae Lawrence

Gould Ramphastidae Gould

Vieillot Tyrannidae Vieillot

Sharpe Strigidae Sharpe

Swainson Ardeidae Swainson

Gmelin Columbidae Gmelin

Sclater Strigidae Sclater

Such Ardeidae Such

Boddaert Ardeidae Boddaert

Vieillot Strigidae Vieillot

Daudin Strigidae Daudin

Kelso & Kelso Strigidae Kelso & Kelso

Daudin Accipitridae Daudin

PallasEurypygidae

CassinStrigidae

Gmelin Ardeidae Gmelin

sp. Bonaparte Tyrannidae Bonaparte sp.

Vieillot Strigidae Vieillot

sp. Thunberg Tyrannidae Thunberg sp.

Linnaeus Icteridae Linnaeus

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

Linnaeus Ardeidae Linnaeus Ardeidae Linnaeus

sp. Lacépède Tyrannidae Lacépède sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Swainson Tyrannidae Swainson sp.

sp. Sclater Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

Cacicus cela cela Cacicus

Eurypyga helias helias Eurypyga Heliornithidae Boddaert fulica Heliornis speciosa Patagioenas mexicanum Tigrisoma lineatum Tigrisoma fasciatum Tigrisoma agami Agamia cocoi Ardea cocoi Ardea cristata Lophostrix clarkii Megascops choliba Megascops guatemalae Megascops virgata Ciccaba nigrolineata Ciccaba Asio clamator ornatus Spizaetus prasinus Aulacorhynchus Heliornithidae Boddaert fulica Heliornis melancholicus Tyrannus Sirystes Myiodynastes Legatus Tyrannus Myiozetetes Conopias Megarynchus Pitangus granadensis Myiozetetes Tyrannidae Pelzeln von parvus Conopias

eagle

Sunbittern Sungrebe Cacique Pigeon Heron Owl Hawk Toucanet Sungrebe Kingbird Sirystes Flycatcher Kingbird Flycatcher Kiskadee Flycatcher

1/9 1/10 26/7 4/2 1/28 1/27 1/29 1/24 1/23 1/23 6/8 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 3/5 11/6 1/10 19/5 19/all 19/6 19/7

}

pʌichĩra

{

nẽjõmbʌ

nǘrĩ ojíji ókoko õõko orránia parrú { patrá patú pipidí

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 52 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

GI H D G G G D D D D D D I I I ABCDG

SalvinOdontophoridae SalvinOdontophoridae

Gmelin Odontophoridae Gmelin Odontophoridae Gmelin

Muller Tyrannidae Muller

Gould Odontophoridae Gould Odontophoridae Gould

Wetmore Odontophoridae Wetmore

Gould Odontophoridae Gould

SalvinOdontophoridae

Spix Tyrannidae Spix

Swainson Trogonidae Swainson

sp. Waldheim Onychorhynchidae Waldheim sp.

Gould Trogonidae Gould

sp. Llave Trogonidae sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

Gosse Columbidae Gosse

sp. Hellmayr Tyrannidae Hellmayr sp. Salvin & Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Sclater & Salvin Tyrannidae & Sclater sp.

sp. Spix Columbidae Spix sp.

sp.

sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Salvin & Godman Tyrannidae Salvin & Godman sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Darwin Tityridae sp.

sp. Linnaeus Columbidae Linnaeus sp.

sp. Swainson Columbidae Swainson sp.

sp. Oberholser Columbidae Oberholser sp.

sp. Sundevall Tyrannidae Sundevall sp.

sp. Brisson Trogonidae Brisson sp.

Myiozetetes similis similis Myiozetetes maculatus Myiodynastes Myiobius Tolmomyias Myiopagis Contopus Elaenia Sublegatus Myiarchus Onychorhynchus Cnipodectes Mionectes Rhynchocyclus Pharomachrus Trogon melanurus Trogon massena Trogon erythrops Odontophorus leucolaemus Odontophorus dialeucos Odontophorus guttatus Odontophorus gujanensis Odontophorus cinctus Rhynchortyx erythrops Odontophorus leucolaemus Odontophorus gujanensis Odontophorus Columba Claravis Columbina Leptotila Geotrygon

Elaenia Pewee Elaenia Flycatcher Flatbill Quetzal Trogon Quail Pigeon Dove

19/8 19/3 20/all 9/all 9/3 9/4 1/13 1/14 1/15 1/16 1/17 1/18 1/13 1/14 1/17 4/all

pʌwʌ põrá poróporó pʌchʌra

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 53 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

5 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 3 1

BDGHI BGHI HI C C C C C C BE C DI H H E E E BCEF CI G BFG D

Bonnaterre Columbidae Bonnaterre

Pérez Columbidae Pérez

Lawrence Columbidae Lawrence

Sclater & Salvin & Columbidae Sclater Salvin & Columbidae Sclater

CassinRamphastidae

Gmelin Icteridae Gmelin

Bonaparte Columbidae Bonaparte Columbidae Bonaparte

SalvinColumbidae

Temminck Columbidae Temminck

Linnaeus Columbidae Linnaeus Columbidae Linnaeus

Salvin Troglodytidae Salvin

Ferrari

Lawrence Columbidae Lawrence Columbidae Lawrence

Vieillot Troglodytidae Vieillot

Sclater & Salvin Troglodytidae Salvin & Sclater

Gosse Columbidae Gosse

sp.

sp. Oberholser Troglodytidae Oberholser sp.

sp.

sp. Vieillot Troglodytidae Vieillot sp.

sp. Cabanis sp. Troglodytidae

sp. Spix Columbidae Spix sp.

sp.

sp. Linnaeus Columbidae Linnaeus sp.

sp. Swainson Columbidae Swainson sp.

sp. Oberholser Columbidae Oberholser sp.

Leptotila verreauxi Bonaparte Columbidae Bonaparte verreauxi Leptotila cassinii Leptotila plumbeiceps Leptotila cayennensis Patagioenas Columbidae Sclater nigrirostris Patagioenas mondetoura Claravis lawrencii Geotrygon costaricensis Geotrygon veraguensis Geotrygon minuta Columbina Columbidae Linnaeus montana Geotrygon minuta Columbina Columba Claravis Columbina Leptotila Geotrygon mondetoura Claravis plumbeiceps Leptotila cassinii Leptotila Columbidae Bonaparte verreauxi Leptotila talpacoti Columbina pretiosa Claravis spectabilis Selenidera oryzivorus Molothrus Thryothorus Troglodytes Thryorchilus Henicorhina Microcerculus Cyporhinus

Dove Pigeon Dove Dove Pigeon Dove Toucanet Cowbird Wren

4/10 4/9 4/8 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/15 4/16 4/17 4/6 4/12 4/6 4/all 4/5 4/8 4/9 4/10 4/7 4/11 11/7 26/16 22/all

}

[purru]

]

toro

pʌchĩra

zaké

[ eyádebéma

{

[ chipauwará

- -

pʌchĩra pʌchĩra putuhú pʌtʌhʌ pʌtʌhʌ rrío semí serrémia

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 54 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 1 8 3 1 2 1 6 1 1 6 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

D D ABCDEFHI ACG C BD I ACDEFG A A CEFGHI BFHI B B B B B B B F G G

Lawrence Troglodytidae Lawrence

von Tschudi Picidae Tschudi von

HartlaubPicidae

Lawrence Dendrocolaptidae Lawrence

Gmelin Picidae Gmelin

Lesson Troglodytidae Lesson

SalvinPicidae SalvinPicidae

Swainson Picidae Swainson

CabanisPicidae

GrayTinamidae

Temminck Cuculidae Temminck Picidae Malherbe

Vieillot Picidae Vieillot

Spix Troglodytidae Spix

Boddaert Picidae Boddaert

Linnaeus Picidae Linnaeus

sp.

WaglerPicidae

Hermann Tinamidae Hermann

SalvinPicidae

Gmelin Tinamidae Gmelin

sp. Koch Picidae Koch sp.

GrayPicidae

sp. Swainson Picidae Swainson sp.

sp. Boie Picidae Boie sp.

sp. Bonaparte Picidae Bonaparte sp.

sp. Vigors Picidae sp.

sp. Spix Picidae Spix sp.

sp. Boie Picidae Boie sp.

Campylorhynchus Campylorhynchus albobrunneus Campylorhynchus zonatus Campylorhynchus major Tinamus soui Crypturellus bonapartei Nothocercus lachrymosus Xiphorhynchus Colaptes Piculus Melanerpes Dendrocopos Veniliornis Celeus Dryocopus Campephilus chrysauchen Melanerpes geoffroyi Neomorphus melanoleucos Campephilus lineatus Dryocopus punctigula Colaptes simplex Piculus chrysochloros Piculus chrysauchen Melanerpes pucherani Melanerpes rubricapillus Melanerpes formicivorus Melanerpes castaneus Celeus guatemalensis Campephilus haematogaster Campephilus

Tinamou Woodcreeper Woodpecker Cuckoo

22/17 22/18 1/20 1/21 1/19 1/21 13/16 12/all 12/6 6/14 12/16 12/15 12/1 12/2 12/3 12/6 12/7 12/8 12/9 12/14 12/17 12/18

=sorré wai- =sorré

zaké

dróma

sokorró sokorró sordoró sorré sorré bʌad

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 55 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

4 4 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 7 5 1 1 1 1 1

CFGI EGHI CGI I I A AC A C C C C CI H ABCEGHI BCDHI H C C C C

Lichtenstein Dendrocolaptidae Lichtenstein

Linnaeus Pipridae Linnaeus

Sclater Dendrocolaptidae Sclater

Neuwied Furnariidae Neuwied

SalvinPipridae

Sclater Pipridae Sclater

LathamAccipitridae

Sclater Fringillidae Sclater

Boddaert Falconidae Boddaert

CabanisFringillidae

WaglerPicidae

Linnaeus Ardeidae Linnaeus

Daudin Falconidae Daudin

Linnaeus Picidae Linnaeus

sp. Hermann Furnariidae Hermann sp.

Reichenbach Picidae Reichenbach

sp. Reichenbach Furnariidae Reichenbach sp.

sp. Wied sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Bonaparte FringillidaeBonaparte sp.

sp. Gray Furnariidaesp.

sp. Cherrie Furnariidae Cherrie sp.

sp. Swainson Furnariidae Swainson sp.

sp. Temminck Picidae Temminck sp.

sp. Desmarest Fringillidae Desmarest sp.

sp. Brisson Thraupidae Brisson sp.

villosus Picoides striata Butorides pusillus Campylorhamphus Picumnus Dendrocincla Sittasomus Glyphorynchus Lepidocolaptes Xiphorhynchus Deconychura Dendrocolaptes trochilirostris Campylorhamphus loricatus Celeus castaneus Celeus americanus Ibycter rufigularis Falco cayanensis Leptodon Corvidae Pelzeln von affinis Cyanocoraz erythrocephala Ceratopipra mentalis Ceratopipra aurantiacus Manacus Chlorophonia Euphonia Tangara minuta Euphonia fulvicrissa Euphonia

Heron Scythebill Piculet Woodcreeper Scythebill Woodpecker Caracara Falcon Kite Jay Manakin Chlorophonia Euphonia Tanager Euphonia

12/7 12/8 12/6 12/9 12/10 1/25 13/18 13/all 13/17 12/13 12/14 3/6 2/1 2/10 11/13 17/3 17/2 17/5 27/all 27/2 27/3

zaké

}

=sorré

nẽjõmbĩ

{

nẽjõmbĩ

{

}

kaibéa

sorré

sorré soríjojó suékoko { tãtanú tedéjombʌ tiótió=chocho tokó

(continued from (continued previous page) on (continued next page)

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 56 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 1 1 1 1 1 7 4 2 1 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

C C C G G B CDEFGHI ADEI AI I ACDEHI BI B F B B B B H

Spix Cuculidae Spix

Bonnaterre Columbidae Bonnaterre

Lawrence Tyrannidae Lawrence

Vieillot Dendrocolaptidae Vieillot

Vieillot Tyrannidae Vieillot

Sclater Columbidae Sclater

Gmelin Columbidae Gmelin

Spix Tyrannidae Spix

Vieillot Cuculidae Vieillot

Desmarest Thraupidae Desmarest

Hellmayr Thraupidae Hellmayr

Pelzeln Tyrannidae Pelzeln

sp. Salvin & Godman Cardinalidae Salvin & Godman sp.

Sclater & Salvin & Thraupidae Sclater

Linnaeus Cuculidae Linnaeus

sp. Desmarest Thraupidae Desmarest sp. sp.

Linnaeus Cuculidae Linnaeus

sp. Hellmayr Tyrannidae Hellmayr sp.

sp. Sclater & Salvin Tyrannidae & Sclater sp.

sp. Salvin & Godman Tyrannidae Salvin & Godman sp.

sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Darwin Tityridae sp.

sp. Boie Thraupidae Boie sp.

sp. Brisson Thraupidae Brisson sp.

sp. Penard Thraupidae Penard sp.

sp. Viellot Cardinalidae Viellot sp.

sp. Sundevall Tyrannidae Sundevall sp.

sp. Blyth Cardinalidae Blyth sp.

Tangara Tangara Bangsia Thraupis Ramphocelus Ramphocelus Piranga Habia Chlorothraupis arcaei Bangsia palmeri Tangara cayana Piaya minuta Coccycua naevia Tapera phasianellus Dromococcyx speciosa Patagioenas nigrirostris Patagioenas cayennensis Patagioenas spirurus Glyphorhynchus melancholicus Tyrannus granadensis Myiozetetes parvus Conopias similis Myiozetetes Myiobius Tolmomyias Myiopagis Contopus Elaenia Sublegatus

Tanager Manakin Cuckoo Pigeon Woodcreeper Kingbird Flycatcher Elaenia Pewee Elaenia Flycatcher

28/all 28/2 28/3 17/3 17/2 17/2 6/13 6/12 6/10 6/11 4/2 4/4 4/3 13/6 19/5 19/6 19/7 19/8 20/all

kuará purrú

}

- -

jarámia

pʌchĩra

chiboró chiboró paimá

{

- - -

tokó tokó tokó tríka umá wárra

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Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 57 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

1 1 1 1 1

C F C I D

Lichtenstein Dendrocolaptidae Lichtenstein

Lawrence Tyrannidae Lawrence

Linnaeus Thamnophilidae Linnaeus

Sclater Bucconidae Sclater

sp. Waldheim Onychorhynchidae Waldheim sp. Onychorhynchidae Waldheim sp.

sp. Cabanis & Heine Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine & Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Heine &

sp. Sclater & Salvin & Tyrannidae Sclater sp. Tyrannidae Hellmayr sp. Salvin & Tyrannidae Sclater sp.

sp. Sclater & Salvin Tyrannidae & Sclater sp.

sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae Tyrannidae Salvin & Godman sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Cabanis sp. Tyrannidae

sp. Darwin Tityridae sp.

sp. Sundevall Tyrannidae Sundevall sp.

Myiarchus Onychorhynchus Cnipodectes Mionectes Rhynchocyclus doliatus Thamnophilus Myiobius Tolmomyias Myiopagis Contopus Elaenia Sublegatus Myiarchus Onychorhynchus Cnipodectes Mionectes Rhynchocyclus panamensis Myiarchus frontalis Nonnula trochilirostris Campylorhamphus

Flatbill Antshrike Flycatcher Elaenia Pewee Elaenia Flycatcher Flatbill Jay Scythebill

14/12 20/all 20/13 11/2 13/17

wẽra

widó widó

- -

widó widó wíto yahehé (continued from (continued previous page)

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 58 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

Appendix 2: Emberá Bird Folklore Emberá associate the song with a bird, or any These data were collected either in the context of other natural being. elicitation sessions or upon sighting or hearing the cuervo (crow) NC bird in a natural context. The information gathered in The crow’s tail feathers were prescribed as elicitation session is indicated with an "EC" after the treatment in a curing ceremony I attended for a bird name and that gathered in natural contexts with little baby. The morning after the ceremony, a live an "NC." See Appendix 1 for the scientific identifica- crow was caught and its tail feathers were tion of Emberá bird names appearing in the text. removed, then swept up and down over the Note however, the text includes some Emberá child’s body. Participants explained to me that this examples that I was not able to translate into scientific caused the baby to sweat profusely after which taxonomic categories in the elicitation sessions. the sickness blew away. Where I have been able to identify these by other means, or know the common Spanish name, I list dogowíru NC them below. The dogowíru is called the “Devil’s chicken.” The data are organized alphabetically by Emberá Examples of relevant instructions follow below. name within three categories: A) birds used in magic, “If you catch it during Easter Week it brings B) birds used as symbols in folktales, C) birds whose good luck and money. You catch it on the night songs and calls contain messages for the Emberá. of Good Friday and take a walk on the beach. Again, I include them here in order to bring the Then you pull out the tail feathers. The Devil will connotative and metaphorical meanings associated come up to you and in a deep, gruff voice with names to the attention of the analyst. In general, demand, “Why have you killed my chicken? What compared to processes of denotative reference that do you want?” And, if your heart is strong, you are the basis of taxonomic naming, symbolic process- say, “I want money,” and the Devil will deliver it es involved in the folkloric use of bird names tend to to you.” rely more on behavioral and functional attributes of domiá and chorihú (2 kinds of sandpipers) the birds and less on morphological attributes. This Scolopacidae NC could reflect the operation of different kinds of “Dios dejo domiá muy puta (Sp. God left domiá like a semantic processes, or is perhaps principally due to whore [God upset domiá]),” says my informant, the fact that most of the folkloric data was collected bumping and grinding his behind side to side, in natural context. bending at first one knee then the other, mimick- ing the tail movements of this bird when it walks. Birds Used in Magic “So,” he says, “if your lover humiliates you by antumiá (Sp. madre de agua, mother of waters)1 taking other lovers, take the tail feathers of domiá NC EC and, when your lover is sleeping, put them Antumiá is a malevolent spirit being of the night between the big and the second toe and move it that Emberá conceptualize in various ways. It is up and down, in and out, chanting “Auduobaya most commonly associated with a clear, loud, jumaraba nonia” (Go with all). After that your lover whistling song composed of five long minor will be compelled to have sex with dogs, animals, tones rising in pitch. (According to book descrip- anything that walks.” tions, none of the birds identified in the elicita- makuá-pa and bidó-koróchia EC NC tion sessions have this song. Interestingly, there These birds are both used to do makuá, a magical was no consensus on any of the identifications.) practice that men and women do to attract The bird’s eerie song comes out from the woods, individuals for various purposes. Most commonly, is quite common and, in my experience, always individuals do makuá to attract another person of evokes a strong reaction from Emberá listeners. I the opposite sex. One can also do makuá to start have been told that antumiá is a small black bird up some business, like a store or canteen. It will that is a messenger of the shaman (jãĩmbaná). then call people away from competitors. To do it, When shamans fight they send this bird out to one makes a potion made of various ingredients, kill. During the daytime it lives in the river, at such as feathers of these birds. Another animal night it walks around on land. However, not all that can be used is a little arthropod (coropipí) that

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 59 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

lives on the riverine beaches and climbs into sand “Trrrrrrrrr-ke-ke-ke-ke,” just like people when holes backwards. There are also plants called they are working. Whenever men are working makuá that are usually scented sweetly. People hard with an ax or machete they cry out when the may even use bottled perfume. Once the potion work gets most intense. There is a variation of is made, it is put on while chanting some appro- this method in which the powdered beak of sorré priate words. If a man is after a woman, when she is put in the bellybutton of male newborns. walks by him while the magic is in effect, she cannot pass him by. This practice is not specific Birds Used as Symbols in Folktales2 to Emberá. Indeed, I saw a sign for makuá in the While traveling downriver one morning in the dry market of Panama City. season on our way to a regional political meeting, my companions could not pass up the numerous female sorré (woodpecker) EC NC opogá (Iguana iguana L. Iguanidae) basking in the sun up The woodpecker is essential to the magical on the branches of leafless Cecropia trees (eborró). After acquisition of good axmanship. What you need to they cut down the trees with machetes and tried to do first is get a hold of a large male sorré. This is grab the iguanas as they fell into the river, capturing the bird that can make a hole in a thick, hard tree one and missing two, they decided to send someone by repeatedly hitting the same spot, fast and back to the village to get a rifle. While we were waiting precisely with his beak. He will go and go. If the I was told all but two of the folktales that follow hole is not made at once he will keep going till he below. The ones about kumbarrá and sorré were told in is finished. The first time I heard about this was other contexts. in the course of observing the construction of a dugout canoe, a process in which there is no angosó (vulture) NC room for inexpert ax handlers. The trick, when Dzoshua, a village elder, points up to the angosó starting the job, is to hit hard along a certain angle flying high in the distance and says, “He’s always so the wood can be cut out in large blocks. To do looking for the dead.” the smooth finishing at the end, hit the sides with His daughter Zelda interrupts, “That brings fine precision. Great strength and several people luck. Ask the angosó for luck while hunting are required to sustain ax work for the long hours because he likes dead animals.” that stretch into weeks of canoe construction. Then Dzoshua tells this tale: “One day angosó So you get a sorré, grate its beak and mix it finds a cow lying there in the forest. He walks with jagua (the blue black dye from Genipa around it, examining it carefully. He walks up to americana L. Rubiaceae). Then paint it on your the head and looks in the eyes. Is it dead? He hands, quickly rubbing up and down first one wonders. The eyes are closed. Yes, well, it must then the other, while repeatedly chanting some- be dead. So he sticks his head in the cow’s anus. thing to the effect of, “Leave me strong like you.” Thinking the cow was dead, he sticks it in so far This magic is done when the moon is full, his beak comes out of the mouth end. But then, just rising on the horizon. It is done four times in the cow tightens up his anus and angosó can’t get a man’s life, at no specific age. out! It wasn’t dead after all. Finally angosó manages to pull his head out, but he was left bald. And “It can be done the first time as a boy,” my that’s why angosó has no feathers on top.” informant says as he points to his six and eight year old sons. “But it can’t be done more than ansabidá (kingfisher) NC four times because then you become too strong.” Getting impatient, Dzoshua walked over com- Too much strength is also no good. You can plaining how the iguanas (opogá) always deceive ruin a canoe like that. However, when a man uses man by getting away all the time. To make us all this magic correctly, he is stronger and better at feel better he reminded us about the tale in which wielding an ax. If you put him side by side with ansabidá deceives opogá: the man who has not done it, the one with magic Opogá asks ansabidá, “Could you warn me if wins any contest of strength. He can finish taking any people come downriver? I want to lie out out the innards of a log by noon. here in the sun and snooze on this tree for a When the sorré is making a hole his cry is, while.”

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 60 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

So opogá stayed sleeping on this tree. were stealing water from the epave tree [Anacardium [Dzoshua mimes the iguana lying on the side of excelsum Bertero & Balb. ex Kunth Anacardiaceae] the tree trunk on the side away from the river.] and God knew it. When all of a sudden he spotted people in a So God asks them, “Oh, by the way, where canoe coming downriver! Realizing ansabidá had did you get that water from?” lied to him, he watched, staying very still, peeking Knowing full well where they got it, they kept carefully around the edge of the trunk. their mouths shut. What could they say, after all? And then the cholo (Indian) in the canoe calls, Then God got mad and made the epave tree burst “Opogá! On the tree!” open. [Zelda interrupted her telling to gesticulate “Oh shit!” says opogá and falls into the water. animatedly, flinging her arms up into the air and And the Indian cries, “Get him! He’s full of stretching them in various directions.] Woosh, eggs!” woosh, woosh, the water burst all over, making Then lunging for the opogá, he catches him rivers and big lakes. Each branch (of the tree) and kills him. became a river. And so sorré and ochorró stayed with their axes on their heads.” Note that the inedible kingfishers, small and large, are some of the most common and noticeable I include one last folktale here, told to me by Dzoshua birds on the river. Their rapid flight diagonally in his house, to illustrate the use of bird imagery in the across the water can be seen at all seasons. Here discussion of contemporary problems. is another tale in which the oropendola, probably sokorró (tinamou) (Tetrao major Gmelin Tinamidae) NC Psarocolius decumanus Pallas Icteridae, which Dzoshua said, “Well you know how come we Ridgely (1976:306) mentions often nests in Indians never have any money? It’s like this: “We Cecropia trees, also tricks iguana. It was told to me cholos (Indians) grab the sokorró (our chicken) by while I watched Dzoshua constructing a canoe by the tail feathers and of course, what happens? The the river’s edge. feathers pull out and the bird gets away. And the kumbarrá (kingfisher) NC same with deer. We grab it by the tail and the tail And then there is kumbarrá, the black bird with a breaks off. And the cow and the horse too. But red patch that cries out loudly as he falls from the no, not the kampuniá (non-Indian). The kampuniá sky towards the water. Poor opogá took fright, for grabs it by the hoof and it can’t get away. Then he he thought kumbarrá was falling into the river. But puts it away to breed so he can keep it. Like kumbarrá only laughed. He was only playing. money. But the cholo? Thirty dollars, fifty dollars, one hundred dollars—eaten. [Dzoshua makes a Still waiting on the beach, Dzoshua’s hand to mouth movement.] But not the kampuniá: daughter Zelda continued telling me folktales. he’s got one hundred dollars and suddenly he’s The next one is as close to a creation story as I’ve got more.” heard from the Emberá. The heroes or, rather, anti-heroes, are woodpecker and the crowned Birds Whose Songs and Calls Contain Messages for the lizard (Basiliscus basiliscus L. Corytophanidae). Emberá (ochorró in Emberá). Sometime before this I had learned that, like the woodpecker, the crowned bidó jarámia EC lizard was an axman in ancient times when This bird’s name speaks for itself: “a being that animals were people. He was in the middle of an tells of white-lipped peccary” (Tayassu pecari Link ax swing when the world changed. The ax got Tayassuidae). In other words, the appearance of fixed to the top of his head and because it is quite this bird signals the proximity of one or more heavy, ochorró cannot run very far on water. white-lipped peccaries, which are an important Astonishing enough to a newcomer in the source of meat. tropical forest, Basiliscus does really run across dogowíru (kind of nightjar) possibly Nyctidromus small streams. albicollis Gould Caprimulgidae NC sorré (woodpecker) NC This crepuscular and nocturnal ground nester, Zelda said, “And there was sorré and ochorró. They whose name iconically mimics its song, advises when the new moon appears and when there is a

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 61 Data, Methods & Taxonomies

clear moon. They say it has a house of moonlight suenrú (Sp. corní) NC (jedeko debema). Through its oft repeated song this This is the little bird that tells time. It sounds at bird musically says, “Estoy jodido. No tengo sabana dawn, at 3:00 PM and again at 4:00 PM. The fact (I’m screwed. I have no sheet).” that suenrú sings at dawn and in the day is signifi- Known as the Devil’s chicken, the dogowíru is cant because it distinguishes this bird from the a magical counterpart of the Emberá’s chicken, similar night song of the fearsome antumiá. the edible tinamou known as sokorró. wáko (laughing falcon) Herpetotheres cachinnans During the elicitation sessions several people L. Falconidae EC noted that the dogowíru was not among the birds This bird calls out in Spanish, “Cafe con harina illustrated in the plates. Because the bird’s song is (coffee and flour [dough cakes]).” These foods are the most salient, culturally familiar aspect, this the preferred food for wakes and the bird’s call may mean that they do not recognize the bird’s signals that someone is about to die. This bird image among the nightjars, or alternatively, that was identified from a black and white drawing in the dogowíru is not a nightjar. the same book that I used for the photo elicita- tions. Ridgely (1976:77) describes the species as do-miá (kind of sandpiper) Scolopacidae NC having far-carrying calls, most often a loud, “Gua- This is a little seabird that often frequents the co, gua-co.” Note that if you pronounce this rivers of Darién. Since ancient times the old verbal rendition of the call it sounds almost people have known that, when they see this little identical as the Emberá name. bird walking along the riverbanks, the river will rise. wárra-jarámia EC This name literally means “being who tells of eteré umákira (rooster) Gallus gallus domesticus L. child.” The Emberá say that when a woman Phasianidae NC becomes pregnant this bird tells them. When two When an eteré umákira (literally, “chicken of the birds are seen walking together and the male male sex”) crows, they say he is trumpeting in follows the female, the baby will be a girl. If the Spanish, “Jesu Cristo nació (Jesus Christ was born).” female follows the male, the baby will be a boy. A white rooster also symbolizes the character of Jesus in folktales in Central and South America widó-widó EC more broadly. This bird advises you at the very beginning of pregnancy. Even if you deny being pregnant, this jue jué EC bird will tell. This bird’s song tells of the presence of collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu L. Tayassuidae). References Ridgely, R. 1976. A Guide to the Birds of Panama. kué-dzedzémia EC Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. This bird, who is considered to be a rain being, advises of coming rain. Notes kué-trʌmia EC 1Widespread folklore of Mother of Waters originated The name literally means “being that tells of in Africa. See for example Drewal 2008. rain.” The Emberá say that when a hard rain is 2Note that these tellings happened spontaneously in going to fall this bird is happy. It dances and sings situ and I had no tape recorder. These versions are “pi-pi.” composed on the basis of rough notes. Analysis of the Kué-trʌmia is listed in appendix as a chingé of following tales are available in the context of ethno- central importance. graphic description and analysis. See Kane serrémia EC (1994/2004:66-82) for woodpecker tales and canoe- This bird may also be referred to as wío wío, which building. See Kane 1994/2004:23-5 for iguana hunting means “Good day” in Emberá. This is the happy and vultures on the way to a political congress. For a sound it makes when it is going to rain. creation story see Kane 1994/2004:20.

Ethnobiology Letters. 2015. 6:32‐62. DOI: 10.14237/ebl.6.1.2015.226. 62