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‘THE LAST LIGHT OF INDIAN BUDDHISM’ - THE MONK ZHIKONG IN 14TH CENTURY CHINA AND KOREA by Ronald James Dziwenka ______________________ Copyright © Ronald James Dziwenka 2010 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF EAST ASIAN STUDIES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2010 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by Ronald James Dziwenka entitled ‘The Last Light of Indian Buddhism’ – The Monk Zhikong in 14th Century China and Korea and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy ________________________________________________Date: March 5, 2010 Jiang Wu ________________________________________________Date: March 5, 2010 Chia-lin Pao Tao ________________________________________________Date: March 5, 2010 Noel Pinnington ________________________________________________Date: March 5, 2010 Yetta Goodman ________________________________________________Date: March 5, 2010 Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and Recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. ________________________________________________Date: March 5, 2010 Dissertation Director: Jiang Wu 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. SIGNED: __________________________ Ronald James Dziwenka 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank so many people for their support during my studies, starting with my committee members. I greatly appreciate my advisor, Dr. Jiang Wu, for his inspiration, guidance and patience, and for introducing me to a subject of research that allows me to continue to follow my long-time interests. I am most grateful to Dr. Wu for his confidence and trust in me, and the freedom he allowed me to “find my own way.” Dr. Noel Pinnington has continuously demonstrated to me the value of encouragement and sincerity in caring for my development. He inspires me to be inquisitive and excited about my research. Dr. Chia-lin Pao Tao has always been there for me, to give me the impetus to be persistent in the pursuit of my academic interests and goals. Dr. Yetta Goodman has been such an ideal model of how to accept my responsibilities as an academic and teacher with honesty and integrity. I would also like to thank my colleague, Dr. Shaomei Wang, who helped me with my Chinese translations, and my long-time friend, Peter Lee, who supported my research with his expertise in Korean. I want to thank my family members. My parents, Nestor and Jean, continue to offer their unconditional love in everything I do. They have guided me to try to live up to their humanistic perspective, and taught me to trust and be myself. My brothers and sisters - Corrine, Darrell, Lonnie, Sandy, and Carla – are all models of inspiration for me in their own ways. They constantly demonstrate the support, cooperation, and togetherness in helping each of us pursue our directions in life. My Korean brother, Professor Young Sun Kim, provided my initial spark of interest in East Asia, and then nurtured that interest and my growth for so many years. Last but certainly not least, I could not have pursued and completed my degree without my wife Koomi leading me along the way, offering her encouragement, guidance, support and love. 5 DEDICATION I dedicate this endeavor to the late Dr. Jaeryong Shim (심재룡) 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS…………………………………………………………………..…...11 ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………..…...…..12 INTRODUCTION: RE-CREATING ZHIKONG AND HIS THOUGHT……………………..…..13 Zhikong and Previous Research on Buddhist Hagiography vs. Biography.………….….19 Situating Zhikong within East Asian History and Buddhism.………...…………...…..….28 Themes of this Study…………………………………...…………………………….……...…..36 Organization of This Dissertation………………………………………………………….....…40 CHAPTER 1: CONTEXTUALIZING ZHIKONG, KEY FIGURES IN HIS LIFE, AND THE PRIMARY SOURCES WITHIN INDIAN, YUAN AND GORYEO HISTORY..……….…….....45 Influential Figures in Zhikong’s Life and Legacy……………..........……………...………45 Yi Saek (Li Se)…...………………………………………………………………...…..…….47 Naong (Lanweng)…….……………………………………………………………...…….50 Minji (Minzi)…………………………………………………………………..……………..53 Others.………………………………………………………...……………………...............54 Relevant Primary Sources………………….…...……………………..………………...…...….57 Record of Chan Essentials by the Monk Zhikong (Chanyao lu)………………...……..60 Zhikong’s Travel Record (Xinglu)………...……………………………………………64 Zhikong’s Text of the Precepts of (Neither Arising Nor) Non-arising (Wushengjie Jing) and Its Association with Other Texts Concerning Zhikong………………….………….…...68 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....….73 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS -- Continued CHAPTER 2: ZHIKONG’S YOUTH & EDUCATION IN MAGADHA & NALANDA: WHAT DID HE STUDY?.....................……………………………….…………………….......…74 Zhikong’s Family Lineage and Formative Years…………………………………………...75 The Challenges in Establishing Zhikong’s Year of Birth and Lifespan………………...........…78 Historical Development of the Nālandā University-Temple Complex and its Education System………………………………………………………………………………...……...….88 The Contents of Zhikong’s Education at Nālandā….…………………..…….…..……......…95 Geographical Distribution of Ten Key Elements of Zhikong’s Thought, Teaching, and Practice…..………………………………………………………………………………......…..99 Primacy of the Precepts ………………………………………...………………...……...…100 Discourses and Assemblies…………………......……..……………………………………103 Confronting Heterodoxy…………………...………………...……….……………...….….104 “Chan Encounter Dialogue” or “Dharma Test”……………………………...……...…..…106 Miracles ………………………………………..……………………………………...……107 Meditation …………………………………………..………………….……………......…108 Utilizing “True Words”………………...………...………………………………...….....…109 Experiences of the Realization of Awakening …………………………........……......……109 Utilizing Buddhist Texts ……………………………...………..…………………......……110 Extended Stays………………………………………………………………………...……111 Zhikong’s Encounters Present Him in the Image of the Former Indian Esoteric Masters….....112 Who Says Zhikong Exhibited Chan Thought?............................................................................120 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...………131 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS -- Continued CHAPTER 3: ZHIKONG BRINGS NALANDA, SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM, AND INDIAN ESOTERICISM TO EAST ASIA…………………………………………………………......…..133 Zhikong’s Journey from Nālandā to Sri Lanka …………………..…………………...…….…135 Zhikong the Monk vs. Battuta the Diplomat – Contrasting Depictions of India and Sri Lanka ……………...…………………………………………………………….…...….…142 The Historical Relationship between Northeast Indian and Sri Lankan Buddhism Informs Zhikong’s Buddhism……………………………………………………...….………….....…..149 Sri Lankan Buddhism - Appealing to the Laity……………….………………………….……153 “Preaching (Bana)” Texts……………………………………...……………………...……154 “Protection (Paritta)” Texts and the Utility of Magic………...……......………...….....…..156 Combining Meditation and Mindfulness with Comportment……………………......…..…161 Zhikong’s Education and Enlightenment in Sri Lanka under Samantaprabhāsa……….……..…..163 Zhikong Begins his Calling to Go to the East and Spread the Dharma – Journeying Through the Indian Subcontinent to Yuan China……………………………………………...……………173 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..………….199 CHAPTER 4: ZHIKONG, ‘THE LAST LIGHT OF INDIAN BUDDHISM,’ JOURNEYS THROUGH EAST ASIA PROSELYTIZING BUDDHISM..........................................................201 From Tibet to Dadu (Beijing) to Shu……………………………………………………....…..203 The Historical Context of Magadha’s Ties with the Shu-Ba Region and Yunnan……....…208 Esoteric Buddhism in the Shi-Ba Region and Yunnan Prior to Zhikong ………....……….211 Zhikong Enters and Lives in the Yunnan Region …….…………………..……………......….215 Zhikong Helps Found and Construct Zhengxu Temple near Kunming.................................220 From Yunnan Back to Dadu …………...………………….…...…...…………………...…224 Two Years and Seven Months in Goryeo ………………………………….…..……..…...…..234 9 TABLE OF CONTENTS -- Continued Zhikong Establishes Support in the Yuan Capital …………………...……………….....…….243 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..…………….255 CHAPTER 5: ZHIKONG AND BUDDHISM IN THE YUAN – ADOPTION, ADAPTATION OR APPROPRIATION?..................................................................................................................257 Contextualizing the Challenges of the Chan Buddhist Sangha During the Yuan…...…………259 Renovation of the Chan School’s Monastic Codes System……………..…..……......…….266 Explicating the Key Concepts of Zhikong’s Thought………………………………........…….272 “Essence”…………………………………….…………………………………...……...…272 Revealing “Essence” Through “True Emptiness without Perceptual Characteristics”…………………….…………...…………………….……….........……….276 Zhikong’s
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