Archaeology, Forensics and the Death of a Child in Late Neolithic Sweden Anne Carlie1, Caroline Arcini1, Henrik Druid2 & Jan Risberg3

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Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden Anne Carlie1, Caroline Arcini1, Henrik Druid2 & Jan Risberg3

The discovery of a child’s skeleton in a Late Neolithic well in Sweden raises again the issue of watery rituals and human sacrifice in prehistoric societies. Analysis of diatoms from the right humerus and from the surrounding sediment indicated that the child died by drowning and had not simply been disposed of in the well after death. The scenarios of accidental drowning and murder are Stockholm examined to account for this discovery. The preferred hypothesis, based on a comparative study of similar finds from north-western N Europe, interprets this instead as a ritual 0km200 sacrifice. The use of diatom analysis to Lindängelund establish drowning as the cause of death adds a new weapon into the armoury of forensic archaeology. Keywords: Late Neolithic, diatom analysis, human sacrifice, prehistoric well, bog body, accidental drowning

Supplementary material is provided online at http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/carlie342

Introduction In 2010, an excavation by contract archaeologists in Malmo(Lind¨ angelund),¨ southern Sweden, uncovered a well in former wetland, containing the Late Neolithic skeleton of a small child. As there was no expectation of ﬁnding any graves, parts of the formerly complete skeleton were removed by mistake by the excavator. Signiﬁcant parts nevertheless remained in situ, enabling osteological documentation and interpretation of the child’s position. More than 30 wells were discovered on the site, 24 of which were excavated. They have been radiocarbon-dated to the period 3300 BC–AD 1200 (Figure 1). Many contained ritual

1 Swedish National Heritage Board, Archaeological Department, Odlarevagen¨ 5, Lund 226 60, Sweden (Email: [email protected]; [email protected]) 2 Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavagen¨ 1, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden (Email: [email protected]) 3 Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, Svante Arrhenius vag¨ 8, Stockholm 106 91, Sweden (Email: [email protected])

C Antiquity Publications Ltd. ANTIQUITY 88 (2014): 1148–1163 http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/088/ant0881148.htm 1148 ae rhsoi eid,adfid nwlsaeee ae vndrSne 96 2013; 1996, Sanden of der those (van with rarer compared even rare are also wells are environments in finds finds wet 2011). Bergerbrant Neolithic and European finds. periods, northern adult prehistoric from later than old) frequent years less (0–19 2001), are Pearson Parker individuals & Chamberlain sub-adult to 2001; Green sacrificed but Aldhouse it 2013; was 1996, Sanden or der death, (van accidental an die it Did well? the in powers? up higher end child the did why 2014: Lagergren & (Carlie interpretation this long implements, support a agricultural shares, over of 124). ard Finds use and rites. in sticks fertility was digging human with area as connection isolated the such in that contained site suggest also sacrificial remains wells a The as Some Age. period Iron well. Early the the trunks of to tree dating bottom and bones the objects wooden into various rammed with were together that pottery, and bones animal of deposits Lind the Hyll. Staffan of Plan 1. Figure id fhmnbde nwtevrnet r ouetdi ayprso h world the of parts many in documented are environments wet in bodies human of Finds and How fieldwork. the during questions provoked immediately find sensational The neudst hwn h el,tecidsseeo,adteLt elti am Illustration: farm. Neolithic Late the and skeleton, child’s the wells, the showing site angelund ¨ neCarlie Anne 1149 tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden

A range of interdisciplinary analyses were applied to the child from Lindangelund,¨ drawing on archaeology, osteology, forensic medicine, palaeoecology and 14C analysis, along with comparative evidence, in order to establish the circumstances surrounding the child’s death.

The well At surface level the well in which the child was found measured approximately 2.25×2.75m (north to south), with slightly sloping sides and a fairly bowl-shaped base. The depth was estimated at 1.4m. At the bottom, water seeped in, indicating that it had formerly functioned as a well. This was confirmed by the plentiful occurrence of aquatic algae, molluscs and water fleas, species that prefer stagnant water. The palaeoecological analysis indicates that aquatic plants such as water-crowfoot, water dropwort, bur-reed, floating pondweed, sedge and rushes also grew there (Larsson & Lageras˚ 2014). The skeleton was found roughly half-way down the well, near its southern edge (Figure 2). At this level the well measured approximately 2.0×1.5m (north to south). No traces of secondary digging could be seen in the sediment. Beside and to the north of the left femur was a large unworked stone about 200×150mm. At the same level but slightly further to the north was a stone of similar dimensions, but not as heavy. There was also some preserved wood, including a branch about 0.9m long, which partly overlaid the child’s right foot. Remains of branches were also found over the left femur. In the middle of the well were three tree trunks, which had been rammed into the subsoil. They had originally stood upright but over time fell outwards to the north (Figure 3, top). Beside the trunks were three complete digging sticks, 0.6m and 0.7m long. They showed traces of use but were not worn out (Melin & Linderson 2014) (Figure 3, bottom). Judging by their position, both the tree trunks and the digging sticks ended up in the well when it was still being used as a source of water. The skeleton was embedded in thick, water-lain sediments that indicate that the well was no longer used as a water supply at the time of interment. Dating of the skeleton shows that the child lived at the end of the Late Neolithic or during the transition to the Early Bronze Age (Ua-29561: 3544−+31 BP, 1980–1760 cal BC (2σ); all dates calibrated using OxCal v3 (Bronk Ramsey 2005)). A digging stick was also tested and is from roughly the same period (Ua-30034: 3463−+36 BP, 1890–1690 cal BC (2σ)). At some point the well was abandoned and became completely filled with sludge: over time the area became increasingly waterlogged and a layer of peat formed over the well.

The child Estimation of age at death was based on the length of the bones in the upper and lower arm and the width of the ilium. These measurements suggest that the child was aged between ﬁve and six years old (Maresh 1970; Arcini & Magnell 2014). During the excavation the skull and most of the spine and the ribs (i.e. the most elevated parts of the body) were removed by the excavator and were never found. Also missing from the skeleton are the left upper arm and shoulder blade, the right femur apart from the proximal epiphysis, the right tibia apart from the distal epiphysis, the whole left tibia and C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

1150 rxmleihssadtesaua ppyi eei ntmclycretpstos The positions. correct the with anatomically humerus in the were since epiphysis intact, scapular were the shoulder and the epiphysis in proximal ligaments the the while occurred in skeleton have the not of were parts they other but to locations, relation ﬁnger in relative a position 2). correct and (Figure anatomical bones the vertical two metacarpal in or the second horizontal lying were and correct were ﬁrst skeleton, the the bones with of These right along parts of bone. forearm the these north left of than the the bones deeper to from Immediately 200–250mm the bones preserved. but both also stone, and were heavier upper bone vertebrae, right the metacarpal thoracic The second b). two the & and ribs, 4a forearm (Figure some whole position the blade, anatomical and shoulder correct tibia, right the arm, the in of resting epiphysis were distal foot the right epiphyses, the side with right femur left the complete on blade shoulder the excavator. of the position the from inverted of, damage movement the further and and to, suggest 4a) fractures Figure Secondary hands. (see both femur from left bones the of parts Hyll. and Staffan foot, Illustration: indicated. stones and branches, skeleton, the of location the with well, The 2. Figure h ih pe r n hudrbaewr on nfoto h oy hsmust This body. the of front in found were blade shoulder and arm upper right The the femur, right the of epiphysis proximal the sacrum, the of parts with pelvis The neCarlie Anne 1151 tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden

Figure 3. Top: digging sticks (a) and logs (b) in situ in the well. Photograph: Anne Carlie. Bottom: digging sticks from the well. Photograph: Staffan Hyll. anatomical position of certain bones, however, suggests that some parts of the body came loose from each other and moved while there was still open water in the abandoned well. The right foot was too far away in relation to the other bones of the body, and the distance to the left forearm, both vertically and horizontally, was too great. Furthermore, the bones show no secondary traces of gnawing marks. Altogether, the skeleton is well preserved, despite the secondary damage and possible water movement: thus the small epiphyseal plates on several of the metatarsals and toe bones were intact (Figure 5a & b). The ﬁndings indicate that the child ended up in the well C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

1152 iue4 o)rmiso h skeleton the of remains Top) 4. Figure and blade shoulder right the of water-rich the position into The sank front. child in the crossed pelvis, legs the its of with position sitting the sediment by Judging body. complete a as hl’ foot child’s eetknfo eieti h el(iue6 e looln upeetr material). diatoms, supplementary of online species also two see contained space 6; and marrow (Figure samples the well reference that and the shows bone, in the Analysis of sediment surface from outer the taken and were cavity marrow the both from taken named h hl’ ih ueu a eetdfrti nlsssnei a nat ape were Samples intact. was it since analysis this for selected was humerus right child’s The Pinnularia uaoer crenulata Aulacoseira nsitu in htgah:An Carlie. Anne Photographs: . spp . hl h apetknfo h usd ftebn otie species a contained bone the of outside the from taken sample the while , h eeec aeilfo h eietaon h skeleton the around sediment the from material reference The . nsitu in otm the bottom) ; neCarlie Anne 1153 r aeypeetisd h oyi non- (Bortolotti in cases body the drowning inside present rarely Diatoms (see are material). marrow supplementary bone online the including circulatory system, greater the the by of transported network be capillary and blood the enter and then water—can burst the in walls present alveolar diatoms—if the water with lungs ﬁll the are As asphyxiation. by water death lungs, causing and tract of respiratory the into amounts inhaled the large During bones. including drowning, whole tissues, inside marrow body of bone presence in the demonstrate diatoms to seeks diatom test The the examination. microscopic on for visible then digest were conducted Diatoms to material. K organic was proteinase using marrow test bone diatom a drowned had child the whether ascertain To test diatom The 2014). Magnell & (Arcini water by covered well was the but within exposed lie not did body the that suggests marks, gnawing of absence the of with state combined good skeleton, the The of preservation east. bent the to the head was with and feet east–west body orientated upper and double the ribs, that and vertebrae of suggests thoracic location the surviving with the together arm, upper Lunetta ea ae,adnti archaeological in not and material. modern cases, in used legal been only previously has tal. et tal et 03.Ti oescmethod forensic This 2013). . C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity ptei adnata Epithemia tal et 2011; .

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden

contained various freshwater diatom species such as Aulacoseira crenulata, Amphora libyca and Pinnularia spp.:thesewerethe predominant species in the well (Figure 7a & b; see also online supplementary material). The results support the assumption that the child died through drowning and that, given the similarities between the bone diatoms and the sediment diatoms, the child died in the former well. It is not possible to say whether the child was conscious at the time of death, as an unconscious person will show identical signs of drowning.

Context Palaeoecological analysis shows that the immediate surroundings of the well were relatively thickly forested, but with grassy open areas that may have been used Figure 5. a) Preserved parts of the child’s skeleton in for grazing. The presence of nitrophilous anatomical position; b) the foot. Photograph: Staffan species such as stinging nettle, goosefoot Hyll. and chickweed reflects human byproducts, for example household debris and manure, either at the well or at an adjacent settlement site. There are no definite signs of cultivation, but there may have been small cultivated areas nearby (Larsson & Lageras˚ 2014). Excavation revealed several well-defined settlement sites from the Middle Neolithic, Iron Age and medieval periods in the area around the wetland. Despite this, the remains of only a single Late Neolithic farm have been found, which could have been occupied at the time when the child lived. The farm consisted of a long-house about 18m in length, and was located about 50m from the well (see Figure 1) (Carlie & Lagergren 2014: 112, fig. 65).

Human remains in watery places There are many reasons why human remains end up in wet environments. One early explanation was that these were individuals who were punished by being drowned in bogs in remote places. Support for this theory was derived from Tacitus, who wrote that “the shirker and the unnaturally vicious are drowned in miry swamps under a cover of wattle hurdles” (Germania 12; Mattingly 1948; van der Sanden 1996: 166–68). Others found inspiration in old folk traditions which told how criminals or those who had been murdered could not be buried in ordinary cemeteries because of the risk that their ghosts would return. They were therefore deposited in bogs, bound or impaled with C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

1154 iue6 apigbn arwfo h ueu.Poorp:Hni Druid. Henrik Photograph: humerus. the from marrow bone Sampling 6. Figure iue7 itm rmtemro pc ntehmrs htgah a Risberg. Jan Photograph: humerus. the in space marrow the from Diatoms 7. Figure neCarlie Anne 1155 tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden a stake to keep them in place. Other individuals may have been put to death for breaking the laws of their societies (some were found with a rope or cord around the neck) (Bennike 1999: 29). It was nonetheless felt inconceivable that children could have been punished by execution, and so other explanations were sought, such as that they had been murdered or had suffered some fatal accident (van der Sanden 1996: 166–67). Some also found support in Tacitus for yet another theory, that the bog bodies could have been sacrificed to the gods (Germania 39; Mattingly 1948). This theory fitted well with both ancient sources and archaeological evidence such as animal bones and pottery, which demonstrated that wet environments, such as bogs, lakes, springs and rivers, were regarded as holy places in ancient times (van der Sanden 1996: 170). As for Neolithic finds, human sacrifices may have been connected with fertility ceremonies, a possibility suggested by the unusually high number of teenagers, both male and female, that have been found (Bennike 1999: 29). Finds of human remains from watery places also include scattered bones from single and/or multiple individuals, dating from the Neolithic period to the Viking Age (Stjernquist 1997; Berggren 2007; Monikander 2010). In addition to human remains, these sites are usually characterised by organic materials, such as animal bones and wooden objects, and non-organic finds such as stone or metal axes, grinding or hammer stones and flint-scrapers. The variety of the material assemblage, combined with the watery contexts, have led to these sites frequently being interpreted as sacrificial places for religious ceremonies. Late Neolithic deposits from these contexts are as well represented as those from other time periods (Karsten 1994: 126).

Comparisons Since the first discoveries of human remains in the wetlands of northern and north-western Europe just over 200 years ago, the number of finds has increased steadily, although the exact number remains uncertain as many early finds were destroyed with little mention (see discussion in van der Sanden 2013: 404). As more and more finds have been radiocarbon- dated, the chronological spread of the phenomenon has become more nuanced. From Denmark alone, details are available of at least 150 individuals from the Neolithic (Koch 1999: 128) and 560 individuals from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (Ravn 2010: 113). No studies have been done concerning how many of these were children. In formal burials, sub-adults are often under-represented in relation to adults in all periods. That seems also to be the case with human remains from wet environments (for example, see van der Sanden 1996: 82, appendix 1). A comparative study of sub-adult individuals from other sites may offer insight into possible scenarios surrounding the fate of the child from Lindangelund,¨ in particular as to why the child ended up in an abandoned well. This study is based on dated and published finds of complete bodies: it comprises 35 individuals from 21 sites in Denmark, Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Ireland and Britain (Table 1). We have chosen to focus on well-preserved and dated finds from watery contexts, therefore several cases have been excluded from the comparative study; for example, the finds from Methwold in Great Britain, dated to the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (van der Sanden 1996: 82). In view of C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

1156 as fdah(iue8,o hc ogl afaebgbde:cide ae –5 occur 0–15) (aged children bodies: non-ritual bog a are of half victims roughly as which assessed of been 8), have (Figure cent) death per of (31 cause these victims of Eleven of 2). (Table category groups the in belong might they 1). that Table (see indicating ‘victim?’, labelled category gods the to offerings know distinguished 113). powerful that them 2001: we principle Green making however, vital (Aldhouse things, sources, the non-living as Classical from breath From animals) the has (and death. regarded humans it world of skeletons, ancient cause are the in the category people this assess that in to finds possible all Since been site. not sacrificial Finally, a suggests them. pottery. stones over or grinding laid bones animal been as have such may finds, had votive branches blindfolded, no and/or been be body, hair, should shaved the there have through undressed, driven for partly treatment; a stake or from humiliating a blow wholly to a be subjected or may been noose have a they as may example, such individual violence the lethal addition, of In traces be weapon. should to There water. criteria open or developed bog victims. have sacred van and we non-ritual Wijnand (2001), into of Green here studied works Aldhouse remains the Miranda the by categorise and mainly (1996) Inspired Sanden terms, statistics. general der more historical in establish Swedish discussed to therefore by of is method model supported no category This is occurred. there The drowning as that powers). substantiate, reason the to higher have difficult to very may proved (sacrifices drowning individuals accidental victims victims non-ritual) sub-adult sacred or (secular why and profane drowning, examine (murder/punishment), accidental to environments: wet tested in up were ended models explanatory Three death of causes Comparative Primeau seven Charlotte and of 40–41; four ring-fort 1948: between Viking Nørlund aged 243–44; the children 1948: from small (Degerbøl are two years examples contained two wells only the The finds Denmark: while rare. Trelleborg, wetlands, extremely and are lakes wells former from former retrieved in were study the in sub-adults all Almost locations Comparative opeeseeosaefo h elti,cifl h al elti.Nn fteecases these of of Lind None examples the Neolithic. Other with Early Age. contemporary the Iron be chiefly to Early Neolithic, appeared Viking the the the from from and majority are Age Bronze skeletons the Late complete with the 1050), between period BC–AD the (1000 from Age are cent), per (77 27 social quarters, different with societies with the comparison interpreting of through problems society broaden the one organisation. to of in chose aware actions we well of contexts, are meaning watery we from However, children chronologically. of study finds the Neolithic of numbers low the h 5sbaut ae –9 nlddi h td aebe iie nofieage five into divided been have study the in included separate 0–19) (aged a sub-adults in 35 criteria The diagnostic any lack that individuals the placed have we Finally, and pottery bones, animal as such assemblage material the model, victim sacred the In a in dumped or ‘buried’ been have would individual the model, victim non-ritual the In h oprtv aeilcnit f1 o oisad2 kltn.Mr hnthree than More skeletons. 25 and bodies bog 10 of consists material comparative The neCarlie Anne 1157 neudcid(al 2). (Table child angelund ¨ tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity es comm pers. .).

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden . . et al et 243-44 243-44 243-44 243-44 pers. comm brant 2011:178 brant 986 961: 106 n.d. 1984: 64, 242 1984: 64, 242 1984: 64, 242 1984: 64, 242 1984: 64, 242 9 bbesen 1986 999: 31 et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et 968: 228 2010: 88 968: 228; Monikander 003: 132 003: 133 003: 134 Bennike 1985: 221 Bennike 1999: 29 & Ebbesen 1986: 93; Bennike Bennike 1999: 29 & Ebbesen 1986: 93; Bennike Bennike n.d.; Jankavs Kommun Falköpings van der Sanden 1996: 96, 189 van 1961: 106; Sellevold Jørgensen Balslev 1984: 248 lying next to an adult man, boths individuals are an adult man, boths individuals are to lying next handicapped pegged into the bog, dressed in a skin cape & in a skin cape the bog, dressed pegged into woollen skirt lying on her with an adult woman together stomach partly covered with clothing lying on her back with an adult woman together on her hip and a stone 35 1980: Fischer der Sanden 1996: 95, 128, 193 van wing, a skin a swan head, a blindfold, shaved cape on the branches with two placed on stomach back, wooden enclosure? with covered wounds, head, noose, stab shaved woollen cloak der Sanden 1996: 100, 190 van der Sanden 1996: 97, 123, 131, 164, 193 van der Sanden 1996: 138, 161, 191 van stab wounds, arms and legs ghtly bound with arms and legs ghtly wounds, stab garments n.d. der Sanden 1996: 113, 135, 192; Hirst van Själland 1935-40 DK ? 1-10 skeleton X VIK A well sacrificial well 1948: Degerbøl 41; 1948: Nørlund Table 1. Comparative sub-adult individuals from wet environments used in this study. Bolkilde mose moseDøjringe Als Själland 1946 ? DK DK M 16-19 ? skeleton X 16-19 skeleton X EN EN wetland an adult man with noose to lying next wetland 1 Bennike Sigersdal mose, Sk. ASigersdal mose, Sk. BSigersdal Själland Själland 1949 1949 DK DK F F 16-19 16-19 skeleton X skeleton X EN: 4650+/-140 BP 3700-2900 BC EN: 4680+/-75 BP 3650-3100 BC lake? with 2:2, below noose together lake? with 2:1, above together E & Bennike 1 Ebbesen & Bennike SiteTammosegård Själland Locaon 1943 DK Year ? Country Sex grp Age Body 1-10 NR skeleton SV V? Date X BC EN: 4920+/-95 BP 3960-3520 cal wetland? Milieu Comments Kulturstyrelsen Reference TysmosenTysmosen Rogestorpamosse Själland Västergötland Själland 1943 1943 S DK 1943 F ? DK 16-19 1-10 ? skeleton skeleton X 1-10 skeleton X+/-65 BP 3300-2870 BC4360 EN/MN: EN? lake X EN? ed lake? lake? Hundstrup, Sk. 4Hundstrup, Själland A47Trelleborgen, A121Trelleborgen, A121 Trelleborgen, 1947 Själland vicm, V?=Vicm? NR=Non-ritual vicm, SV=Sacred DK Själland ? 11-15 1935-40 DK 1935-40 skeleton DK ? X ? 1-10 1-10 L IA: 1310+/-60 BP; AD 630-880 (Sk. 1) wetland skeleton sacrificial site skeleton X X VIK A VIK A Sellevold well well sacrificial well sacrificial well 1948: Degerbøl 41; 1948: Nørlund 1948: Degerbøl 41; 1948: Nørlund Oberdorla, Individ 12-1Oberdorla, Individ 16-1Oberdorla, Thüringen Individ 17-1Oberdorla, Thüringen Sk. 3Hundstrup, Thüringen 1957-67 D Sk. 5Hundstrup, 1957-67 D Sk. 6Hundstrup, 1957-67 Själland D F Sk. 7Hundstrup, A47 ?Trelleborgen, 16-19 Själland ? 1-10 skeleton Själland 16-19 skeleton Själland 1947 X skeleton Själland DK X E IA 1947 X ? 1947 DK E IA 11-15 E IA 1947 DK 1935-40 DK ? skeleton DK ? 0 ? X ? 0 1-10 0 skeleton L IA: 1310+/-60 BP; AD 630-880 (Sk. 1) wetland skeleton sacrificial site skeleton X skeleton X X L IA: 1310+/-60 BP; AD 630-880 (Sk. 1) wetland X VIK A sacrificial site L IA: 1310+/-60 BP; AD 630-880 (Sk. 1) wetland lake sacrificial site L IA: 1310+/-60 BP; AD 630-880 (Sk. 1) wetland lake sacrificial site sacrificial site lake sacrificial site sacrificial site Sellevold well Sellevold Sellevold sacrificial well Sellevold 2 Ullrich 2 Ullrich 2 Ullrich 1948: Degerbøl 41; 1948: Nørlund Damendorf 1947:39Borremosse, Derrymaquirk Jylland Schlesvig-Holstein 1934 D Roscommon 1947 F DK 11-15 1959 ? body IRL 0 X ? Sk. IWindeby, body 1-10Thorup 2700+/-45 BP 940-790 BC L BA: skeleton XPrestatyn Niedersachsen wetland Yde X IA: 2380+/-100 BP 800-200 BC L BA-E IA: 2340+/-70 BP 800-200 BC L BA-E wetland Dröbnitz 1952 wetland Møgelmosen D Jylland Wales F 11-15 body Jylland 1887 Drweck Drenthe DK X 1984 GB ? 1-10 1857 E IA: 2150+/-70 BP 390-30 BC ? 1939 1897 DK body 1-10 PL NL body F? F wetland F 11-15 11-15 X 16-19 body X body body E IA: 2145+/- 30 BP 360-50 BC E IA: 1980+/-60 BP 170 BC- AD 140 X X wetland wetland E IA: 1790+/-95 BP AD- AD 550 X in clothes wrapped E IA E IA: 1980+/-80 BP 180 BC- AD230 wetland skin garment posion; a complete standing wetland 200 Ebbesen 179 2011: Bergerbrant wetland comb & with a wooden in a skin cape wrapped 193 96, 89, 1996: Sanden der van Skedemosse, individ 3-4Skedemosse, Individual 11Skedemosse, Öland ÖlandRöst 1959-64 1959-64 S S ? ? 16-19 Schlesvig-Holstein 0 1926 skeleton D skeleton X F X IA 1-10 E IA: 2130+/-30 BP 350-50 BC body lake X sacrificial site E IA: 2130+/-35 BP 360-340 BC wetland cloth in woollen wrapped lake sacrificial siteBerger 1996:82; Sanden der van 1 Gejvall 1 Gejvall Kayhausen Kayhausen Sk. IValmosen, Sk. IIIValmosen, Niedersachsen Själland Själland 1922 D 1941-44 DK M 1941-44 DK 1-10 F ? body 16-19 11-15 skeleton X skeleton X X E IA: 2160+/- 50 BP 400-300 BC E IA: 380 BC E IA wetland wetland sacrificial site wetland sacrificial site1 Jørgensen Balslev

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1158 iue8 ecnae fsbautidvdasi the in individuals Hyll. Staffan ‘victims?’ sub-adult Illustration: and victims’ ‘sacred of victims’, ‘non-ritual categories Percentages 8. Figure aafo itrcladmdr ie a sdised wds ttsisfo h early the from statistics Swedish instead. used times, was prehistoric to times in modern information drowning and no accidental historical of yielded prevalence from have the data study about question archaeological the comparative answer our help of results the Since accident? an it Was Lind the of death Discussion—the oeigcno epoe,bti rvdsapsil xlnto o h nsa position. unusual the for explanation possible a a sphagnum within provides of enclosed it was absence but body proved, child’s the No be the by cannot covering. that not covering (indicated hypothesis would of The leather environment 198–99). kind but alkaline 2012: well, (Menotti some the former moss) in the in in preserved wrapping found been were to covering have due such any was of position remains organic child’s the that Arcini possibility (see detail any in discussed Europe. been north-western not in has graves however, 2009). in almost means, discovered position an been burial in have this is found forward What positions been individuals leaning different However, varied. and have in similarly up are found to graves doubled are in said bodies bodies interments; is side that wetland or to who fact unique stomach not individual The back, 2009). one their (Ebbesen also on position lying is standing found There been 1). instead Table have (see individuals the all found; be oa 035 10 100 7 28 8 20 5 23 5 14 14 percentage as Total Total 1050) BC–AD (500 IA 400–1050) (AD LIA 400) BC–AD (800 LBA–EIA BC) (2000–1800 LN BC) (3900–3500 EN/MN study. comparative the in individuals sub-adult of distribution Age 2. Table 10 20 30 40 50 0 eea niiul ntesuywr rpe ncoho kn Tbe1,riigthe raising 1), (Table skins or cloth in wrapped were study the in individuals Several % er – er –0yas1–5yas1–9yasSum years 16–19 years 11–15 years 6–10 years 1–5 years 0 00011 09 0 417 2 0 00 00 5 1 58 33 0 4 22 0 0 00 3 00 (n=35) neCarlie Anne 1159 neudchild angelund ¨ oiino h Lind doubled-up the the of for position parallels wetland No death in position body Comparative 9c). (Figure years 1–10 dominated aged is individuals by rest category the This whilst skeletons. bodies, are bog are half ‘victim?’ group: the to (23 assigned been eight have Finally, cent) per 9b). (Figure skeletons groups age ﬁve are the among be those distributed evenly to of are which judged all were victims: cent) sacred per (46 9a). (Figure Sixteen category this in frequently less tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity neudcidcould child angelund ¨

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden

twentieth century show that accidental No (n=11) drownings were much more common 7 6 among sub-adults aged 5–20 than among 5 small children (1–4 years) (SCB 1915). 4 3 Lakes and rivers have always been 2 attractive places for children to play, and 1 0 accidents often occurred (Myndigheten for¨ a 0 year 1-10 years 11-15 years 16-19 years Samhallsskydd¨ och Beredskap 2010). This

No (n=16) suggests that the Lindangelund¨ child, by 7 virtue of its age (5–6 years), belonged to 6 the group that is at greater risk from death 5 4 by drowning. 3 Certain factors can identify accidental 2 1 death. In particular, modern forensic 0 investigations of accidental drownings b 0 year 1-10 years 11-15 years 16-19 years show that the individual is often found

No (n=8) floating face down. This is because gas 7 is formed when the internal organs 6 5 decompose, although the speed at which 4 this occurs depends on the water 3 ◦ 2 temperature: if it is below 4 Cthe 1 decomposition slows or can even stop 0 c 0 year 1-10 years 11-15 years 16-19 years (Gregersen 1980: 54). The Lindangelund¨ child, however, was Figure 9. Age distribution of sub-adult individuals in the not lying in a typical drowned position. categories: a) ‘non-ritual victims’, b) ‘sacred victims’; and c) × ‘victims?’. Illustrations: Staffan Hyll. The small size of the well (2.0 1.5m) and the presumably lush vegetation in it suggest that the area of the open water surface was small, which may have limited the possibility for the body to float around. In the case of an accident one would expect the person to try to support themselves and climb out of the well, perhaps by kicking their legs. However, that is not indicated by the position of the child’s legs, crossed and outstretched in front of the body. Of course, we do not know how such a small child would have reacted after sinking under the surface of the water. Perhaps the child was in a state of shock and just collapsed and remained in a seated position. Nonetheless, the most reasonable explanation for the final position is that the child was deliberately lowered into the former well. Thus, there is nothing to support the theory of accidental death.

Was the child a murder victim or a sacred victim? If the child did not die an accidental death, he or she must have been killed, either as a victim of murder or as a sacriﬁce to the gods. Swedish historical statistics show that the child from Lindangelund¨ belongs to an age group in which murder victims are rare (SCB 1915). Our comparative sub-adult study gives a similar picture (see Figure 9b). When it comes C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

1160 edtrie,snecuilpee feiec r isn.Nnteestedao analysis diatom the Nonetheless missing. are evidence of pieces crucial since greater determined, be at the group of a particularly were likely. and children victims. most sacred site, small the becoming seems that the of victim indicates of risk sacrificial study use of hypothesis comparative votive the the lengthy found, Furthermore, was the child Given the victim. which in sacred well a was it if the to victims. in belong murder not encountered potential do of also the children group were by small at-risk finds used that an show been Similar however, have act. statistics, may Historical the study. and conceal comparative skeleton, and/or the near conduct stones found to murder, were possible perpetrator branches a with of Consistent remains killed. the likely and most was victim. it sacred suggests or position victim, skeletal murder accident, well: former the the within for account child to the scenarios of possible death three evaluate to analyses comparative interdisciplinary aigdmntae htteLind the that demonstrated Having Conclusion famine offering serious drastic a as the such for community, disease. the reason life-threatening in the of crisis beaten then outbreak of powers, been an kind some higher or have in to first sought sacrifice water. be may a life-giving perhaps in child should was placed really was the body child model the handed the before this covering be If a In could in wrapped drowning. life-spirit then child’s through and unconscious the gods that the ensured to which over implement sacred the it. weapon, acknowledged. entered be child must the importance communities before ritual local site of the probability sacred the to a action, site as non-ritual suggests the later use of This a prior out 2014). a rule Lagergren had not does & area, this (Carlie wider The Although the well sticks. moment and abandoned the digging well, the preceded deposited the in but that and up time, ended trunks in child together tree close the rammed were when of acts these form probable that contained the also indicates found in stratigraphy was acts child the ritual which in of well The traces time. long very a the for e.g. site 1, ritual Table (see victims). partially body non-ritual was the as skeleton hide interpreted the to finds down study, used Kayhausen weigh comparative been and to have Borremosse our well may Rogestorpamossen, in that the bodies branches into the several thrown of by covering, been covered a some have in with may wrapped As skeleton was body. child the unconscious the the to If rendered close well. was found abandoned child stones the the coveredthe in that hidden quickly is or probably dumped explanation was then non-ritual body and possible the A marks, water. gnawing the no by are there as Lind Furthermore, the well. of representation higher a is there hand, group. other age child’s the on victims, sacred to hc fteei h otpoal xlnto—o-iulo ardvictim—cannot sacred or explanation—non-ritual probable most the is these of Which child the stunned or drowning, the accelerated have may however, stone, heavier The the death: accidental an died child the that suggest to evidence any found not have We ftecidwsasce itm h eve tn ol nta aebe h ritual the been have instead could stone heavier the victim, sacred a was child the If votive a as re-used and used was located were wells the where depression the However, former the entered it when alive was child the that shows above described analysis The neudcidde hog rwig ehv used have we drowning, through died child angelund ¨ neCarlie Anne 1161 tal. et C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity angelund ¨

Research Archaeology, forensics and the death of a child in Late Neolithic Sweden has contributed important information to the discussion and interpretation of the find. The method has previously only been used in modern legal cases, however, and we hope that other researchers will find it interesting to test on similar finds, both new and old, where it is suspected that an individual may have died through drowning.

Acknowledgements Thank you to Staffan Hyll for photographs and illustrations, and Alan Crozier for the translation into English.

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