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Teach the Conspiracies

Renee Hobbs [email protected]

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t was a fine spring day in May when Rising on the Horizon: search engines, and controversies I I entered the Max Beckmann Conspiracy Theories about medicine and health. In times School in Frankfurt, Germany, to of anxiety and insecurity, conspiracy talk with teens about conspiracy It’s indisputable: disinformation, theories can be reassuring because theories as part of a U.S. State hoaxes, , and hyper- there is a clear identification of evil Department public affairs program. partisanship are increasingly global through simplifying the world into “Which ones were they familiar with?” phenomena. Educators, librarians, villains and victims. I wondered. policymakers, and community leaders are wondering about the Conspiracy theories are “sticky.” Due “Well, there’s the and the implications of the changing to human information-processing chemtrails, just off the top of the information landscape. Anyone norms, people who believe in a hat,” the high school student smiled can publish and promote anything, conspiracy may receive social rein- shyly when asked about his familiar- and increasing political polariza- forcement from other like-minded ity with conspiracy theories. Another tion is being combined with feelings individuals through online echo student chimed in, “Then there’s the of powerlessness, disillusionment, chambers (Sunstein 2014). People question of who killed JFK—some apathy, and indifference to truth in a who believe one people say it was the government. way that may compromise the future are more likely to believe others. And some people think that Jesus and of our democracy. Sadly, once a conspiracy theory is Mary Magdalene were lovers and had believed to be true, it can be difficult a child!” With the rise of so-called “fake to displace. Researchers who have news” comes renewed visibility for studied medical conspiracy theories Within minutes, these German high conspiracy theories, defined as find that 37 percent of Americans school students could recognize more beliefs rooted in us-versus-them agreed that the Food and Drug than a dozen conspiracy theories thinking. Conspiracy theories Administration is intentionally that they were at least a little bit may be seen as a special type of suppressing natural cures for cancer familiar with, including the possibly disinformation, defined as false because of pressure from drug faked moon landings and evidence information that is intended to companies. People who believe in of aliens in Roswell, New Mexico. mislead. Conspiracy theories embody medical conspiracies are less willing One girl talked about “birtherism,” the idea that a group of people make to follow traditional medical advice, explaining that secret agreements and take actions such as using sunscreens or vaccines, had espoused a theory that former to accomplish malevolent goals (van and are more likely to use alternative President was not a Prooijen 2017). As Michael Barkun treatments like supplements (Oliver U.S. citizen. Another wondered, “Is (2003) has expressed, conspiracy and Wood 2014). the idea that vaccines cause autism theories fundamentally proclaim: a conspiracy theory?” and one girl nothing happens by accident, Research is beginning to shed light noted, “Some people even think nothing is as it seems, and everything on the power of conspiracy theories. global warming is a hoax.” is connected. One finding shows that even a single exposure to a conspiracy theory can At this high-profile school with high- All over the world, the range of have effects on people’s attitudes performing students who were fluent conspiracy theories and their and anticipated behaviors; exposure speakers of English, some boys were visibility are increasing, say experts, causes people to have increased clearly attracted to the entertainment in part because of the rise feelings of powerlessness and disil- value of conspiracy theories, while of digital and social media. lusionment. In one experimental other students thought the theories research study, subjects who were were all rather silly. But they were “Conspiracy narratives are more shown a conspiracy theory video riveted by the discussion, exhibiting common in public discourse than claiming that climate change was a high levels of attention toward a topic they were previously,’’ said Eric hoax were significantly less likely to that clearly captured their interest. Oliver of the University of Chicago think there is widespread scientific Before this session, none of the (Suhrie 2014, 1). It seems that even agreement on human-caused climate students ever had the opportunity to the use of the term has broadened in change. They were less likely to say talk about conspiracy theories in a recent decades. Today many forms they would sign a petition to help school classroom. “It’s not something of generalized mistrust of authority reduce global warming, less likely to we generally talk about in school,” have come to be labeled as conspiracy give money to a political candidate, one explained. theories, including concerns about and less likely to use energy efficiency digital privacy, algorithms used by as a selection criterion when buying

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All over the world, the range of conspiracy theories and their visibility are increasing, say experts, in part because of the rise of digital and social media. a light bulb or household appliance Approaches to Teaching Morrell, a professor at Teachers (Jolley and Douglas 2013). Conspiracy Theories College Columbia University, has argued that teachers and librarians Not surprisingly, liberals and High school librarians and teachers can reinforce certain values within conservatives are equally susceptible have long recognized that the topic their libraries and classrooms, but to conspiracy theories. Fortunately, of conspiracy theories is like catnip at home students will be surrounded education seems to be a mitigating to adolescent readers, with television by media images and text presenting factor. Educational background shows like Decoded and books like an often very different set of values. is associated with lowered belief The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories Learners need to practice how to be in conspiracy theories, with 42 (Rough Guides 2013) attracting the critical of popular culture (Morrell percent of people without a high interests of teen boys and girls. 2004). Where else will students get school diploma believing multiple the chance to do this if not in school? conspiracy theories as compared Can conspiracy theories be explored For these reasons, some teachers with 23 percent of those with safely in schools without potential and school librarians are capital- postgraduate degrees (Uscinski and risk or harm? It’s possible that izing on teen interest in conspiracy Parent 2014). talking about conspiracy theories theories to explore ideas about the in schools merely validates them in constructed nature of authority and Given how contagious conspiracy the eyes of some students. Because the importance of being a skeptical theories are, it would seem natural of time limitations it’s possible that reader and thinker. for school librarians and other more complex issues and informa- educators to keep these potentially tion about these topics will get short For example, at Arthur L. Johnson dangerous ideas far away from the shrift. Some teachers and librarians High School in Clark, New Jersey, minds of impressionable adoles- insist that “quality first” dictates Dave Fosco and Rebecca Russo cents and young adults. But on the that conspiracy theories never be teach a semester-long social studies contrary, because of the increased permitted to enter the classroom. class called “Conspiracy Theories prominence of conspiracy theories throughout History.” At the in our culture today, it’s more However, when teachers and school beginning of the semester students important than ever to tackle the librarians make all the choices for discuss: topic of conspiracy theories head on students, students never get the as an approach to building media chance to learn how to make good • Why do conspiracy theories exist? and information-literacy compe- choices for themselves. Ernest tencies.

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• Why do people believe in searches to practice identifying how to recognize bias. Russo’s conspiracy theories and what different types of sources and to use students must read and summarize attracts people to them? a variety of strategies to research articles and then look for clues in the author, purpose, and point of the use of language and images • What trends and commonalities view. “It’s not good enough to just that betray the point of view of the can be seen in conspiracy theories review the ‘About’ page,” notes author or news organization. “I want throughout history? Russo. To really understand the source evaluation skills to transfer,” motives of the author, students said Russo, noting that students get • What do conspiracy theories tell need to search the author’s name better at recognizing bias when they us about society, culture, and and the organization or website. By practice this skill with a broad variety ourselves? using active reading comprehension • What positive and negative impacts strategies, learners engage with the do conspiracy theories have on content deeply enough to recognize society? the author’s purpose: Is the author informing about the conspiracy • How can you tell if something is a theory, promoting it, or debunking conspiracy theory and evaluate it? it? (Russo 2017). What types of arguments are used? Recognizing bias is an even more “The major skill that this course challenging competency. Russo develops is the practice of source notes that her tenth-, eleventh-, evaluation,” said Rebecca Russo and twelfth-grade students need (2017). She works hard to teach guided practice to learn how to students how to identify sources that recognize bias in informational are more and less credible. content. Before she sends learners out to find sources on It’s difficult to disprove a conspiracy their own, she gives them short theory. They “resist traditional news stories from All Sides canons of proof because they reduce , a free highly complex phenomena to simple website that offers partisan causes” (Barkun 2003, 7). Students news coverage of current events in the class at Arthur L. Johnson from left, center, and right High School are encouraged to perspectives and fights polariza- use library databases and Google tion by helping learners understand

Conspiracy theories create opportunities for rich discussion about how and why we decide what to believe.

20 Knowledge Quest | Beyond the Horizon All materials in this journal subject to copyright by the American Library Association may be used for the noncommercial purpose of scientific or educational advancement granted by Sections 107 and 108 of the Copyright Revision Act of 1976. Address usage requests to the ALA Office of Rights and Permissions. of real-world informational content, English teacher John Bradford and detail, commentary, and closing especially content that students find school librarian Anne Thiers at sentence. themselves (2017). It’s important Creekview High School in Canton, to critically analyze not just library Georgia, help students develop “In this…town, I sometimes face a resources but popular content that research papers on conspiracy little pushback from students when is easily available, attractive, and theories as part of their work in I tell them that entertaining, or that activates strong American Literature courses (Thiers is more credible than the National emotions. 2017). Bradford’s unit on conspiracy Enquirer,” Bradford admits in a theories takes about four or five telephone interview. But as a result Christy Moran, Broward College weeks, and students construct a paper of their own search and inquiry librarian, uses a similar assignment grounded in argumentative and processes, students learn to distin- with undergraduate students. In persuasive rhetoric. With support guish between high-quality sources her seventy-five-minute activity from a LibGuide created by Thiers, and less-informative ones. He notes, titled “Evaluating Claims: students find three debatable points “On the Internet, anyone can put Edition,” learners determine the to write about, including merits and up anything and make it look slick validity of a pseudoscientific claim, limitations of the conspiracy theory and professional. But my students like the claim that the 9/11 terrorist in question, and write a carefully learn to look for bias and investigate attack on the World Trade Center was structured eight-paragraph essay, the sources of information because a conspiracy orchestrated by the U.S. using the Jane Schaffer structure they’re motivated and engaged— government. Students find evidence for organizing sentences into they want to learn more” (2017). to either support or reject the claim, paragraphs, and include properly explaining their conclusions and why formatted MLA citations. This Proving a Conspiracy Theory they perceive specific sources to be approach to teaching writing teaches credible (Moran 2017). When I met with the German high a paragraph-structure formula that school students, I talked about includes a topic sentence, concrete the reality that not all conspiracy theories are false. For example, for forty years, African Americans

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with syphilis were left untreated so government with his accusations but The Tuskegee syphilis story shows that researchers in a joint study by was ignored. When race riots tore the how challenging it is to investi- the U.S. Public Health Service and nation apart in 1968, the national gate a conspiracy theory, and it staff at John Andrew Hospital at public health service took action also illustrates the importance of Tuskegee Institute could document to investigate. The health service whistleblowers, journalists, and and research the progression of commissioned a blue-ribbon panel government officials as they attempt the disease. At the time, some in of distinguished individuals from to uncover the truth. School the African American community the fields of medicine, law, religion, librarians can use the Tuskegee were suspicious about the declining labor, education, health administra- syphilis study to show the time, health of the four hundred infected tion, and public affairs. The panel effort, and courage it takes to men, a decline that researchers told found that the men had agreed freely investigate a conspiracy theory to the subjects was caused by their “bad to be examined and treated, even determine its validity. The story blood.” The infected subjects weren’t though there was no evidence that also illustrates how the process told they had syphilis or that it could researchers had informed them of of accessing information and be transmitted to spouses who then the study or its real purpose. Peter analyzing it leads people to create infected their babies. Men were Buxton then contacted a reporter media to share what they learn, encouraged to participate in the from the Washington Star who wrote inspiring moral reflection, com- study by being given hot meals and about the story on July 25, 1972. munication, and public action to free rides, and even when penicillin The news caused a sensation. People address social needs. became widely available as a cure, the around the country were outraged study continued. to learn how racial bias had affected Authority Is Constructed the medical treatment of these and Contextual Rumors about the dubious nature men and their families. Senator of the “treatment” given to these Edward Kennedy held congres- The rise of the Web and digital men circulated in the African sional hearings, and new laws were culture creates some new forms of American community, but only established governing the ethics of authority. It is now possible to gain when researcher Peter Buxtun wrote human research (CDC 2016; Kerr attention and authoritative status, a report comparing the Tuskegee and Rivero 2014). not for one’s job title, responsibili- study to Nazi experiments did things ties, knowledge, or experience, but start to change. He confronted the for being first, fastest, and findable

Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (courtesy National Archives)

22 Knowledge Quest | Beyond the Horizon All materials in this journal subject to copyright by the American Library Association may be used for the noncommercial purpose of scientific or educational advancement granted by Sections 107 and 108 of the Copyright Revision Act of 1976. Address usage requests to the ALA Office of Rights and Permissions. on social media, using personalized Back in my class with the German students viewed and discussed messages to connect to audiences and students, after discussing how disin- this video, students also began appeal to emotions. Today a YouTube formation and hoaxes can sometimes wondering more broadly about like can be turn into conspiracy theories, the possibility that Google may perceived to have authority through students viewed and discussed a video indeed “censor” search results. producing compelling videos quickly titled “Google Censors Anti-Hillary Was censorship even the right in response to current events. When Search Results” created by Mark term, they wondered? Students messages like his become viral, they Dice, a noted conspiracy theorist wanted to learn more about how the often gain popularity by exploiting with over one million subscrib- autocomplete function works on people’s sense of humor, curiosity, ers on YouTube. The three-minute search engines, sharing with one anger, disgust, or fear. Such content video demonstrates how, in contrast another bits of knowledge based on now drives the attention economy, to other search engines, Google their lived experience. A couple of where hoaxes, disinformation, and autocomplete results do not include students were aware that different partisanship thrive. references to Hillary Clinton’s people might get different auto- health. Students used the digital complete results based on their As the ACRL (Association of College annotation tool VideoAnt to comment on and critique the Did different search engines use note, “Authority is constructed and video. They recognized Mark Dice to different “signals of quality” to contextual,” a statement that reflects be someone with a political interest produce autocomplete results? How the recognition that information in Donald Trump and that Dice was was Google adjusting the algorithm resources are drawn from their making money from the enter- for autocomplete? Should people be creators’ expertise and credibility tainment value of an anti-Hillary concerned about this type of bias? based on the information need and message. Students viewed the video Why or why not? the context in which the informa- carefully and paused to write notes, tion will be used. According to wondering whether the search engine As Silicon Valley platforms ascend the standard, “Experts themselves demonstrations might have been to cultural dominance, digital view authority with an attitude conducted on different days or even conspiracy theories will undoubt- of informed skepticism and an different times of the year. edly continue to flourish. To teach openness to new perspectives, the conspiracies, school librarians additional voices, and changes in High levels of intellectual curiosity must set aside ideas about schools of thought” (2016). were activated by this activity. As themselves as being gatekeepers of quality. We’ll have to get into the weeds. We’ll have to make time for students to search for content that is both “credible” and “incredible,” helping them use nuanced and sophisticated criteria to distin- guish between the two. As we find better and more creative ways to help people identify and confront hoaxes, disinformation, and con- spiracies, we will have to encourage the exploration of a truly broad range of information, propaganda, and entertainment. We’ll need to acknowledge both the destabiliz- ing function of mistrust, suspicion, and fear, and the powerful moral and humanistic values activated by the search for truth. We’ll all need to step out of our comfort zones to consider the role of conspiracy theories in an increasingly uncertain world.

Volume 46, No. 1 | September/October 2017 23 All materials in this journal subject to copyright by the American Library Association may be used for the noncommercial purpose of scientific or educational advancement granted by Sections 107 and 108 of the Copyright Revision Act of 1976. Address usage requests to the ALA Office of Rights and Permissions. Teaching the 4 W histleblowers, journalists, and feelings of helplessness, disil- Conspiracies: Key Ideas government officials investi- lusionment, mistrust, suspicion, gate conspiracy theories in an and fear. 1 C onspiracy theories are enter- attempt to uncover the truth. taining because they embody the 7 C onspiracy theories may also timeless allure of the mystery of 5 C omposing critical commentary inspire people to access and the unknown. about conspiracy videos using analyze information and then digital annotation tools helps create media to take social action, 2 C onspiracy theories are con- advance the development of and through these actions embody structed by people, and they have critical-thinking skills. the fundamental values activated an author, purpose, and a point by inquiry and the search for of view. 6 C onspiracy theories resonate in truth. an age of anxiety by simplifying 3 E ven brief exposures to complex and ambiguous realities conspiracy theories can increase and may contribute to desta- their believability. bilizing society and promoting

Renee Hobbs is a Works Cited: evaluating-claims-pseudoscience- professor at the Harrington and-conspiracy-theories> (accessed Association of College and Research June 12, 2017). School of Communication Libraries. 2016. “Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Morrell, Ernest. 2004. Linking Literacy and Media at the Education.” (accessed May 14, 2017). Christopher-Gordon. Island where she directs the Media Education Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture Oliver J. Eric, and Thomas Wood. 2014. “Medical Conspiracy Lab . Among other of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Theories and Health Behaviors in books, she is the author of Create to Learn: University of California Press. the United States.” JAMA Internal Medicine 174 (5): 817–18. Introduction to Digital Literacy Bradford, John. 2017. Telephone interview. May 23. Public Policy Polling. 2016. “GOP (Wiley-Blackwell 2017) and Copyright Quickly Unifies around Trump; Centers for Disease Control and Clinton Still Has Modest Lead” Clarity: How Fair Use Supports Prevention. 2016. “U.S. Public (May 10.) (accessed still-has-modest-lead.html> June 12, 2017). (accessed June 12, 2017). articles on digital and media literacy education, Kerr, Derek, and Maria Rivero. Russo, Rebecca. 2017. Telephone and offers the Summer Institute in Digital 2014. “Whistleblower Peter interview. May 22. Buxtun and the Tuskegee Literacy and other professional development Syphilis Study.” Government Suhrie, Garrett. 2014. “Conspiracy Accountability Project (April Theories Are a Real and Present programs to K–12 and college educators, 30). launched an educational website Mind Over syphilis-study> (accessed June 12, (accessed June 12, 2017). Media , a crowd- 2017). Sunstein, Cass R. 2014. Conspiracy Jolley, Daniel, and Karen M. Theories and Other Dangerous Ideas. sourced gallery of contemporary propaganda Douglas. 2014. “The Social New York: Simon and Schuster. for critical analysis. Reach her via Consequences of Conspiracism: Thiers, Anne. 2017. Personal e-mail Exposure to Conspiracy Theories correspondence. May 22. @reneehobbs. Decreases Intentions to Engage Uscinski, Joseph E., and Joseph M. in Politics and to Reduce One’s Parent. 2014. American Conspiracy Carbon Footprint.” British Journal Theories of Psychology . New York: Oxford 105 (1): 35–56. University Press. Moran, Christy. 2017. “Evaluating Van Prooijen, Jan-Willem. 2017. Claims: Pseudoscience and ACRL “Why Education Predicts Decreased Conspiracy Theories.” Belief in Conspiracy Theories.” Framework for Information Literacy Applied Cognitive Psychology Sandbox 31 (1): (May 15).

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