Wear the Colors of Italy's Legendary Regatta

Wear the Colors of Italy’s Legendary Regatta

To show exquisite details, necklace shown is not exact size. ™ ——— Italy

he Regata Storica started in 1489, when the dating back to before the city threw that first famous party Tbeautiful Caterina Cornaro, wife of the King of for Caterina. Cyprus, renounced her Cypriot throne in favor of Thanks to the Regata, we’ve visited Venice often and Venice. The people of Venice welcomed her with made great contacts, which is how we found and a parade of elaborately-decorated gondolas, in negotiated the best possible price on the highest a rainbow of popping colors. Every year since, quality Murano available. Now’s your chance to the spirit of 1489 is recaptured in those world- share in the spirit of this legendary event without famous canals when the famous Regata needing to break out your passport. is repeated. Satisfaction guaranteed or your money back. Our Cornaro Necklace is the essence of Venice, Enjoy the gorgeous colors of the Cornaro Murano with the revelry of the Regata channeled into Necklace for 30 days. If it doesn’t pass with l ying one perfect piece of jewelry. The gorgeous colors colors, send it back for a full refund of the item price. recall the Regata itself, and the 59 beads of authentic Murano are the only thing as historic and uniquely Limited Reserves. You could easily pay $300 or more Venice as those gondolas. Each necklace is handmade for a Murano glass bead necklace, but at $49, this genuine by the legendary Murano glassmakers, where the proud Venetian handmade Murano won’t last. Don’t miss the boat! tradition has been passed down from generation to generation, CALL 1-888-444-5949 TODAY!

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A LITTLE SLICE OF HEAVEN RIGHT HERE ON EARTH THE FUTURE The Majesty of the OF WARFARE Milky Way Surges How Will the into the Sky at This World Respond Stargazer’s Paradise to the Rise of Autonomous Weapons?

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LOWDOWN ON FLYING HIGH suicide is used as a plot device in other The July issue’s article on radiation Shakespearean plays as well (Hamlet, was thought-provoking. I myself was Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, Julius likely exposed to the harmful radiation Caesar). The mental contagion that can that exists at high altitudes, as I l ew lead to a suicide epidemic may develop for many years across the Atlantic when ending one’s life is presented in and Pacii c as a Professional Flight a way that might be seen as a solution Engineer on B-707, DC-8, and DC-10 to an intractable problem for vulnerable aircraft. However there is no mention individuals. But nowadays the formats of the constant radiation levels that commercial pilots are in which we consume our entertainment are so rich and subjected to on a daily basis, versus the l ying public. immersive, the impact made on viewers is all the greater— Michael Walsh Hollywood, FL especially on those already mired in a depressive state and U.S. Navy Veteran 1957–1963 susceptible to a “nothing left to lose” mind-set. No matter how many eras pass, some human experiences remain constant. Thank you for dropping us a line regarding the “How Much And adolescence has always been a turbulent time… Radiation Is There at 39,000 Feet?” article. We’re especially glad to receive correspondence from someone who has EVADING THE EYES IN THE SKY experience in this fi eld, though we regret the exposure you Loved your bit “Could a Scarf Make Me Invisible?” [Q&A, have endured. Also regrettable is the absence of a mention September issue]. Can this technology also be used to of the radiation levels to which airline pilots and fl ight staff are defeat video camera surveillance? continually subjected. It Is a dimension that the article could Kenneth Scott Aberdeen, WA have indeed touched upon, relying instead on the reader to extrapolate the notion from the information presented. Yes, there are fashionable ways to outwit video surveillance. These days when we go out in public, more cameras than ever keep track of our movements. But certain patterns confuse ENDURING MELANCHOLY facial recognition systems, like those printed on the clothing The article “Is Suicide Contagious?” in the July issue was made by the Hyperface project. That’s the brainchild of artist an interesting though very sad piece to read. It provided Adam Harvey, the same person behind the CV Dazzle project me with the information I needed to talk to my teenage we covered a while back in our May 2017 article on thwarting daughter about suicide and why we will never watch the surveillance technology, which had featured hairstyles and show 13 Reasons Why. She has never expressed thoughts makeup techniques meant to render machines incapable of of suicide or shown signs of depression, but some of her recognizing a face. As the systems become more ubiquitous, friends have. She gladly took down the suicide hotline it’s likely such creative responses will become more prevalent. number to pass on to her friends. Thank you for bringing awareness to the public on this issue. I was also curious if there are reports on the story of Romeo and Juliet causing DISCERNING MANX KITTENS READ iD! copycat suicides like the Werther effect. I bought the September issue a few days ago Alisha from Texas and set it on my chair when I got home. When I came back in the living room, I saw Max (one We’re very glad our article could be a helpful resource to assist of my four Manx kitties) perusing the cover. you in having a rather tough conversation with your daughter I thought you would want to see it. and that the hotline phone number may have ended up where Stephanie McEvoy Bristol, VA it can do some good. You have also raised an excellent point: Romeo and Juliet fulfi lls the conditions for propagating the Thanks very much, this photo made our day. It

Letters to the editor may be edited for clarity and length. Werther effect too. Drama and tragedy go hand in hand, and was so good, we had to share it with everyone!

ideasanddiscoveries.com 3 Nov 2018 contents

COVER STORY

These agile and adaptable amphibians leap, climb, and Inthe18thcentury,CaptainJamesCookandhiscrew make their presence known on balmy summer nights. set sail into the unknown. Their journeys ﬁ lled in a huge But what they long for most is love… PAGE 10 gap in our knowledge of the globe. PAGE 18

COVER COVER STORY STORY

Astronomers and amateurs alike make their way to the What really governs the workings of our universe? Does Atacama Desert to revel in a rare view of the night sky randomness reign supreme, or is there such a thing as and catch a glimpse of distant worlds. PAGE 38 destiny? Is it possible to know? PAGE 48

COVER STORY

Tales of crime and punishment always make headlines. A gene-editing starter kit that lets laypeople hack genes But what happens when the culprit in a notorious case in the comfort of their homes can be purchased online. isn’t culpable in the eyes of the law? PAGE 62 Is this development a cause for concern? PAGE 72

Nov 2018 4 ideasanddiscoveries.com “An investment in knowledge pays the best interest.” —Benjamin Franklin

To our readers: Inadvertence is pervasive. When we speak, we might reveal our true selves without realizing it and betray our intentions. When it comes to AI, we might not be able to COVER put the genie back in the bottle and could accidentally doom humanity. Ditto for gene STORY modifications outside the lab—an errant organism could infiltrate our environment. However, unintended consequences can be positive as well: Captain Cook didn’t find what he was looking for, but he did refine our view of the world. Hindsight is 20/20… NATURE 10 A Day in the Life of a Frog Hope springs eternal for the princes of the pond 16 Smarter in 60 Seconds: Frogs HISTORY 18 How Do You Discover the End of the World? The fact-ﬁnding mission that changed the face of the globe 26 Smarter in 60 Seconds: Expeditions BODY & MIND Ourwordsaremorepowerfulthanwerealize:Theycan 28 The Secret Power of Words beusedasweaponsorasameansofdefense,andthey How to combat well-wielded weapons of the mind canalsobetrayourtrueintentions. PAGE28 72 Can I Program My Genes to Give Me Bigger Muscles? The realities of tinkering with our genetic blueprint 80 Smarter in 60 Seconds: Genes SCIENCE 38 The Summit Whence the Milky Way Rises Forth Where to see an unparalleled view of the cosmos from Earth 41 Smarter in 60 Seconds: Space 48 Coincidence or Destiny? What really determines the course of our lives? TECHNOLOGY 56 The Human Race Vs. Autonomous Weapons Will advanced drones decide who lives and who dies? CURRENT EVENTS 62 It Was Murder, Wasn’t It? Sometimes there’s no choice but to let a killer go free IN EVERY ISSUE Scientistsaresoundingthealarmaboutaworrisome 6 A Photo and Its Story trendinweaponstechnology.Isautonomyatraitthat Fascinating pictures and the story behind them drones should possess? PAGE 56 42 Questions & Answers Marvels that can change our perception of the world 82 What Counts in the End The Wonders of the Savanna

Volume 8, Issue 11 Cover stories marked in red SUBSCRIBE AND SAVE 62% That’s $5 off per issue! FASTEST WAY TO SUBSCRIBE ideasanddiscoveries.com/subscribe

Let’s keep in touch Go to facebook.com/ideasanddis and hit the “like” button. COVER PHOTOS: Aliraza Khatri’s Photography/Getty; Stephen Smith/Getty; Mark Airs/Get duncan1890/Getty; dalton00/Getty; Vecteezy/Getty;. iD (Ideas & Discoveries) (ISSN 2161-2641) Published bi-monthly by Heinrich Bauer Publishing Company, L.P. 270 Sylvan Ave. Eng FortheanimalsofAfrica’sSerengetiPlainthequestfor The subscription price for 6 issues is $17.94. Canadian and Fore paid in U.S. funds. Periodicals postage paid at Englewood NJ and water is a vital endeavor. A skilled photographer shows POSTMASTER Please send all subscription inquiries and address c P.O. Box 433174 Palm Coast FL 32142-3174. Printed in the US us a unique view of a life-giving locale. PAGE 82 Mailing Lists: From time to time we make our subscriber list availa that sell goods and services by mail which we believe would intere you would rather not receive such mailings, please send your full mailing address, and name of the magazine title to which you sub Publishing, Attn: Circulation, 270 Sylvan Avenue, Englewood Cliffs A photo and its story

Nov 2018 6 ideasanddiscoveries.com ARE YOU SKIING?

RIDING THE RAZOR’S EDGE Jérémie Heitz races down 55-degree slopes at speeds close to 80 mph. Where other freeskiers might take 10 turns, he does it in two or three—always with the knowledge that one false move could be fatal. OR ARE YOU

Extreme skier Jérémie Heitz set out to do something that had never been done before: tackle 15 of the steepest Swiss peaks higher than 13,000 feet at breakneck speed. The life-threatening undertaking took him to the limits of physical strength and endurance…

FALLING? A photo and its story 2-3 HOURS per year is the only window of time for a potential descent. The best snow conditions are in early summer.

DEGREE SLOPES areamongthechallengesposed byOberGabelhorn,whichrisesto 13,330 feet in the Valais Alps. All of the over-13,000-foot peaks on Heitz’s list have slopes of at least 50 degrees.

TIMING IS EVERYTHING The Ober Gabelhorn was Heitz’s toughest test. He had to spend several nights at the summit in subfreezing temperatures, only to abandon his planned descent at 3 A.M. The reason: The steep north face is iced over almost all year long, making it impassable. But as this photo proves, Heitz did discover the right time and conditions in the end.

MPH is the speed Heitz hits while heading down the steepest slopes on his 6'3" carbon-reinforced freeride skis. He can descend by more than 3,000 feet per minute. This high speed lowers the risk of taking a fall. inally, I’m there! thinks Jérémie Heitz as he turns his gaze toward the abyss below the peak of Ober Gabelhorn. With SUMMIT STORMER You have to climb a slope on skis F an ice axe in his to know whether you can ski back hand, he has spent hours ascending down it. That’s why Jérémie Heitz the steep north face of the mountain. dons his full equipment and scales a mountain all the way to the peak Driven purely by adrenaline—and a that will be his point of departure. list on which the peak’s name has not yet been checked off—Heitz takes a closer look at the thin blanket of snow FREESKIING PIONEER deposited on the sheer slope, which HeitzgrewupintheValaisAlps descends at an angle of 55 degrees. andwentskiingfortheﬁrsttime Freshly fallen, grippy, and still a little atthetenderageoftwo.Today theextremeathleteisanabsolute wet—the perfect snow conditions for aceintheworldoffreeskiing. carrying out his plan. Heitz takes one last deep breath before shoving off. In a matter of seconds he has reached a speed of almost 80 miles per hour, “OF COURSE I’M his skis slicing into the slope as he leaps over rocky outcroppings as if AFRAID—AND the laws of gravity don’t apply to him. His muscles are struggling against THAT’S GOOD. the extreme g forces that tear at his FEAR SHARPENS body, and then suddenly he comes to a halt at the foot of the white wall. YOUR SENSES. For the 11th time in his life he has won his perilous dance with a mountain, WHEN YOU FEEL descending about 3,000 feet in less than a minute. SAFE, YOU’RE Still, why all this breakneck racing MORE LIKELY TO weather conditions and use cameras against the elements? Why would the with a powerful zoom lens to choose 29-year-old Swiss skier be willing to MAKE A MISTAKE.” the slopes that best line up with our risk his life? Heitz just laughs. “It’s no requirements. Then I climb the slope more dangerous than trafi c in Paris. that are higher than 13,000 feet with on skis and make certain I know the I’ve been skiing since I could walk,” slopes steeper than 50 degrees. His best spots for making a turn, where he says. His grandfather once skied plan: to ski each one at speeds faster the snow is as grippy as possible.” with Sylvain Saudan, the pioneer of than 60 miles per hour with a camera There are many other variables to extreme skiing. Early on Heitz himself team i lming it all. “I wanted to push consider beyond snow, sunlight, time would discover the fascination of the my skiing ability to the absolute limit,” of day, and wind conditions. “Even a wild side of Alpine skiing: At age 20 he explains. His talent and his knack slight change in a slope’s angle can he took part in his i rst Freeride World for selecting the optimal equipment soften the snow,” says Heitz, who has Tour. But he’d considered that to be helped him master 11 of the 15 slopes already set his sights on a new goal: a training session for his real goal— in only two winters. In summing it up, the Himalayas. “The snow conditions “the list.” At the start of 2015 he listed he says: “Proper preparation is the there are radically different from ours. 15 of the highest, steepest peaks in most important aspect. You have to If we can do in Asia what we’ve been the Alps: the Matterhorn, Lenzspitze, be able to ‘read’ the mountain. That’s doing here in Europe, we’ll have taken

PHOTOS: Caters; Red Bull Content Pool (2); DPA. Ober Gabelhorn, and a dozen others why we spend months analyzing the things to an entirely new level.”

ideasanddiscoveries.com 9 Nov 2018 LOCATION, LOCATION, LOCATION! What turns on a lady tree frog? Two things: a powerful voice—and shiny green skin. There is one sticky wicket, though: Tree frogs change their coloration depending on where they are. On rough ground they get darker. Only when they’re on a smooth surface in direct sunlight do they appear to be the radiant green that the ladies admire. In other words, location is everything when it comes to the mating game.

A chorus of countless frogs puts on a concert that resounds in the summer night. But not just any song will do. When a frog sings, it’s always about love… ADAYINTHELIFE O Nature

he sun has just set. It’s still quiet down at the pond—until suddenly a voicecallsoutfromthereeds. A timid honking sound pierces the twilight and is quickly joined by Ta second even louder and more insistent voice. They are soon drownedoutbyafour-voicechoir, and then the entire tree frog chorus chimes in. There will be no peace at the pond this evening— not until midnight at the earliest… Why do tree frogs start their summer serenade in the twilight hours? Because they’re searching for love, for a princess who will make the evening a perfect one. Night after night that hope draws the princes of the pond out from the undergrowth where they relax the days away hidden from view. As strange as it may sound, frogs just can’t help themselves. Hope springs eternal in their genes, which program them to heed a powerful instinct: Sing loudly enough and you’ll get what you want. Even if it takes all summer. The mating season begins in late March and goes all the way until the end of August. Butittakesastrokeofluck to fi nd a pretty green princess right away—one who’ll be able to produce hundreds of offspring. Most frogs simply have to keep singing, often for months on end. Frogs are indefatigable croakers, and their persistence pays off in the long term: Amphibians have roamed the Earth for roughly 360 million years. They were the first vertebrates to conquer land and so have seen and survived it all: dinosaurs, asteroid impacts, ice ages, and, much more recently, storks, herons, and egrets. Such birds are their worst enemies, which is why frogs fall silent as soon as a two-legged winged creature approaches the pond. The evolutionary answer to avian danger is the frogs’ ability to match their skin color to the surface on which they’re sitting—thus on leaves they turn green, and on bark they’re brown. And if a bird happens OF A to spot one anyway, frogs have powerful hind legs that enable them to catapult themselves through the air, more than 6 feet in one bound. Once the bird has moved on, the little frogs in the cattails regain their composure and resume their singing, and soon the entire chorus joins in. There is no opportunityforasoloperformance. Nevertheless, each of the myriad singers has his sights fi rmly set on fi ndingbigloveinalittlepond. So they keep singing their hearts out until they do.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 11 Nov 2018 ALWAYS ON THE HOP A frog will prey on anything that moves and ﬁ ts in its mouth. The frogs’ hind legs supply tremendous power and leverage: The agile frog, for example, can jump more than 3 feet high and covers a distance of 6 feet. By comparison: A 6-foot-tall adult human would have to jump more than 70 feet high and cover a distance of 180 feet to match a frog’s performance. LUNCH COMES WITH HIGH-SPEED DELIVERY The little gnat sitting in the grass never saw it coming. And how could it? A tree frog’s tongue can move faster than 20 mph—and most frog species are able to catch prey with their tongue more quickly than we can blink. THEY ALL CROAK ALIKE? Furthermore, a captive insect is moved toward a frog’s DON’T YOU BELIEVE IT! mouth at 12 times the acceleration of gravity. By way of The roughly 7,000 species of frogs and toads can produce an comparison: Astronauts typically experience three times incredible variety of sounds. Some croak while others chirp, the acceleration of gravity during the launch of a rocket. whistle, peep, honk, cluck, bark, or grunt. Over the course of evolution, each species of frog has developed its own distinctive mating call. You can tell just how popular and contested a particular pond is by listening to the number of different sounds its amphibian inhabitants are making.

60 MILLION YEARS PACKED INTO 12 WEEKS While it took about 60 million years for ﬁ sh to evolve into land animals, a modern frog requires about 12 weeks for the same transformation. The metamorphosis from egg to tadpole to frog has been classiﬁ ed in 46 developmental stages. Tadpoles are still vegetarian, mostly eating algae and pollen, but an adult frog is a carnivore that consumes live animals from the moment it sets foot on land: The preferred foods at the top of a frog’s menu are dragonflies, beetles, and earthworms.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 13 Nov 2018 TIME TO CATCH YOUR BREATH A male tree frog may croak 100 times per minute for hours on end in order to attract a female, and that requires a lot of energy. Some of them can croak at volumes above 100 decibels, which is about as loud as a chainsaw. Frogs are assisted in their powerful sound production by a larynx that is almost a quarter of an inch wide— about one-fifth of their body length. EARLY MORNING GYMNASTICS As the name implies, tree frogs like to climb— regardless of the weather. From their elevated vantage points frogs enjoy an excellent view. They also benefi t from eyes that provide them with a 360-degree visual fi eld and night vision comparable to that of a cat. That’s a big help when trying to spot a potential princess. PHOTOS: Picture Press; PR (2); HGM-Press.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 15 Nov 2018 SMARTER IN 6 Frogs

PRECISION WORK Look, leap, land: Jumping onto a branch 1 foot away 15 is child’s play for a frog. How do frogs land? When jumping from branch to branch a frog’s internal organs is very high,” frogs employ two different landing explains amphibian expert Thomas techniques: the belly flop and the Kleinteich. For the reach-and-grab reach-and-grab. To execute the belly technique, they grasp the target with ﬂ op, they leap forward and land on their front or back feet, hold on with the target with their belly before they their toes, and hoist themselves up. get a grip with their sticky feet and The force exerted on the toes is up to grasping toes. “That makes it easier 14 times the body weight—that’s why to reach the branch, but the strain on heavier frogs prefer the belly ﬂ op.

Where do frogs spend the winter? There are around 90 species of Which frog bites off more than it can chew? 15 frogs and toads that are native to Horned frogs are known for their voracious 15 the continental United States. appetite and will eat practically anything in They spend winter in holes in the ground sight. That includes snakes and rats that may that are protected from frost or on the l oor be twice the frog’s size. This is possible because their of ponds and lakes. They can lower their mouth is half as wide as the length of their body, which body temperature to just above freezing to measures 5 to 6 inches. They also have sharp-tipped live for months in hibernation. During that teeth that are used for holding prey. The disadvantage: time they’ll absorb oxygen and moisture The teeth are curved toward the back, which makes it through their skin. And when the weather difﬁ cult for the frog to turn its prey loose, even if the warms up in spring, their body temperature creature is too large to be swallowed. Therefore many also begins to rise. Then the frogs emerge of these frogs die of suffocation long before they can from their retreats with their minds focused reach their potential maximum age of 15 years. on two goals: eating and reproducing. Toad or frog— how do you tell the difference?

Both frogs and toads are tailless 15 amphibians in the order Anura. The true toads (genus Bufo) are stout-bodied with short legs that limit gait. Their thick dry skin is generally brown and often warty. In contrast, the skin of a frog ALL IN THE FAMILY Whereas the skin of is usually smooth and moist. In addition, most frogs (such as while frogs have teeth, toads have none. the one on the left) Unlike frogs (genus Rana), toads are land is moist and smooth, animals that lay their eggs in water in long the drier skin of toads jelly tubes, while the largely aquatic frogs (above right) is often lay their eggs in water in clusters or sheets. covered with warts. PHOTOS: Shutterstock; Juniors Bildarchiv (2). Nov 2018 16 ideasanddiscoveries.com LIVE FRIDAY SEPT 7 8|7C STANDUPTOCANCER.ORG

American Lung Association’s LUNG FORCE, Breast Cancer Research Foundation, Canadian Cancer Society, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Cancer Stem Cell Consortium, Farrah Fawcett Foundation, Genome Canada, Laura Ziskin Family Trust, LUNGevity Foundation, National Ovarian Cancer Coalition, Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Ovarian Cancer Research Fund Alliance, Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer STAND UP TO CANCER IS A DIVISION OF THE ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY FOUNDATION, A 501(C)(3) CHARITABLE ORGANIZATION. IMAGES ARE FROM STAND UP TO CANCER TELECASTS AND EVENTS. THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR CANCER RESEARCH (AACR) IS STAND UP TO CANCER’S SCIENTIFIC PARTNER. History

Nov 2018 18 ideasanddiscoveries.com N

W E HOWDOYS OU DISCOVEREND THE WORLD?OF THE

In the second half of the 18th century Captain James Cook had set off on a three-year expedition to the Pacifi c. At that time the map of the world still had a number of blank spots that were as-yet unexplored. But no one could have suspected that Cook’s return would change the world forever… The greatest unknown of all was what N was referred to as Terra Australis (“the land to the south”—not to be confused with Australia, which had already been W E discovered). Shrouded in legend, the southern continent appeared on a number of ancient maps and scholars S considered it to be the geographical “DO JUST ONCE counterpart to the landmasses of the Northern Hemisphere. They expected WHAT OTHERS it to be peopled by a civilization with SAY YOU CAN’T advanced technological knowledge and a wealth of natural resources. But DO, AND YOU for a long time the southern continent WILL NEVER remained mired in mystery because JamesCookentersthebridgeofthe no explorer had ever come back from PAY ATTENTION research ship Resolution. For several an expedition in search of the region. TO THEIR minutes he stares out into the void. Cartographers i lled the blank spots Instead of the fertile continent he had of the southern globe with drawings LIMITATIONS assumed he’d see there stretches a of sea monsters and dragons. One AGAIN.” seemingly endless wasteland: the such object, the Hunt-Lenox Globe JAMES COOK Antarctic ice sheet. At this point the that was made in 1510, even bears Resolution has already been sailing the inscription “Hic sunt dracones”— for over two years, and the ship’s food “Here are dragons.” Not all navigators supplies have nearly been exhausted. would be deterred by such warnings An icy silence dominates the scene, of exceptional danger, though. Some until one of the crewmen dares step of them accepted the challenge and forward and interrupt Cook’s reverie: set sail undaunted to pursue the goal “Which course should we take, sir?” of uncovering the myriad mysteries of The captain’s empty gaze is still i xed the Southern Hemisphere, staunchly upon the frozen, i ssured landscape. determined to continue until they had Slowly his lips pronounce the words reached the end of the known world. that are so difi cult for him to speak: The man who was i rst to succeed in “Before us lies the end of the world. this endeavor was a British explorer. We’re going home.” In that moment, His name: James Cook. Cook’s disappointment is very clear. When the British Admiralty made What he does not suspect, however: Cook the captain of a research ship His presumed misadventure will lead by the name of HMS Resolution, he’d to one of the greatest discoveries in already served more than 10 years in human history—which would forever the Royal Navy and had sailed once alter our view of the face of the Earth. around the world. At the time he was considered to be one of Britain’s most THE LAST OF THE experienced sailors in addition to one DRAGONSLAYERS of the best cartographers of his day. In the 18th century the world was still In the summer of 1768, Cook set out NAVIGATION GENIUS The accuracy of James Cook’s logs made it full of places that explorers had never on the i rst scientii c expedition to the possible for other English explorers to fi nd been to. Even on the most up-to-date South Pacii c. What his crew did not safe trade routes across the Pacifi c, which maps, many of the areas south of the know: The Admiralty had given Cook had been largely unexplored before him. Equator were still just blank spots— a secret mission to i nd the southern regions that conjured exotic images continent—Terra Australis. But though of adventure and summoned people’s his i rst voyage did not take him there, wildest theories and visualizations. Cook did i nd and chart New Zealand >

Nov 2018 20 ideasanddiscoveries.com SISTER SHIPS James Cook’s Resolution had set out on its second expedition accompanied by Tobias Furneaux as captain of the Adventure. During the voyage the two ships repeatedly lost sight of each other. In the end, Furneaux decided to sail back to England, returning about a year earlier than Cook.

THE DANGERS OF THE PACIFIC During the second voyage, the crew of the Resolution repeatedly encountered foreign cultures. Not all of the island peoples were well disposed to the explorers. 1587 THE LEGENDARY TERRA AUSTRALIS The ancient Greek scholar and polymath Ptolemy advanced civilization who possessed a treasure (ca. AD 127–145) hypothesized the existence trove of natural resources. These hypotheses are of a giant southern continent—the so-called reﬂected on the world maps of early European Terra Australis. He further hypothesized that the explorers (the Southern Hemisphere is outlined continent was inhabited by members of a highly in red), and it took James Cook to disprove them.

and successfully navigated the Great once again was to become the i rst for any eventuality, Cook loaded his Barrier Reef. It would take a second European to set foot on Terra Australis vessel with all manner of scientii c mission to unravel other mysteries. and thus to reveal the mystery of the measuring instruments and the most In 1772, when Cook set out for the legendary southern continent. He was modern weapons of the day. The full Pacii c for the second time, he was accompanied on this meticulously crew of the Resolution consisted of determined to sail farther southward planned expedition by a number of 112 members, who included not just than any explorer before him. His goal top specialists. In an effort to prepare experienced sailors and craftsmen 1794 THE REVISED VIEW OF THE WORLD James Cook’s second voyage to the South Seas instructions he created the ﬁrst map of the world revolutionized navigation and invalidated the that took Cook’s discoveries into account. It is accuracy of all previous nautical charts to boot. the ﬁrst document to show the world’s continents The cartographer Henry Roberts accompanied in their proper place. Today the map remains a Cook on this second expedition, and on Cook’s symbol of the human spirit of discovery.

but also astronomers, naturalists, and myths of sea monsters and dragons His plan was to cross this line until elite soldiers. Cook’s second voyage once and for all. he was as far south as New Zealand brought together people of greatly (Wellington lies at 41 degrees south) varied backgrounds and skills, but A SEAFARING REVOLUTION and then circle the globe from there they were all united by a common Cook assumed that Terra Australis in search of land. In this manner, his goal: to i ll in the last blank spots on had to extend from the South Pole second voyage would pick up where the world map and thereby dispel the to about 30 degrees south latitude. the i rst had left off and allow him to >

ideasanddiscoveries.com 23 Nov 2018 PACIFIC APPRENTICESHIP Georg Forster was just 17 years old when he boarded the Resolution on July 13, 1772. His father, Johann Reinhold Forster, had been asked to participate in Cook’s second Paciﬁ c expedition and took his son along as an apprentice. Previously the father had led an expedition for Catherine the Great. Under his father’s guidance, the younger Forster had deepened his scientiﬁ c knowledge and cataloged more than 400 plant and animal species that were previously unknown. He later described his experiences in a travel book that is still considered one of the most important in that genre. mapaportionofthesouthernseas While he supervised the loading of accomplished thinkers and stylists that was largely unknown. He allotted fresh food and the trade with the local of his time. The book is still regarded threeyearsforthetrip—anambitious population, the scientists aboard the as one of the greatest travel accounts plan that many of Britain’s admirals Resolution would explore the islands. ever to be written. consideredinsane.Foravoyageof Among them was a young German such duration posed enormous risks naturalist named Georg Forster who THE END OF THE WORLD in that day and age. The monotonous, had emigrated to England as a child. The Resolution had been at sea for unbalanced diet aboard most vessels No one could have imagined that the almost two years when it left New oftenleftthecrewmemberssuffering Zealand and headed eastward, still from nutritional deiciency diseases. in search of Terra Australis. With each Themostdangerousofthesewas passing day the weather deteriorated, scurvy,whichiscausedbyalackof and as the cold increased, the morale vitaminC.Inthe18thcentury,scurvy of Cook’s men declined. Finally, after wasbyfarthemostfrequentcause N two weeks of sailing, the lookout in of death among sailors. The earliest the ship’s crow’s nest sighted a large symptoms usually appeared after ice l oe for the i rst time. Only a few about three months at sea. Sailors days later, the Resolution reached W E irst complained of chronic fatigue, the pack ice of the Antarctic Circle. followed shortly thereafter by muscle There Cook was forced to admit that pains and bleeding beneath the skin. S his journey had come to an abrupt Thesubsequentsymptomsincluded end. Instead of a continent rich with spontaneous bleeding, high fever, and “I INTEND natural resources, he had discovered convulsions, which could be fatal. It an inhospitable desert of ice. He had wasn’tuntil1932thatscientistsinally TO GO FARTHER reached the end of the world that was found the connection between scurvy THAN ANY accessible to humankind at the time. andvitaminCdeiciency.Atthetime (Not until 1911 would an expedition Cook was planning his expedition, MAN HAS BEEN i nally cross the Antarctic ice to reach the knowledge that scurvy could be BEFORE ME.” the South Pole.) Utterly disheartened, preventedorcuredbyingestingcitrus JAMES COOK Cook had no choice but to order his fruits was relatively new. But Cook men to set sail for England. wasfamiliarwiththeobservationsof After a voyage of some 1,100 days,

mages; De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images; Adobe Stock. a number of ship’s doctors who had the Resolution returned to its home notedthatadietofsauerkrautand port of Plymouth. The crew had spent fruit juice could provide relief. Thus more than 900 days at sea, covering Cookhadmorethan60barrelsof a distance of nearly 75,000 miles—the sauerkrautplacedintheholdofthe equivalent of sailing around the world Resolution. And his plan succeeded: writings of this young man would have three times. Of the 112 crew members Cookbecametheirstcaptaininthe such a profound and lasting impact who had set out from Plymouth, only history of British navigation whose on European science and literature. four had died, which is an unusually crewwaswidelyprotectedfromthis Forster was overwhelmed by the low number for that time. Nonetheless, scourge. It was a truly outstanding beauty of the Pacii c and its endless after his arrival in England Cook was achievementatatimewhenupto atural History Museum/Alamy (4); Wikipedia (4); British Library/AKG I diversity of l ora and fauna. He made still very disappointed that he’d found three-quarters of a ship’s crew might impressive drawings of the previously nothing more than a few small islands. dieofscurvyduringalongvoyage. undiscovered plants and animals and But he had discovered something far described their characteristics and more important: Cook’s explorations THE JOURNEY THAT features in great detail. By the end of of the Southern Hemisphere regions REVOLUTIONIZED SCIENCE the voyage, he’d cataloged more than proved Terra Australis does not exist. The Resolution’s crew didn’t have to 400 species that Europeans had not This pivotal realization would forever depend solely on sauerkraut to keep known of. Upon his return to Europe change the maps of the world, i lling them healthy. Cook frequently made he wrote a book, A Voyage Round in the blank spots some 200 years stops at the numerous Paciic islands the World (1777), which established before the i rst satellite photos would

PHOTOS: Granger Historical Picture Archive, Antiquarian Images, N tostockuponsuppliesforthetrip. him as one of the most advanced and provide an accurate view of our planet.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 25 Nov 2018 Nov 2018 Who really 15 15 as areas of the Antarctic. well as Himalayas the in mountains the of to many applies same the in—and foot set ever has one no that caves undiscovered of thousands be may there addition, In globe. the of regions least-known the of one remains basin Amazon the that means which forests, rain the of canopy dense the penetrate example, for cannot, cameras Satellite land. the all ocean. the crossing of capable been have should boats reed their that shown have America—researchers visited have may Egyptians ancient the even And Amer South and Polynesia of inhabitants the between contacts previous to discover the double continent. There is evidence substantial there were ﬁ the not probably was he even However 1000. year the around America 26 complete set of photographs—not even of of even photographs—not of set complete orbiting the planet, we still do not have a Even with more than 1,000 active satellites North tovisit Atlantic the crossed who Erikson, Leif Viking the of aware also are many 1492. And in America “discovered” know, all we as who, Columbus, Christopher name the recognizes Everyone ideas and found America? discoveries.com SMARTER IN IN SMARTER Expeditions Are therestill on our 60 SECONDS map blank spots

ica. ica. rst of Earth? Date Line? Who discoveredthe 15 on the system we use today, with 24 main time zones and the the and longitude. of zones meridian 180th the at set Line Date time International main 24 with today, use we system the on agreed 27 nations from delegates 1884 in but boundary, date unofi an tobe cial considered were locations various Initially day. entire an losing thereby and sun the against sailing east, to west from world the circumnavigated had They found: was books indicated. But it log wasn’t their than later aday home arrived long had they discovered before the explanation voyagers the when confusion of abit quite was There world. th was explorer Ferdinand Magellan 15 How manykindsoflife-formsareknown? marine organisms remain to be described. 91% and of species terrestrial of 86% mean would That on our planet, of million which species. 2.2 are marine life of forms million 8.7 are there suggest Projections toexist. believed species of number total the with it e i rst to sail around the the around sail to rst led by Portuguese 1522, expedition the Between 1519and sounds like a lot, but it isn’t when you compare compare you when isn’t it but alot, like sounds 1.2 That of species organisms. million different Thus far scientists have more cataloged than

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We’re going to test the concept presented in the Q&A of the May 2017 issue. We’re looking for people to take a few copies of iD and leave them in places where others might come across them, such as a doctor’s ofﬁ ce waiting room or a café. This vectoring initiative requires a good geographic distribution across the country, so please email us at [email protected] if you’re interested. (We’ll be keeping track of the sales data in these areas and will share our results.) Our words may be our most powerful tools—and when need be, they can be our best weapons as well. Yet our choice of words and manner of speech can also work against us by exposing us for who we really are…

Nov 2018 28 ideasanddiscoveries.com Body & Mind

ou have a time bomb ticking in “ your body.” These nine words spoken to Thomas Kaberg by his physician will ultimately work like a lethal injection… Cancer. He doubles over as the diagnosis hits him like a punch to the gut. He can’t get the phrase his doctor Ysaid to him out of his mind. His condition quickly deteriorates, and just six months later he is dead. But when the autopsy is performed, the coroner is in for a surprise: Kaberg’s tumors are tiny and have not metastasized. Endocrinologist Clifton Meador has investigated a number of such cases and has an explanation: “People sometimes die not because of cancer but because they believe cancer is going to kill them.” If Kaberg’s doctor had not spoken about a “ticking time bomb” but instead focused on describing the treatment options, the patient might still be alive… We often underestimate the power of words, but they are perhaps the most powerful tools we have for manipulating the behavior of others—apart from money, weapons, and the threat of violence. Spoken words are no more than a set of vibrations produced by a warm stream of air that moves the vocal cords in our throats to make them oscillate, typically at a frequency between 85 and 255 hertz. But only 140 milliseconds after the sound enters a listener’s ear, the brain has already processed all of the spoken words. The effect is immediate and powerful. So powerful—as we will discover in this article—that it takes an enormous feat of concentration to resist it. The words used to bully people can drive them to suicide. On the battleﬁ eld words can drive soldiers to ﬁ ght “to the last drop” of their blood. Words can reprogram our psyche without our being aware of it and make us share our most intimate secrets—or the contents of our bank account. By using the right words, a speaker can establish dominance or ward off an attack. That’s true today more than ever before. The man who came up with the phrase “Yes we can!” for Barack Obama—his speechwriter at the time, Jon Favreau—was paid a salary of $172,000 a year, making him the second-highest-paid employee in the entire White House after the president himself. But what makes words so powerful? Why are they so vital to our survival? And how can we use that power to our advantage? In the pages that follow we’ll examine the seven power factors of words. IN PRINCIPLE, THE BRAIN IS ALWAYS SEEKING TO EXPRESS ITS CURRENT TRAIN OF THOUGHT. AN INTERROGATOR MUST BUILD A BRIDGE TO ALLOW THE TRAIN TO KEEP MOVING. Factor I:

HOWDOYOU GET A Was this confession the result of torture? Of blackmail or threats? Completely unnecessary. In principle, the brain SUSPECT TO TALK? is always seeking to express its current train of thought. To guard against making incautious statements, the brain ichael Buchanan* is being interrogated in a has a kind of monitor that rationally evaluates whether tiny windowless room. The charge: homicide. we ought to say something or not. We’ll either conclude: They’ve got nothing on me, he thinks. As long “Yes, that’s okay, I can say that,” or “No, bad idea, that M as I don’t slip up now. In his mind he goes over will have negative consequences.” his alibi for the night in question for the umpteenth time. Detective Thomas Hauser* is seated across the table from Stress, alcohol, and sleep deprivation him. Hauser realizes that all of the evidence so far is only weaken the brain’s monitor function. circumstantial. There is nothing to prove that Buchanan This barrier in the brain can be broken down, especially committed the crime. But a look at the statement Buchanan when we are under the inl uence of alcohol or suffering gave police tells Hauser the suspect is hiding something. from sleep deprivation. Under such circumstances, we And only a few hours after the interrogation is completed, tend to reveal secrets involuntarily. Stress and conl ict can Buchanan makes his confession… also loosen the tongue. In order to make subjects of an

*Names have been changed by the editors.

Nov 2018 30 ideasanddiscoveries.com Factor II: interrogation nervous and encourage them to slip up, it’s often enough to speak rapidly, curse, frequently interrupt the suspect, or criticize the person and hurl allegations. CAN A METAPHOR Police detectives like Thomas Hauser use these tricks during an interrogation when their suspicions are raised BE FATAL? because of the suspect’s choice of words and a lack of detailed information. (See the Dictionary of Manipulation t8:46A.M. on September 11, 2001, a hijacked on page 37.) “Using the RPM method, the interrogator airliner crashes into the North Tower of New encourages the suspect to express what he’s thinking,” York’s World Trade Center. Just 17 minutes later, explains police superintendent Karsten Schilling. (RPM A a second airliner collides with the South Tower. stands for rationalization, projection, and minimization.) Within seconds of the i rst strike, rescue units have been First Hauser presents plausible reasons to justify why the dispatched to the WTC. The scope of the disaster will suspect committed the crime: “It was an extreme situation. prove to be enormous. Everyone aboard the planes dies Under the circumstances, you acted completely normally.” along with almost 2,800 additional people on the ground. Then comes projection, which essentially means holding Initially the government talks about the high number of someone else responsible for the action by transferring “victims.” But soon the diction changes to “losses”—an the burden of the guilt. For instance: “Clearly you were important distinction. Crimes result in victims while wars provoked. It was your only way out of a bad situation.” are numbered in losses. Within hours of the attacks, the Minimization is an attempt to trivialize the event: “It’s not eventsaretransformedlinguisticallyfromaciviliantoa that bad. Around the world, something like this happens military footing. By 8:30 P.M., President George W. Bush a hundred times a day.” Thus the homicide becomes an is already speaking of standing together “to win the war accident, a mistake. The RPM process effectively creates against terrorism.” It won’t be long before he is referring a kind of red carpet for the brain to parade its thoughts. to a “crusade”—a word that conjures images of Christian In the end, Michael Buchanan took the bait and confessed. military expeditions to the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. Figurative language in the form of metaphors inl uences Pressure and deceit are used in the Reid technique. our attitudes. It has an effect on what we want and what Its sole purpose is to obtain a confession. It can lead we do. “Metaphors don’t just win elections,” says linguist even the toughest criminals to break their silence… George Lakoff, a retired University of California professor Even more effective than the RPM method is the Reid ofcognitivescienceandlinguistics.“Metaphorscankill.” > technique, named after former Chicago police ofi cer and polygraph expert John E. Reid. It consists of a series of steps that use psychological pressure and deceit to extract a confession. First the interrogator tells the suspect that the guilt is obvious, thereby creating a stressful situation. If the suspect denies guilt, the interrogator abruptly ends the session with a warning of the consequences of further denial. In the next session the interrogator steps up the psychological pressure—for example, by confronting the suspect in ever-closer proximity—making it all the more difi cult to think clearly. The “bad cop” can tell that the pressure is working by assessing the suspect’s posture, which should rel ect defeat and resignation. Then the “bad cop” is replaced by a “good cop,” who provides the suspect with two alternatives: One version of the story “The crusade against terror” offers a morally acceptable reason for the crime, while September 11, 2001, George W. Bush the other would be considered highly reprehensible. Both The president’s response to the attacks of September 11th alternatives require the suspect to make a confession. delineated the hunt for the terrorists as a holy war—though By using this interrogation technique, John Reid became those are the sort of words that terrorists themselves use. celebrated for his ability to get a confession out of even the most hardened criminals. Factor III: Lera Boroditsky, a psychologist at Stanford University, has demonstrated the power of words in an experiment. Study participants heard one of two versions of a text HOW DO WORDS describing the rising rate of crime in a ictional city called “Addison.” Only one word was different in the two texts. MANIPULATE THE BRAIN? One said: “Crime is a beast ravaging the city,” while the other substituted “virus” for the word “beast.” The study ecantestthepowerofwordsonourselves. subjects were then asked for solutions that would lower Think of something that would promptly elicit the crime rate in the city. The results: 71% of participants apositiveresponsefromyou.Forexample: who had read “beast” called for stricter law enforcement W “Wouldyouhelpyourbestfriend?”Inmaking compared with 54% who’dread“virus.”Thelattergroup’s yourresponse(“OfcourseIwould”),tryshakingyourhead members were much more likely to seek out the cause of inanegativegestureatthesametime.Howlongdoes it the problem and treat it by enacting social reform. Even takeyoutodothatsuccessfully?Onaverage,ittakes a more striking: Though the texts were identical apart from fewsecondstogetitrightnomatterhowhardyoumay that single word, all of the participants underscored their beconcentrating.Ifitwaseasyforyou,perhapsyouhave respective arguments by citing the exact same statistics. atalentforlyingorparticularlygoodcontrolofyourbody. Metaphors work behind the scenes to affect thoughts. Wordscansteerthebodyinacertaindirectionveryfast, “Metaphors structure and inluence the information we often overriding rational contradictory thoughts. use to make decisions,” says Boroditsky. “All of the other information is subordinated to this concept.” We sweep GIVE QUICK RESPONSES TO any facts that fail to it with the concept under the rug. THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: George Lakoff says metaphors can conceal as well as WHATFALLSFROMTHESKYINWINTER? illuminate. Linguistic images—in the form of words—have WHATCOLORISAWEDDINGDRESS? such an intense effect becausetheyaddressourbrains WHAT DO COWS DRINK? on many different levels. The more effective the stimulus, the greater the number of senses that will be stimulated. “Snow,”“white,”“milk”—that’showabout90%ofpeople An assertion that somethingiscold,forexample,isonly answer these questions, although the correct answer to targeted at our conscious thoughts. The statement “the the third question is “water.” The reason: The irst two coffee is cold,” on the other hand, additionally stimulates questionsleadustoanassociationwiththecolorwhite. our sense of smell. This will make the statement far more Whenthebraincatchesthesignalword“cow”inthethird question,itimmediatelythinksof“milk,”whichiswhite. Lera Boroditsky, psychologist Advertising makes very good use of these subconscious mechanisms, which can even trick our taste buds. Which “There are of these teas would you rather drink: “Tropical Sensation” key words or “Fireside Warmth”? Researchers at the University of Applied Studies and Research in Germany devised a test that can push to assess people’s preference. Result: “Tropical Sensation” our minds tasted more exotic, fruity, and refreshing than “Fireside in a deﬁnite Warmth”—even though both of the teas were identical. direction.” Manfred Gotta, also known as “the king of names,” makes a living by thinking up the perfect monikers for products: powerful because memories of stale cold coffee provoke The combination of letters does not have to make sense, a sensation of distaste. The same thing occurs when we it just has to sound good and be patentable and easy to hear a sentence such as: “The test was a real letdown.” pronounce anywhere in the world. Product descriptions These words not only activate the prefrontal cortex, which have rules of their own that are equally arbitrary. Various regulates our goal-related thoughts and actions, but also studies have shown that consumers think baked goods the motor cortex, which is responsible for the execution taste better if the package claims they are “made from of voluntary movements. “Though we may be thinking in grandma’s recipe” or that they are simply “traditional” in metaphors, in the brain the literal meaning of the words is manufacture. But all the cookies in the studies were the resonating,” says neuroscientist Friedemann Pulvermüller. exact same goods with two different kinds of packaging.

Nov 2018 32 ideasanddiscoveries.com Factor IV: HOW DO YOU HANDLE formerheadoftheFBI’sLosAngelesieldofice.Byway A HOSTAGE TAKER? of comparison: Armed rescue missions have a fatality rate of more than 10%. “ esIunderstand,”saysthewomanonthephone. Aboveall,timeisthedecidingfactor:Fortheroughly “I hear you, Ricky.” The man on the other end of 4,000peopletakenhostageworldwideinatypicalyear, thelinehasjustthreatenedtoshootsomeone thechanceofsurvivalincreaseswitheachpassinghour. Y unlesshegetsahelicopterwithinonehour.For “A negotiator adopts the vocabulary of the hostage taker Captain Kip Rustenburg, such conditions are part of her alongwithhisstyleofspeechandspeakingspeed,”says job.SheisacrisisnegotiatorwiththeMaricopaCounty GaryNoesner,aformertophostagenegotiatorfortheFBI. Sheriff’sOficeinPhoenixandatrueprofessionalwhen it comes to dealing with hostage takers. Her sworn duty is THE TWO PEOPLE INVOLVED HAVE TO SWAP ROLES. to thwart all of their demands and ensure each deadline ANEGOTIATORHASTOUSEWORDSTOPAINT passeswithoutincident.Becauseifahostagetakergets THEHOSTAGETAKERASPARTOFTHESOLUTION away,manymorelivescouldbeindanger—atthispoint, RATHER THAN PART OF THE PROBLEM. thereisstill“only”onetoworryabout. In practice it would go something like this: “Ricky, I want “There are three acceptable outcomes in this scenario,” youtoknowthatwhiletheguy[nopersonalnameused] explainsRustenburg.“Thehostagetakergetsarrested. hasbeenshot[passivevoice,noaccusation]inthefoot [notacriticalwound],inasituationlikethisanythingcan Gary Noesner, former FBI agent happen by accident [not intentionally]. But the way you’ve takencontrolsincethenisgreat—nooneelsehasbeen “In our conversations hurt.[Thehostagetakerispartofthesolutioninsteadof we work to build trust theproblem.]That’scommendable,andwe’reallaware step by step.” ofit[implyinglessercharges].Let’sseeifwecaninda peaceful resolution so we can all [not just the hostages] Hegetskilledduringarescueattempt.Orhekillshimself.” get out of here safely.” The most important rule: “Whatever Rustenburg’s task is to ensure it ends the irst way. Why? we promise them, we have to stay true to our word and “Because studies show that the survival rate for everyone deliveron,”saysRustenburg.“Becauseiftheythinkwe’re involvedisabout97percent,”saysJamesDeSarno,the lying, we’ve lost our mightiest weapon: the spoken word.” > OBAMA IS dead, I don’t care.”

GERALDO RIVERA SLIP OF THE TONGUE Confusing Barack Obama with Osama bin Laden ended harmlessly for Fox News host Geraldo Rivera. But under other circumstances, a slip of the tongue can trigger a war or force a company into bankruptcy—if the listeners don’t realize it was a mistake.

Factor V: This “white bear problem” was noticed by the Russian author FyodorDostoyevsky,whorealizedthatwhentold WHY DOES THE TONGUE specii cally nottothinkofapolarbear,themindcanthink of nothing else. In the 1980s, Harvard psychologist Daniel SOMETIMES DEFEAT Wegner noted that subconscious processes in our brain are constantlyworkingtokeepourinnermostdesiresfrom THE BRAIN? surfacing in theformofspeechandcreatingapersonal disaster. Thiseffortmakesmostpeopleexperienceaslip “ bama is dead, I don’t care,” said Geraldo Rivera of the tongueonceortwicepereverythousandwords. with the cameras rolling after he heard that Navy Talking at a rate of 150 words a minute means we misspeak SEALs killed Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. every seven minutes. Most of these are inconsequential. O Oops—a slip of the tongue? Or had Rivera been Chances are you don’t even remember more than one thing speaking from the heart? The Republican TV personality you’d said by accident in the past week. had been a i erce critic of the Democratic president. Was But what’s taking place in the brain when we misspeak? Chancellor Angela Merkel expressing her actual opinion When we preparetoutterathought,theaverageperson when she “accidently” called her conservative opponent draws upon astoredvocabularyofperhaps42,000words. at the time, Roland Koch, by the name of Roland Kotz? (The top 5% ofEnglishspeakersknow52,000,thebottom (In German “kotz!” means “barf!”—used as an expletive.) 5% some 27,000,accordingtoarecentstudy.)Normally “Do I agree with Freud that all slips are Freudian? No. But the brain’s cerebral cortex—the area that governs thought I do think that there is such a thing,” says Michael Motley, and language—isinirmcontrol.Butsometimesanother a psychologist at the University of California, Davis. He part of the brainwillwinoutandwecreateanewword. demonstrated it in an experiment in which the presence Similar to a mutationinDNA,newmaterialisfabricated of a young woman “in a short skirt and translucent blouse” from the old as we swap around vowels and consonants. induced young male subjects to utter more spoonerisms The effect is only positive if it enriches our language. with sexual implications (e.g., saying “fast passion” instead of “past fashion” and “happy sex” instead of “sappy hex”) than the men in a control group. When the participants in Daniel Wegner, psychologist yet another group were told they might receive an electric shock during the experiment, they made mistakes such “Our subconscious mind as saying “cursed wattage” instead of “worst cottage.” is programmed to always The brain must work at full tilt in challenging situations, think the worst.” such as when it’s being ordered not to think of something.

Nov 2018 34 ideasanddiscoveries.com Factor VI: CAN WORDS HEAL A PATIENT?

tthatpointIdidn’thavetheabilitytothinkabout “ SPEECH CENTER the future—to worry, to anticipate or perceive it— Speaking and understanding are handled by atleast,notwithwords.Fortheirstfourorive two different areas of the cerebrum. Thinking requires both areas working in tandem. A weeksIjustexisted,”recallsClaudeScottMoss. In 1972 a stroke left the psychologist unable to speak, makinghimfeelalmostlikeheweredeadinhislivingbody. Buthowcouldtheincidentaffectperceptionsoradically? Healing through the use of language is now part of the Whydoweloseoursenseofselfwhenweloseourwords? training of aspiring physicians. Each of the approximately 200,000 physician-patient consultations that the average SIMPLE WORDS CAN SHIFT doctorisinvolvedinduringalongcareerrepresentsboth THELIMITSOFTHEBODY ariskandanopportunity:Wordshavebeenfoundtobe Without language, thinking is impossible. Each thought is capable of helping but also of harming patients. Studies in effect a short monologue. Brain scans show that while showthatagivenmedicationtendstoworkbetterifthe weareconsideringaproposition,theBrocaareaofthe doctor emphasizes its beneits instead of its side effects. brain (involved in speech function) and the Wernicke area Inaddition,patientsreceivingashotfeellesspainifthe (involvedintheunderstandingofspeech)areconstantly doctorornursetalksaboutwhytheinjectionisneeded playingakindofpingpong.Nevertheless,thebrainhas rather than warning of the prick of the impending “jab.” aprotectivemechanismtopreventusfromformulatinga “I know of few remedies that are more effective than a spoken answer to our own questions. If nothing else, that well-chosenword,”saysAmericancardiologistandNobel furthers our speed of thought: It takes between 300 and laureate Bernard Lown. 700 milliseconds to pronounce a word, but we can think Butwordscanalsobedeleteriousandmakepeopleill: at least twice as fast. However sometimes the protective Inthecaseofdepressiontheinnervoiceisworkingagainst mechanismfailsandwedonotalwaysimmediatelynotice. the body. Constant brooding and mulling over depressive Ina2006studyconductedbypsychologistAdamWinsler thoughts and feelings can cause a person’s psyche to be atGeorgeMasonUniversity,46outof48femalesubjects reprogrammed in a negative way. Patients suffering from admittedtotalkingtothemselvesonceinawhile.Perhaps hallucinations are not able to recognize the inner voice thisisatechniquethebrainusestoincreaseperformance. insidetheirheadastheirown.Sometimesthiscondition Inalaterstudy,Winslerfoundthatchildrenwhotalkedto can occur within an otherwise healthy individual as well. themselves were more successful at completing a task. “Innerspeechisoneofthemostimportanttoolsweuse Bernard Lown, cardiologist to become aware of the self,” says psychologist Alain MorinofCanada’sMountRoyalUniversity.Such“pep “A well-chosen talks” can even improve the body’s capacity for work. wordcanhavea University of Worcester sports scientist Christian Edwards medicinal effect.” tested the performance of athletes who used self-talk beforetryingtojumpashighaspossible.Saying“Ican Charles Fernyhough directs the Hearing the Voice project jump higher” led them to jump with greater force than at Durham University in the UK. According to his studies, those who didn’t talk to themselves. Detailed instructions “Around5to15percentofregularpeoplehavehadsome canalsoinluenceperformance,accordingtoEleniZetou, infrequent or one-off voice-hearing experiences.” asportsscientistatDemocritusUniversityinGreece.A It’sclearthatlanguagehasanincrediblepoweroverus. groupofvolleyballplayersdescribedtheirmovementsin Usuallyweonlynoticethispowerifwehappentoloseit. detail as they practiced serving. A control group remained LikeClaudeScottMoss,whohadtolearntospeakagain— silent.Intheend,“self-talkers”scored44outof50points taking one tiny step after another until he was, once again, forskillwhilethequietgroupscoredonly35onaverage. thepersonhe’dbeenbefore. > Frequency patterns in sound waves of the human voice

Adeepervoicecanmean $187,000 more in annual income. Result of a study by Duke University and UC San Diego

Factor VII:

CAN A WORD REVEAL powerful voice and rhetorical skill made fanatics of many ofhislisteners.AlGore’svoiceputhimatadisadvantage: MY PERSONALITY? Asapresidentialcandidatehewasacknowledgedtobe bright—but his voice was considered boring. Many experts “ ello.”Ittakeslessthanhalfasecondtosaythe believeGore’smannerofspeakingwaspartlyresponsible word,yetalistenerinstantlyformsanopinionof forhislosstoGeorgeW.Bushinthe2000election.While the speaker’s personality based on the sound. Bushmayhavesoundedlessarticulateandinformed, H That’stheresultofastudybypsychologistPhil voters found those faults easier to forgive. McAleeratScotland’sUniversityofGlasgow.Herecorded 64 people reading the word “hello” and then played the ADECREASEOF20HERTZ recordings to 320 study participants to get their reactions. RAISESTHECREDIBILITYOFAMESSAGE Hefoundthattheygenerallyagreedaboutthespeakers’ Voiceexpertsagreethatadeepvoicemakesapositive personalities—whether these were felt to be trustworthy, impression, is considered a sign of capability, and inspires aggressive, conident, or warm, for example. respect. An experiment conducted by researchers at Duke Thusasinglewordcanhaveamultitudeofmeanings University and the University of California, San Diego, found dependingonhowitispronounced.Ourvocalcordsand that people with deeper voices are more likely to get ahead. ty; Mark Airs/Getty; Ben Killen Rosenberg/Getty; mouthsdotheworkincreatingtheimpression.Whenever Thesamemessagedeliveredatapitch20hertzloweris ocus; PR (5). ILLUSTRATIONS: Vecteezy/Getty. wespeakorsing,ourvocalcordsvibrateasweexpelair deemed more effective. After hearing two different voices, from our lungs—440 times per second to produce the “A” the study’s 100 participants—both male and female—said thatorchestrasusefortuning.Bytheway,inextremecases theywouldrathervoteforthepersonwiththelowervoice, the human vocal range extends beyond the highest and which they considered more trustworthy. The conclusion lowestnotesonapiano,whichnormallyhas88keys. wasconirmedintheAmericanbusinesssectoraswell: With the exception of the eyes, the muscles of the human In an analysis of almost 800 speech samples from top larynx have more nerves than any other part of the body. male executives, researchers found those with a deeper Thesoundofthevoicecanalsoemphasizeorobscure voice(lowerby22.1hertz)receivedannualcompensation

amessage:AdolfHitlerrarelysaidanythingnovel,buthis thatwas$187,000higherperyearonaverage. PHOTOS: Aliraza Khatri’s Photography/Getty; Stephen Smith/GetAlamy; DDP; Peter Kramer/Staff/Getty; kparis/Getty; Agentur F

Nov 2018 36 ideasanddiscoveries.com A DICTIONARY Often a single word can completely change a sentence. A word that points the of Manipulation listener in the right or wrong direction. A word that indicates the speaker is lying. Making clever use of the power of words can provide decisive advantages in both professional and everyday life…

WHICH WORDS HELP ME GET WHAT I WANT?

WE conveys commonality A PERSON’S OWN NAME makes the YES is spoken almost reflexively in response to a and belonging. Our brain listener feel less anonymous. Whether the name statement that corresponds with our views. A skilled produces the “happiness is used to address a public official, a business rhetorician usually first tests the waters with a general hormone” dopamine when contact, or simply a friend or an acquaintance, statement that is easy to say “yes” to. Step by step, we feel we’re part of a group. addressing people by their name increases the such speakers then state their position more concretely, A public speaker who uses speaker’s likelihood of success. Not only do ensuring the listener’s brain stays in “yes” mode. At this “we” automatically elicits people enjoy hearing their name—it also evokes point, saying “no” means withdrawing our affirmation of a positive response. the good reputation that they’re eager to protect. the previous statements—and is felt to be a contradiction.

BECAUSE OF and DUE TO satisfy our human expectation for a reason. IMMEDIATELY and RIGHT AWAY are words that That was shown in a surprising experiment designed by psychologist Benzion provoke an almost drug-like positive response in our brains. Chanowitz: People waiting to use a copy machine were asked to give up their McMaster University psychologist James MacKillop used brain place in line in two different ways. “May I use the machine?” led to 60% of scans to demonstrate how the mere prospect of immediate respondents saying “yes.” Providing additional information that the request is satisfaction provokes a pleasurable subconscious response. urgent (“May I use it because I’m in a hurry?”) raised the positive response rate But having to wait until “later” activates the conscious mind in to 94%. Thus public transportation delay announcements are often accompanied the frontal cortex. We think what we can have now is better— by justiications like “due to a technical problem”—people just like to know why. even if there may be a more advantageous option down the line. WHICH WORDS ARE TABOO?

UNFORTUNATELY has a BUT and NONETHELESS MONEY is a symbol of material WORRY, TROUBLE, negative effect because it is often provoke inner resistance. When goods and makes us more selfish. and SUFFERING have followed by reasons as to why they appear at the beginning Psychologist Daniel Kahneman an effect akin to physical something is not working. Our of a sentence, they can trigger conducted a (silent) experiment torture. In an experiment at hearing switches to “pass-through aggression. Rhetoric experzt Rolf in which the participants reacted the University of Jena, the mode” and the brain begins to Ruhleder says such words are to a bundle of banknotes on a participants’ pain memories search for alternatives or solutions “explosive” because they throw monitor by becoming substantially were activated simply by to the perceived problem. people into a defensive state. less willing to help others. hearing these words. WHICH WORDS EXPOSE A LIAR?

YOU and ONE are indicators of THEN, DURING, and NEXT. Liars BELIEVE ROUGHLY, PERHAPS, and a deliberate change in perspective: like to keep things in chronological order ME and PROBABLY. Beating around “Most liars avoid using the word ‘I,’” because lying is complicated: There is too HONESTLY the bush like this is a danger signal says University of Texas psychologist much to remember. “Most liars tell the truth are typical to the skilled listener: The speaker James Pennebaker. Normally the words up to the point where they want to conceal signs of lying. does not have a solid story to tell “I,” “me,” and “my” make up about 6% information, skip over the withheld portion, The liar is and is trying to leave a back door of our speech (one word out of 16). If and then tell the truth again,” says retired running low open to escape from his lies. This someone uses them a lot less often, FBI agent Jack Schafer. Text bridges like on content tactic of not remembering clearly look out! Liars try to avoid making the transition words above serve as markers and getting is popular in the courtroom. If new clear statements and prefer formulating for where withheld information begins. In nervous. Liars facts emerge over time, this strategy things in an impersonal way. Instead that part of the story, the liar provides few seek to force allows the speaker l exibility to adjust of saying, “I was not out at 11 P.M.,” details. So if concrete elements suddenly their listener the previous statements and deny they’re more likely to say, “One would become sparse, a listener should beware. to accept the having lied. This technique can be not go out alone late at night.” It helps A useful trick: Ask the person to tell you veracity of countered by forcing the speaker to to pin them down: “Did you go or not?” the story in reverse. Liars often can’t do it. their lies. commit to clearly stating the facts.

Science

ideasanddiscoveries.com 39 Nov 2018 PEERING INTO THE COSMOS The Paranal Observatory in Chile is equipped with the most modern telescopes in the world. Built by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) research organization, their purpose is to help astronomers explore the Milky Way and other galaxies.

It’slikebeinginanotherworld.HereonChile’s mountain that is home to the Paranal Observatory—the high plateau, the Altiplano, which in some places MilkyWayappearstoriseintothesky.Visitorscansee risestoalmost13,000feetabovesealevel,everything theirbreathinthecoldastheylookup,spellbound,to is different. The air is thinner, the light is more intense, stare in astonishment. Thousands of stars are visible and the landscape is simply incomparable to any other tothenakedeye.Themountain’sslopesandvalleysare on the planet. Wild alpacas crisscross the seemingly bathed in silvery light. Gazing into the night sky above endless expanse of this high mountain plateau, which alargecity,youmightseeperhaps50pointsoflight, isnearlyasbigasthestateofFlorida.Thelakeshere ifyou’relucky.ButhereintheisolationoftheAltiplano, areamongtheoldestonEarth.TheAtacamaDesertis the stars seem closer to us than anywhere else on Earth. thearidheartoftheAltiplano,aregionwhereitalmost This attribute has made the Altiplano a destination not never rains. But to only visit this breathtaking landscape only for ordinary star seekers but also for astronomers. duringthedaymeansmissingoutonthebestpartofit. The biggest telescope on Cerro Paranal is the Very Large Therealmagicdoesn’trevealitselfuntilafterdark. Telescope(VLT),consistingoffourseparateinstruments The sky here is cloudless nearly every night. And the thatcancombinetheirimagestoserveasaﬁfth,even clarity of the mountain air is practically unparalleled. more powerful telescope. Astronomers from around the Justafewmomentsago,whenthesunwasstillshining, worldhaveﬂockedherefordecadestotakeadvantage thetemperaturewasapleasant68°F.Nowthemercury of the clean dry air that allows the Paranal telescopes to has started falling steadily by the minute and will soon provide a glimpse of distant worlds that would otherwise dropbelowfreezing.Oncethelastraysofsunshinehave remain hidden. The profoundly impressive view includes

disappearedbelowthesummitofCerroParanal—the galaxies that are 13 billion light-years away from us. PR. 500px; PHOTOS:

Nov 2018 40 ideasanddiscoveries.com SMARTER IN 60 SECONDS Space

Where is Voyager 1 headed? Since its launch on 15 September 5, 1977, the space probe Voyager 1 has been steadily exploring our solar system for more than 40 years. In August of 2012 it became the i rst human-made object to leave our solar system and enter interstellar space. But that was not the end of Voyager’s journey. The space probe continues to l y toward the star Gliese 445, which is 17.6 light-years from Earth and moving toward Voyager 1 and our solar system. By the time the probe reaches the distant star, Gliese 445 will be only 3.4 light-years from us. Can an astronaut see the difference But don’t get too excited—that will take another 40,000 years. between East and West Berlin? BeforehereturnedtoEarthfromhisfinalspaceflighton Can we see distant galaxies with the naked eye? 15 May14,2013,CanadianastronautChrisHadfieldposted 15 The Milky Way consists of at least 100 billion stars. If you photos from the International Space Station (ISS) on his weretocollectalloftheeurocoinsincirculationnow,from Twitteraccount.AmongthemwasaphotoofBerlin,whichshowed one-cent pieces to two-euro coins, the total would be close aclearlineofdemarcationbetweentheformereasternandwestern tothatnumber.Butit’sactuallypossibletoseeevenmorestarsthan partsofthecity.Theprimarydifferencewasinthestreetlighting: thatwiththenakedeye—allittakesistherightconditions.Ifyouare EastBerlinstartedusingsodium-vaporlampswiththeiryellowglow inanabsolutelydarkplaceonaclearnight,suchasCerroParanal whileitwasstillapartoftheGermanDemocraticRepublic(GDR); inChile,andtheweatherconditionsareoptimal,youcouldcatcha WestBerlinhadmostlyfluorescentandmercury-vaporlighting, glimpse of another galaxy too. The Andromeda Galaxy, for example, which both produce white light. The difference is still clearly visible— is 2.5 million light-years from Earth—but thanks to its diameter of atleasttoastronauts. 220,000 light-years, it is visible from Earth with the naked eye.

How long would it take to cross the Milky Way?

15 Our home galaxy, the Milky Way, has a diameter of take approximately 100 billion years. By way of comparison: 100,000 light-years. This staggering ﬁ gure is equal to Our universe is only 13.8 billion years old, while our Sun is a 620,000,000,000,000,000 miles or 24,800,000,000,000 relatively young 4.6 billion years—and it’s now about halfway times around the Equator. If you wanted to ﬂ y from one end of through its life. Scientists estimate it has another 5 billion years the galaxy to the other with a modern rocket, the journey would or so of activity left in it.

100,000 light-years PHOTOS: NASA (2); PR. (2); NASA PHOTOS: ideasanddiscoveries.com 41 Nov 2018 DO YOU HAVE A QUESTION FOR OUR TEAM OF EXPERTS? Just send us an email! [email protected] CAN SHIPS HAVE LEGS? The America’s Cup is the oldest trophy in This drastically decreases drag, making it possible international sporting events. Although the for the catamaran to fly across the water at speeds schedule is irregular (every three to four years of up to a mile a minute. But these foils not only since 2000), the fastest sailboats in the world have increase the speed; they also greatly improve the been competing for the Cup since 1851. The next boat’s maneuverability. If the skipper does it right, competition, the 36th, will be taking place in 2021. the hull is rarely in the water. But it’s not so easy: Much has changed in the 167-year history of the Sometimes grievous mishaps have happened, competition. The biggest recent change was the including one in 2013 in which a crew member admission of AC72 wingsail catamarans in 2013. lost his life in a training accident. Since then, new The innovation: The catamarans are outfitted with rules have required each sailor to have personal appendages called hydrofoils and rigid wingsails. flotation, a helmet, a harness, at least one knife, Thus equipped, the racing vessels can reach twice and a personal air supply of at least 12 gallons. the speed of the wind and can hydrofoil on water. These new design elements are critical to racing success. The foils are L-shaped swords beneath the catamarans and function like aircraft wings. They create so much lift that the 6.5-ton boat is raised out of the water when it reaches 20 mph. Ask a simple question, get a simple answer? Think again! Scientists often have to work meticulously to come up with explanations for basic processes—and sometimes they inadvertently discover marvels that can change our perception of the world.

DEFENDING CHAMPION In 2013 the sailors of Oracle Team USA 17 defended their America’s Cup title. In 2017 Oracle Team USA wasthefavoriteonceagain—butlostintheendto Aotearoa, sailed by the Emirates Team New Zealand. Inthe36theventthat’sscheduledfor2021,Aotearoa will be defending the title.

TRIED AND TRUE The peoples of the southwestern Paciﬁc developed large double-hulled vessels as early as 1500 BC.This type of boat was largely unknown in the West before theScottishinventorPatrickMillerhadtheideaof making a steam-powered double-hulled pleasure boat, which was successfully tried in the late 1780s.

HYDROFOILS Thefoilsworklikeanairplane’swings—andgivethe catamaransaddedlift.Onceaspeedofabout20mph hasbeenachieved,theyraisetheboatoutofthewater, allowing it to reach a top speed of 60 mph.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 43 Nov 2018 questions&answers

THE TYPES OF CELLS THAT 10 LIVE THE LONGEST Though the cells of the human body generally live for an average of 7 to 10 years, some of them survive for a considerably longer (or shorter) time than that.

1 PANCREATIC CELLS These cells live for only about 1 year. Nonetheless, they survive a lot longer than skin cells, which have a life expectancy of just 19 days.

How much does the key to happiness cost? 2 LIVER CELLS Among its other functions, the liver is responsible for In November 1922, when Albert Einstein learned that he had won the detoxification of poisonous substances in the body. the Nobel Prize for Physics, he was preparing to leave for Tokyo. These cells need to be replaced every 300 to 500 days. Upon his arrival he stayed at the Imperial Hotel, where he received a message from a courier. Einstein was embarrassed that he did not have any change for a tip, so instead he wrote down his theory of 3 BLOOD STEM CELLS happiness on a sheet of hotel stationery and handed it to the man: Hematopoietic stem cells are generalized stem cells “A calm and modest life brings more happiness than the pursuit of from which all blood cells form. They live for 5 years. success combined with constant restlessness.” In October 2017, this piece of paper was sold at auction for $1.56 million. A second Einsteinian message saying “Where there’s a will, there’s a way” 4 FAT CELLS has fetched $240,000. Our body’s fat is designed for energy storage, and the cells can live for a long time: up to 8 years.

5 SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS Skeletal muscle cells are replaced approximately every 15 years. Other muscle cells may live even longer.

6 INTESTINAL CELLS While the cells of our intestinal mucosa live for only about 5 days, other cells in our intestines can survive for almost 16 years.

7 CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS Researchers have discovered that the cells of the heart are rarely replaced. They live for about 40 years.

8 EGG CELLS Egg cells (ova) live for 50 years. During the interval of time between a woman’s birth and menopause, Can animals be left-pawed these cells are not regenerated. or right-finned? 9 EYE LENS CELLS For a long time researchers believed that “handedness” existed The cells of the inner lens of the eyes were created only in great apes, which include human beings. Now scientists at when we were still in the embryonic stage—and these the University of California, Santa Cruz, have discovered that blue same cells will die with us. whales turn much more frequently to the left in shallow depths. This adds to evidence of “handedness” after scientists reported that two species of Australian kangaroo use their left paws almost 10 BRAIN CELLS exclusively to eat and groom themselves. Although handedness In a rodent study, researchers discovered transplanted is believed to be rare in quadrupeds, sheep have been found to brain cells can live twice as long as the organism from have better facial recognition when using their left eye. which they’re taken. Human cells could live for 200 years. WHY WOULD YOU SPLIT A SKYSCRAPER?

The illustrious Iraqi-born British architect Zaha Hadid passed away on March 31, 2016, but one of her most impressive buildings was not finished until two years later. The Leeza SOHO tower in Beijing’s Lize Financial District is an architectural masterpiece and a real eye-catcher. Special feature: The tower is split into two halves, making it look like two intertwined towers with a large space in the middle. And that space makes it a world champion: At a height of 623 feet, this is the highest atrium in the world. But the design has a greater purpose than simply setting a world record. Hadid had another important concern: The tower was built above a subway tunnel, which passes beneath the atrium. Thus Leeza SOHO is becoming a new public transport hub for Beijing.

679 feet is the height of the Leeza SOHO, making it one of Beijing’s tallest skyscrapers. But the real highlight of the building is its record-setting atrium, which is 623 feet high.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 45 Nov 2018 questions&answers

Along with the Pyramids of Giza, the second sphinx on the Giza Plateau— Great Sphinx is among Egypt’s most within sight of the most famous one. familiar landmarks. It dates back to the Satellite images have revealed an time of the Pharaoh Khafre (about 2500 inconspicuous hill that could enclose BC) and consists of a lion’s body with the counterpart to the Great Sphinx. a human head. It is the most famous And in fact, historical Greek, Roman, IS THERE A SECOND sphinx in the world, and at a height of and Arab sources actually mention a 66 feet and a length of 240 feet it’s the second sphinx. Egyptologist Bassam largest as well. But this monumental El Shammaa believes it may have been structure is different in yet another way: damaged or destroyed by a lightning GREAT SPHINX? It stands alone. Usually sphinxes (or strike because it was often depicted sphinges) were built in pairs. And now with a metal crown, which would have researchers believe they have found a conducted electricity to the ground.

In 1378 a Suﬁ Muslim named Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr had reportedly destroyed the Sphinx’s nose— and was subsequently executed for vandalism.

courtesy of Zaha Hadid Architects; image rendered by Cosmoscube. www.cosmoscube.org; Adobe Stock, Shutterstock/Bauer Stock (10); Menahem Kahana, Peter Kim, Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Heinrich van den Berg, SAVANNA NOMADS African wild dogs do not normally have a ﬁ x e d t e r r i t o r y . B u t when they give birth to puppies, they give up their nomadic existence for the next six months.

DO WILD DOGS VOTE? African wild dogs (aka painted dogs) live in as whether it’s time to head off for a hunt. packs and stick together even when they But the practice is not as democratic as it HOW CAN YOU DIVE BENEATH aren’t hunting. Now behavioral scientists sounds, as some animals are more equal A CLOSED SHEET OF ICE? from Australia and the United States have than others: When the dominant male and found that the animals will sneeze to “vote” female are involved in the sneezing, it takes It’s like being in a different world: swimming in when the pack is making a decision, such less time to decide. ice-cold water with a thick layer of ice above your head. Ice diving holds obvious hazards for the diver. Getting lost is the biggest one: It is very difficult for divers to keep their orientation. That’s why even the most experienced divers never go alone and always have a tether to help them find their way back out. The line is secured to something on the surface, a boat or a tree on shore. A support team monitors the line and stands by to send out a rescue for any divers who are in danger.

The solution will appear in the next Brainteaser issue, on stands November 9, 2018.

I’ll ask you a question for which there is one clearly correct answer—either yes Where did or no—but it will be impossible for you to answer my question. Perhaps you may know the correct answer, but you will The interstellar object called Oumuamua speed could not have been our Sun. Its not give it to me. Anyone else might be is different from anything astronomers trajectory is elliptical, and therefore once it able to provide the answer, but not you. have seen before and it’s the first object leaves our solar system it will never come known to have originated outside of our back again. It was initially believed to be Solution from the September 2018 issue: When solar system and flown so close to Earth. a comet, but comets in our solar system Oli looks at the odometer again after having driven When it streaked past in October 2017, typically have a lot of dust and none was for about an hour, the reading it shows is 79097. scientists estimated the object is about detected around Oumuamua. So where Therefore he has driven 110 miles. half a mile long, which is 10 times its width. did it come from? It seems that it came It was moving at almost 200,000 miles from another solar system in the galaxy, per hour—so fast that the source of its but scientists don’t know which one.

Hoiseung Jung/Getty Images (5); M. Kornmesser/DPA Picture Alliance. ideasanddiscoveries.com 47 Nov 2018 THE DEATH OF TWO ICONS. Two presidents, two assassinations, two historic American tragedies: Were John F. Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln somehow connected by the bonds of fate? A list of the things they shared in common might suggest it. Or do these similarities simply show that it’s always possible to ﬁnd a link if you search long and hard enough?

Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860. John F. Kennedy was elected president 100 years later, in 1960.

Both were fatally shotonaFriday,eachbyabullettothehead.

Lincoln was succeeded by a vice president named Johnson who was born in 1808. Kennedy was succeeded by a vice president named Johnson who was born in 1908.

Lincoln’skiller,JohnWilkesBooth,fledatheaterand was caught in a warehouse. Kennedy’s killer, Lee Harvey Oswald, fled a warehouse and was caught in a theater.

Lincoln was shot at Ford’s Theatre. Kennedy was shot in a Lincoln made by the Ford Motor Company.

Both of the assassins, Booth and Oswald, were killed before they could stand trial.

Nov 2018 48 ideasanddiscoveries.com Science

COINCIDENCE OR DESTINY? It dominates our lives, governsthewaysoftheworld, andsteerstheworkingsofthecosmos. Chancemaybethegreatestforceintheuniverse—orperhapsweshouldsayfate, instead? Researchers are now deciphering the system behind the events of the past 14 billion years...

FAMILY TRAGEDY. More than 100 people died during the planning and construction of the Boulder Dam (eventually renamed Hoover), which was built between 1931 and 1936. While it is not statistically impossible that the ﬁrst and last to die would be father and son, it is still extremely unlikely. So was there a logical explanation? Or did the death of the father somehow seal the fate of the son?

The planning and construction of the Hoover Dam claimed more than 100 lives. The ﬁrst to die was J. G. Tierney, who passed away on December 20, 1922. The ﬁnal death occurred exactly 13 years later on December 20, 1935. That last man, Patrick Tierney, was the son of J. G. Tierney. nature of coincidence. Consider this: explanation for the disease, so people A man and a hedgehog are about to were searching for other reasons—in cross a busy road. The hedgehog a process that is not all that different darts out without looking. The little from the one we use today. The human animal is unable to assess the danger brain requires plausible explanations, posed by the cars that are streaking thus we are constantly searching for past it—the hedgehog’s life depends patterns that might account for what entirely on the luck of the draw. But we’re experiencing. When we cannot the likelihood can be calculated by ind an explanation, we often turn to taking into consideration the width of conspiracies. It wasn’t until 1894 that the road, the pace of the hedgehog, French bacteriologist Alexandre Émile and the speed and frequency of the Jean Yersin discovered the plague cars—such data make it possible to bacillus, Yersinia pestis. Next it was calculate an average survival rate for discovered that this microorganism an average hedgehog on an average gets transmitted by the rat lea. Once day. Nevertheless, it is left to chance the pattern had been found, it became whether the hedgehog will reach the possible to take measures to prevent other side of the road in one piece. accidental transmission of the plague. A prudent pedestrian, on the other “In Europe the principles of hygiene hand, looks to the left and right before became prevalent in the second half stepping into the road to make sure of the 19th century, saving more lives the world’s most electrifying records: no cars are coming. In doing so, the than any other medical achievement,” Inthecourseofdutyhewasstruck pedestrian considerably increases explains British medieval historian by lightning seven times. In February his chance of survival. One might say: Carole Rawcliffe. 2016, Time magazine reported that The pedestrian has outfoxed fate. However, where science reaches an Indian bus driver, V. Kamaraj, had its limits, coincidence takes over. That setanewandtragicrecord:Hedied HOW DOES KNOWLEDGE applies equally to everyday life as it of his injuries after being struck by COUNTERACT COINCIDENCE? does to science itself. Albert Einstein a meteorite—the irst and only time put it like this: “When our calculations such an event has been recorded. The history of science and technology fail, we call it coincidence.” Therefore Hilda Mayol was similarly unlucky. A may be viewed as a struggle against coincidence is oftentimes merely an waitress at a ground-loor restaurant coincidence—an effort to moderate explanation for something that we do in the World Trade Center, she had its effects or eliminate them entirely. not (yet) understand. We are simply survived the collapse of the Twin Airbags, for example, reduce the risk lacking in knowledge. TowersinSeptember2001.Buttwo of being injured in an accidental car months later she boarded American crash. Antibiotics diminish the danger THE LAW OF LARGE NUMBERS Airlines Flight 587, which crashed of dying from a randomly acquired shortlyaftertakeofffromJFKAirport illness. But often it is knowledge itself So is there an explanation for when andkilledHildaMayolalongwiththe that protects us from the power of someone is struck by lightning or a other 259 people on board the plane chance and its effects. meteorite? In any case, the likelihood as well as ive people on the ground. As long as humankind remained of these incidents taking place can And because so many people in the ignorant of the causes of infectious be mathematically calculated. The metroarearefusedtobelieveitwas diseases, we were powerless against odds of being struck by lightning are acoincidence,theyusedthelight’s them. Thus the history of the Great about 1 in 700,000, while in the case number,587,toplaytheNewJersey Plague in Europe is a story of tragic of being hit by a meteorite the odds Lottery drawing held later that day— coincidences. But for those alive at are about 1 in 1.6 million. And so it and won. There were an astonishing the time, it was not a coincidence at is statistically highly unlikely—but not 27,829 winning tickets. all but rather “the will of God”—or impossible—that such an event could Wasitalljustcoincidence,ordoes simply “fate.” For those of us looking occur. Anyone who has been affected fate actually exist—some natural law back today, there is clearly a reason by a very unlikely event is apt to think thatlendsdeepermeaningtothese some people had succumbed to the he is the victim of fate. But stochastic seemingly random events? To answer plague while others survived. At the experts—mathematicians who study thisquestion,wemustunderstandthe time, however, there was no scientiic probability—take a more sober view. >

ideasanddiscoveries.com 51 Nov 2018 WHEN CAN. AN ACCIDENT. LOOK LIKE FATE?. Park ranger Roy C. Sullivan was struck by lightning seven times. However, his job took him outdoors much of the time—in Shenandoah National Park, an area that sees about 40 days of thunderstorms each year. So was Sullivan thus tempting fate?

Roy C. Sullivan was struck by lightning seven times. There is less than a one-in-a-million chance of being struck by lightning. The likelihood of being struck seven times, however, is 1 in 16 septillion. Giventhatsome7.5billionpeopleare “WHEN OUR Psychologists use the term intuition aliveonEarthtoday,theoccurrence to describe the ability to react to a of even the most unlikely event is not CALCULATIONS potential danger without being fully justaprobability,butacertainty:“The FAIL, WE CALL aware of it. Neurologists explain that greater the number of people involved, our subconscious mind is constantly the more likely it becomes that an IT COINCIDENCE.” analyzing potential hazards without improbable event will occur,” says our ever even being aware that this is –Albert Einstein catastrophist Gordon Woo. He sees occurring. It’s fair to say that the brain “death by meteorite” not as fate but scans all our sensory impressions for rather as an extremely unfortunate patterns that indicate possible danger. coincidence—it comes down to being One example is provided by Carl inthewrongplaceatthewrongtime. Ziegler.* The engineer was eager to Butdoesthesameprincipleapplyto catch the next light home but wound any strange series of events? up booking a later light just before In his book Why Mathematics he was to board the original aircraft. MakesUsHappy,author Christian “I suddenly had a bad feeling. It was Hesse relates the story of the Finnish an impulse,” he recalls. This impulse twin brothers Lauri and Elmer Impola, In the genetic material of humans would save his life: The plane had a whodiedonthesamedayin2001. thereareinstanceswhencoincidence mechanical problem that caused it The brothers lived together in the andpredestinationappeartocollide. to crash just a few minutes into the small Finnish city of Raahe, where The exact combination of our father’s light. It was only later, after a series Lauri straddled his bicycle on the and mother’s genes at conception is of sessions with a psychotherapist, morningofMarch5andheadedout coincidental—so our personalities are that Ziegler realized his survival had into a snowstorm toward Highway 8. similarly a matter of coincidence. But been neither coincidence nor fortune. At9:25atruckcollidedwithLauriat the reservoir of information that could He vaguely remembered having seen anintersection—hediedatthescene. betransmittedfrommotherorfather a disturbance on the tarmac in which Unawareofhisbrother’sdeath,Elmer tosonordaughterisnotaccidental. mechanics were gesticulating, as well setoffonhisbicycletwohourslater, Theinformationmustbepresentin as the sweat-soaked shirt of the pilot heading home from the barbershop. thegeneticmakeupofoneparentor who got to the gate at the last minute. Ashorttimelaterhetoowasfatally the other. These genes have a deinite In fact, a heated discussion had just hitbyatruckonlyalittlemorethan inluence on the fate of an individual. taken place about the condition of one halfamilefromhisbrother’saccident. Itisnotcoincidentalthatthechildren of the plane’s engines, unbeknownst Wasthisamerecoincidence—oris ofanalcoholicparentaremorelikely to the passengers. Ziegler’s brain had theremoretoitthanthat? to become addicted to alcohol or that registered these scene snippets and the offspring of violent criminals tend interpreted them as danger signals. THE GENETIC CODE WHEN to be violent themselves—even when His observations protected him from COINCIDENCE BECOMES FATE they have never met their parents. dying an “accidental” death. Thereisnowayofknowinghowgreat In fact, the research that has been the inluence of a parent will be and THE CREATIVE ENERGY OF SPACE conducted on twins has revealed a whatthechancesareofescapinga number of astonishing (apparent) parent’s fate—at least, not yet. Only For astrophysicist and Nobel laureate coincidences. Two twins might get when medical science comprehends John C. Mather, chance is the most married on the same day without the all of the genetic predispositions of fascinating force in the universe: “If other knowing. They might fall ill or apersonwilltherebeanopportunity you want to look chance in the face, evendieonthesamedayandatthe to purposefully inluence the genetic just tilt your head back and look up same hour. Pure randomness would component of fate. at night. The distribution of stars and seem to be excluded here. But if there matter in the universe is, largely, the are laws that govern the destiny of THE PSYCHOLOGY result of tremendous coincidence.” twins, they remain unclear. A possible OF COINCIDENCE Mather won the 2006 Nobel Prize in scientiic explanation: The fate of a Physics after he and his colleague pair of twins could be determined by But sometimes the power of chance George Smoot found indications that geneticpatternswithstructuresthat can be disrupted without concrete the spectrum of cosmic background haveyettobedecoded. knowledgeofwhatliesbehindit. radiation corresponds to that emitted >

*Name has been changed by the editors.

ideasanddiscoveries.com 53 Nov 2018 CURSE OR. COINCIDENCE?. Many Russians believe in the Curse of Timur’s Tomb. And indeed, the dates of the opening of the tomb and its subsequent closure do appear to coincide with fateful events during World War II.

“Whosoever disturbs my tomb shall unleash an invader more terrible than I.” In 1941 the Soviet scientists who opened the tomb of the Turkic conqueror Tamerlane, who was known for his barbarism, found this very inscription inside.

Soviet archeologists completed the exhumation on the night of June 21, 1941. Only hours later, on June 22, 1941, Adolf Hitler invaded the Soviet Union.

In November 1942, Joseph Stalin ordered Tamerlane’s remains to be reburied with full Islamic honors. In the same month, the Soviets launched a successful counterattack at Stalingrad that became a turning point in WWII that would culminate in victory over Hitler. by a dark, glowing body—evidence “GOD PLAYS DICE protection, and modern sociopolitical that this radiation is a remnant from achievements have lowered poverty thecreationoftheuniverseintheBig WITH THE UNIVERSE, levels worldwide. We also strive to Bang.“AttheinstantoftheBigBang, BUT THEY’RE LOADED moderate the destructive aspects of allmatterintheuniverseoccupieda coincidence in our daily lives as well. space smaller than a single electron. DICE. THE OBJECTIVE That means a booming business for Inthisdimension,whichwecallthe OF PHYSICS IS TO insurance companies, which collect quantum world, the laws of nature do over $5 trillion in insurance premiums not apply. Then only coincidence can FIND OUT HOW THEY each year worldwide. still inluence events,” explains John ARE LOADED.” But even ultramodern technology Mather. Next the universe expanded, –Joseph Ford cannot eliminate the risks posed by becomingsolargethatitexitedthe chance; it has been a ixed feature of quantumworld.Howevertherandom the universe ever since the Big Bang. distribution of energy and matter that Risk researchers suspect that all our remained continued to expand. Over struggles against coincidence may time,starswouldformandgiverise eventually lead to serious problems. to the emergence of galaxies. According to a study at the Hamburg As the nascent universe matured, University of Technology, the system theeffectsofcoincidencelessened starts to tilt out of balance when our and the laws of nature increasingly latitude for decision-making becomes assumed the function of “custodians random mutations in the genes. Most excessively curtailed. It is a mistake ofthelaw.”Buttheuniversewasstill of these changes proved to be lops. to believe chance could be defeated rooted in the origins of coincidence. But when a genetic coup does occur, by implementing ever-more-stringent Thebuildingblocksofallthenatural it can endow a species with a decisive precautionary measures. “There is a laws are the physical constants: those advantage for survival. So essentially, problem of complexity: We don’t have fundamental, invariant quantities that evolutionary coincidence in biology a way to know for certain whether a include,forexample,thespeedoflight is an endless story of trial and error reading on an instrument indicates a in a vacuum. These constant values and thus the kind of creative process real fault in the system or whether the appear to have been created purely with which every inventor can identify. instrument itself is actually broken. bycoincidence.Inthequantumchaos That, of course, takes us to the limits as understood by early cosmologists, CAN WE ELIMINATE of technological security. Because any therewasnowayofpredictingchaos. COINCIDENCE, AND WOULD WE time something has to be interpreted, “These natural constants encode the WANT TO IF WE COULD? there always lurks the possibility of deepest secrets of the universe. But misinterpretation,” says risk researcher although we are measuring them with Nowadays we’re no longer willing to Ortwin Renn. So, to put it plainly: If a increasingaccuracy,wehavenotyet accept the consequences of chance. mistake can happen, someday it will. been able to explain their existence,” All of our modern achievements have There is no such thing as zero risk. says Cambridge University physicist resulted from our ierce determination Statistics show, for instance, that and mathematician John D. Barrow. to break the power of coincidence. there is one fatal accident for every For physicists and biologists alike, Natural phenomena provided us with 16 million commercial airline lights. coincidenceismoreorlessthegreat the material from which religions were (No one had been killed in such an creativesparkofthecosmos.Butthey made. But as technological and social accident in 2017.) And yet: The more aremorelikelytospeakofchaosthan progress continued to take place, the lights there are, the greater the risk— coincidence. Chaotic events change religious interpretations that had been no matter how small it is. Air safety the old order and make it possible for intended to explain the arbitrary power experts utilize other comparisons to anewordertoemerge.Iforderwere of chance were increasingly set aside. illustrate just how safe air travel has absolute, a kind of stalemate situation The development of agriculture, for become: For example, the likelihood wouldarise.Lifewouldbefrozenthe example, diminished our forefathers’ of being struck by lighting is much wayitappearsinaphotograph. dependence on the fortuitousness of higher than the likelihood of dying in In studying the development of life hunting; vaccinations and antibiotics a plane crash in Europe or the U.S. on Earth, the power of coincidence prevented or cured many accidental But unlikely is not impossible. Don’t becomes especially clear. Each new infections; renewable energy plays forget, “spark ranger” Roy Sullivan

PHOTOS: DPA (2); Getty Images (2). species was created as the result of an ever-larger role in environmental was struck by lightning seven times…

ideasanddiscoveries.com 55 Nov 2018 THE HUMAN RACE VS. A

What if intelligent weapons could seek out their targets on their own? What if civilization were attacked by millions of “slaughterbots” at once? It is hard to imagine such a frightening scenario. And yet these weapons are already approaching the verge of development. Leading scientists caution that it’s imperative to stop them—now!

facial recognition

JUST SCIENCE FICTION? The images in this article show how autonomous killerdronescouldwork.Theyaretakenfroma video (http://bit.ly/slaughterbotsvideo) that’s intended to warn of the danger posed by these weapons. Alarmingly, though what’s shown here is notyetareality,thetechnologyisalreadyfeasible.

computer scientist is talking about a highly deadly offensive or defensive scenario in which groups of terrorists weapons. On the contrary: He wants “ deploy thousands of “slaughterbots” lethal autonomous weapons (LAWs) against a major city like Washington to be prohibited in the same manner or Moscow: l ying drones programmed as nuclear or biological armaments. W to seek out individuals as targets or He is also neither a neo-Luddite nor open i re on people who simply share an opponent of artii cial intelligence certain characteristics that the drones (AI). Quite the opposite: Russell, a identify on their own. Science i ction? professor of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley, has e’d be largely defenseless against “AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS written several standard works on AI an attack by intelligent autonomous ARE EASIER TO ACHIEVE and helped make the intelligent robots weapons. Up until now no nation has THAN SELF-DRIVING CARS.” of the world more capable. But after developed a satisfactory response,” Russell is not a member of the military more than 35 years of working in AI, says Stuart Russell. The UC Berkeley looking to secure a bigger budget for he has become skeptical—though he Technology AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS

wide-angle lens STUART RUSSELL, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA tactical sensors WE’D explosives BE LARGELY DEFENSELESS AGAINST AN ATTACK BY INTELLIGENT AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS.

continues to view the i eld positively Russell. In fact, the i rst slaughterbot That day markedarevolutioninthe on the whole: “Our entire civilization, has already been deployed… advance of warfare. After the invention everything we value, is based on our Armenia, April 2016: This tiny land- of gunpowderandnuclearweapons, intelligence. And if we have access to locked country in the Caucasus was military scientists consider LAWs to be a lot more intelligence, then there is caught in a conl ict with neighboring the third innovational development to really no limit to what the human race Azerbaijan when Azerbaijani forces radically change battleield dynamics. can do.” The same applies to LAWs; launched an Israeli-produced drone That fact that the killer robot’s deadly the key distinction is that they “know” against a bus that carried Armenian deployment went largely unnoticed by no limits: Individuals could carry out recruits. Seven of them died. The IAI the international media is a relection an attack that claims a high number Harpy that was utilized for the aerial of the location of its use: far from the of victims, approaching the scale of strike has about the same wingspan public eye, regarded as part of a long- the aftermath of a nuclear bomb blast. as a California condor (10 feet) and is standing rivalry in an “Islamic region,” “The technology is easier to achieve able to operate totally autonomously. although practically all Armenians are than self-driving cars, which require far It located the bus and crashed into it, Christian and the nation has suffered higher standards of performance,” says detonating its 50 pounds of explosives. persecution from Islamic extremists. >

ideasanddiscoveries.com 57 Nov 2018 DRONE 1 PRECISION The drones fan out, each with its DRONE 2 own individual target. Their hollow charges explode in front of the SPEED victim’s forehead—the shock Escape or self-defense is nearly penetrates the skull and destroys impossible: Drones are 100 times the target’s brain. faster than a human being.

DRONE 3 DRONE 4 OVERVIEW AIR SUPREMACY With their tactical sensors, drones The drones move throughout have the advantage of being able to three-dimensional space— assess the entirety of a situation— and can thus surprise their and share the data with other drones. targets from above.

The Harpy (or Harop) that killed the They are not yet exclusively steered a 3-D printer to make thousands of Armenian volunteers is part guided by algorithms; a human operator can disposable kill systems on demand,” missile (with pre-programmed target) still intervene in order to guide or even says Frank Sauer, an expert in global and part conventional drone (guided break off a deadly “suicide” mission. security at Germany’s Bundeswehr by a pilot on the ground). Developed But what sorts of possibilities could (“armed forces”) University in Munich. by Israel Aerospace Industries, the become reality when the technology “And they’ll function with a relatively Harpy makes use of its sensors to l y inevitably becomes smaller, cheaper, high degree of autonomy.” The U.S. autonomously to a predei ned target, and more intelligent? At what point Defense Department’s elite research which it destroys by crashing into it. will it no longer be worthwhile to have agency for innovative technology, the It has a l ying time of six hours and a human being piloting each drone? Defense Advanced Research Projects returns to base if no target is found. Agency (DARPA), was responsible for Most LAWs generally cost several WEAPONS PRODUCED having invented the forerunner of the million dollars. Because their sensors BY A 3-D PRINTER Internet, stealth technology for military are relatively simple, their operational “The U.S. military is working on a i ghter jets, and the GPS system, and area must be familiar to the operator. program that would allow them to use it is already working on slaughterbots. HOW DO KILLER DRONES WORK? The Campaign to Stop Killer Robots has described scenarios in which drones of the future are deployed to assassinate people. The most disturbing aspect: The technology already exists. These mini drones are each loaded with 3 grams of explosives. They are programmed to use facial recognition to identify the target, which they approach at 100 times the speed of human locomotion. They ﬂ y to the victim’s face and explode against the forehead. The victim dies on the spot. These drones can be programmed as a swarm to strategically eliminate multiple targets.

According to Jean-Charles Ledé, a learning algorithm to evaluate white 72 hours—playing only against itself— program manager at DARPA’s Tactical Americans who had self-identii ed as the computer is more proi cient than Technology Ofi ce, these autonomous either straight or gay. He found that 98% of ranked human chess players. drones should be able to “hunt just the algorithm could identify gay men Creating a slaughterbot to seek out like wolves in coordinated packs with from their photos with 81% accuracy, and eliminate a target would appear minimal communication.” But how far better than human judges looking to be child’s play after that. After all, realistic are these expectations? at the same pictures. Just a few years the use of facial recognition software Only a few years ago, a computer back, it took months for a computer is becoming increasingly widespread, was not able to detect the difference to become “smart” enough to reach even on today’s smartphones. between a cat and a dog. Today the the grandmaster level in chess. Now algorithms used to analyze data can Matthew Lai, a computer scientist at “TIME TO ACT IS RUNNING OUT.” identify relationships that elude even University College London in the UK, Meanwhile, it is not only the world’s experienced experts—who can only has developed a learning system in superpowers that have nuclear-tipped look on in amazement. A researcher which a computer can teach itself to missiles, drones, and cyberwarriors. at Stanford University used a deep- play championship chess. After only In order to maintain a technological >

ideasanddiscoveries.com 59 Nov 2018 HORROR SCENARIO DRONE ATTACK STEP 2 POSITIONING The swarm of drones enters the target area: In this scenario it is a university where there are more STEP 1 than 8,000 programmed targets. AIRDROP Aircraft take thousands of drones to a location near the target area and release them.

STEP 4 ATTACK Hundreds of drones have entered a classroom and use their integrated explosives to eliminate the targets.

STEP 5 SCANNING The drones’ sensors sweep the room, analyzing the full extent of the space for any possible targets in hiding.

military advantage in today’s world, sphere will become ruler of the world,” The window to act is closing quickly,” the only effective strategy is to make Russian President Vladimir Putin said says AI researcher Stuart Russell. weapons faster and more intelligent. recently. “When one party’s drones Stephen Hawking was yet another And that is provoking a mega global are destroyed by drones of another, critical voice here: “The development arms race: “Speed kills,” says Frank it will have no choice but to surrender.” of full artii cial intelligence could spell Sauer. “If defense systems get faster, Russia now has at least 10 national the end of the human race.” But why offensive systems must be even faster research centers working on this. In endow a machine with a human-like than that. The competition is i erce.” November 2017, the United Nations consciousness? Russell explains: “If The problem: Although the weapons Convention on Certain Conventional we send out an intelligent robot to get of the future may become incredibly Weapons held its annual meeting in coffee, it will have a strong incentive fast, our brains can’t be optimized to Geneva for formal deliberation on the to ensure its success by disabling its keep up. The brain effectively hinders lethal autonomous weapons systems, own off switch or even exterminating the algorithms’ speed and efi ciency. but attempts to forbid them met with anyone who might interfere with the “Artii cial intelligence is the future. opposition—particularly from Russia, mission. Some argue that we can just Whoever becomes the leader in this Israel, and the U.S. “This can be fatal. ‘switch them off,’ as if superintelligent PHOTOS: You Tube; PR. “ let machines.” alone superintelligent is secure against humans— ordinary ai to have yet invent “We that rewall safe into mechanism a robot’s design? of fail- sort some incorporate not why then So instinct. survival human of the could actually develop the equivalent possibility.”that machines believes He of to think stupid too are machines annihilate the human race,” says AI to guns or drones need “AI not does ANNIHILATE THEHUMANRACE. DOES NOT NEEDDRONESTO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ” human descendants. human oftheir behavior and attitudes the on depends apes great ofthe existence today, And very the ancestors. to their superior far intellectually but inferior who beings humans were physically evolution to led the development of 10 ago, 6and years million Between problem”: “gorilla the to as referred is would take.” In science this situation it all is example, toxin, for botulinum produce to bacterium manipulated A synthetically are. we than smarter is AI it’s that weapons; the not is problem Eliezer Yudkowsky.researcher “The STEP 3 as gleanedfromsocialmedia. That couldalsoincludeone’s politicalviews, intended targetbasedonindividualfeatures. Each droneisprogrammedtoseekoutits IDENTIFICATION STEP 6 ofiihtejb fnecessary. if job, the finish to fatalities—and the of identity the confirm to recognition facial active use drones The CONFIRMATION “You th be would Elonentrepreneur and engineer Musk. for some superpowered AI,” contends switch kill the holding one the to be I’d“I’m sure not want fact… the after or to update or uninstall its software it to reset impossible be Itmay says. programmed,”perfectly Yudkowsky to be “AI needs inventions. own our in a catastrophic robotic takeover by resulting creators, yoke the ofits from barrier, to it might emancipate try itself equipped with an software absolutely fail-safe not is AI If own: our become The fate of the gorillas could soon soon could gorillas ofthe fate The ideas e i and rst thing it kills.” it thing rst discoveries.com 61 Nov 2018 Current Events

Around the world Butsometimeswhatseemslikeanopen-and-shutcaseendsuptakinganunexp, sensational stories packed with lurid details grab headlines

. The emerging facts ectedturn… Current Events

clearly incriminate a particular individual

ideasanddiscoveries.com 63 Nov 2018 Case 1 UNPRECEDENTED KILLINGS HORRIFY JAPAN. THE VICTIMS: CHILDREN! THE KILLER’S MODUS OPERANDI: BEATING, STRANGLING, DECAPITATION. HE E I RRE D IT J N …IN PART BECAUSE HE CANNOT BE SENT TO PRISON FOR MURDER EVEN THOUGH HIS GUILT IS BEYOND DOUBT.

Nov 2018 64 ideasanddiscoveries.com SEITO SAKAKIBARA, JAPAN/1997

GRUESOME FIND On May 27, 1997, the head of 11-year-old Jun Hase is found in front of his school— with a note stuffed inside his mouth.

“shooll [sic] kill.” These will not be the last words from the JAPAN IS IN A STATE OF “school killer.” When the media get his moniker wrong in their reports, Sakakibara writes a threatening letter to a SHOCK. ON FEBRUARY 10, 1997, newspaper and promises additional violence. “If you think I can only kill children, you are greatly mistaken.” However TWO YOUNG GIRLS IN KOBE ARE there would be no more attacks. On an anonymous tip, Sakakibara is arrested on June 28, 1997, and an entire ATTACKED WITH A HAMMER, AND ONE nation breathes a sigh of relief. But the relief soon turns to dismay. Such horrendous crimes are subject to capital OF THEM IS SERIOUSLY INJURED. Only a month later, punishment in Japan, which is usually death by hanging. a criminal assaults another two young girls on the street. But in Sakakibara’s case the prosecutor is not allowed to One of them is severely wounded in a knife attack, and the demand the ultimate penalty. The serial killer now under other, 10-year-old Ayaka Yamashita, dies of her injuries arrest after a nationwide manhunt is only 14 years old— after her killer had brutally bludgeoned her while she was and therefore below the age of full criminal responsibility. on her way to school. Ayaka i ghts for her life for 12 days He can’t be prosecuted and convicted of murder; thus as before succumbing to her wounds. At this point police a juvenile offender the teenager is convicted as “Boy A,” are still unaware that they are dealing with a serial killer. because his real name cannot even be released. Instead He will kill again before the authorities pick up his scent. he is sent for the next seven years to a special medical On May 24, 1997, his crimes come to a horrii c culmination facility for juvenile offenders. In the year 2000, in reaction when a schoolboy named Jun Hase disappears while on to his heinous crimes, Japan lowers the age of criminal his way to his grandparents’ home. Three days later his responsibility from 16 to 14. On March 11, 2004, Sakakibara, decapitated head is found outside his school with a note now 21, is released from the facility after being found to inside that was written in red ink. “This is the beginning of be of relatively sound mind. But his real name is still not the game… A bloody judgment is needed for my years disclosed. His autobiography, published in 2015, quickly of great bitterness.” It is signed with a pseudonym, “Seito becomes a bestseller. In response, a newspaper reveals Sakakibara,” with another pseudonym written in English: his real name for the i rst time. Case 2 THE MAN WHO KILLED HIS WIFE IN HER SLEEP AND WAS NEVERTHELESS ACQUITTED. TT MTTE LR:IE TR N L D IN R D. PSI ILRI BEHE RR TIN. ALTHOUGH HE IS CHARGED WITH THE CRIME, THE TRIAL ENDS IN A VERDICT OF NOT GUILTY.

Nov 2018 66 ideasanddiscoveries.com BRIAN THOMAS, WALES/2008

CRIME SCENE Brian Thomas’s wife Christine standing in the door of their camper van. WHEN BRIAN THOMAS WAKES UP ONE MORNING IN HIS CAMPER VAN, HE FINDS THE CORPSE OF HIS WIFE, CHRISTINE, LYING NEXT TO HIM. WHEN THOMAS REALIZES WHAT HE HAS

DONE, HE REACHES FOR HIS CELL PHONE AND of two is prone to sleepwalking and other sleep disorders. They decide this must have been the case on that fateful CALLS THE EMERGENCY NUMBER. “What have I night in July 2008. Thomas was having a nightmare about done? I’ve been trying to wake her. I think I’ve killed my a “boy racer” who had broken into their camper to attack wife. Can you send someone?” A short time later police his wife. He had seen a group of racers just the day before. arrive at the scene in Aberporth, Wales. Upon seeing the Thomas began to i ght the attacker in his dream, however dead woman’s body, police arrest her distraught husband. the i ght was not coni ned to the nightmare, and Thomas The case appears clear enough to everyone—just not to strangled his wife. Does that make him a murderer? When Brian Thomas. He says he was asleep when his wife died he is put on trial one year later, Thomas pleads not guilty: and can’t remember anything about the incident. He goes It is his illness, not himself, that’s responsible for his wife’s on to explain that for the past 50 years, since he was a death. Judge Nigel Davis discharges the defendant with child, he has suffered from night terrors (pavor nocturnus) words that rel ect much of the British opinion on the case: without ever being treated. Over the months that follow, “You are a decent man and a devoted husband. I strongly several medical consultants called in to test Thomas’s suspect that you may well be feeling a sense of guilt. In sleep patterns discover the devoted husband and father the eyes of the law you bear no responsibility.” Case 3 THE KILLER WHOM DNA EVIDENCE COULD NOT PUT BEHIND BARS. UN N I D TILETR DN I D N I A LRUP .UT E EERESIEE ITTFII ND BLE IL UI THE PROOF COMES YEARS LATER. BUT STILL THE KILLER REMAINS AT LARGE…

Nov 2018 68 ideasanddiscoveries.com ISMET H., GERMANY/1981

In the autumn of 1981, 17-year-old Frederike von Möhlmann misses the last bus home after her choir rehearsal and decides to hitchhike home instead— she climbs unsuspectingly into her killer’s car. When her body is discovered in the woods four days later, a suspect is soon named: 22-year-old Ismet H. Not only are his tire marks at the scene of the crime; the fibers found on Frederike’s clothing are also a match for the fabric in Ismet’s QUEST FOR JUSTICE BMW 1602. Ismet has no Almost four decades alibi, and the statements after the fact, Hans he makes to police do not von Möhlmann is still fighting to get justice. hold up. In 1982 a jury finds He is certain he knows him guilty and the young who killed his daughter man is sentenced to life in Frederike—but the prison. But then there is German judicial system refuses to try the alleged a surprising turn of events killer a second time. when the German Supreme Court overturns the verdict for lack of more concrete evidence. Ismet H. is set free and even receives compensation for the time he HANS VON MÖHLMANN had to spend in jail. However Hans von Möhlmann is convinced that Ismet H. is guilty and refuses to give up. HAS IDENTIFIED THE In 1988 Germany allows the admission of DNA evidence for the first time, and Möhlmann pushes for a test to be KILLER OF HIS DAUGHTER performed. Evidence from the crime scene has been preserved, and it includes traces of DNA, even though FREDERIKE. HE’S SURE there was no way of testing them at the time the crime had occurred. Möhlmann finally scores his first success: HE KNOWS WHO RAPED 31 years after the cruel murder of his beloved daughter, the samples are tested. And the results are conclusive: HER ON THE NIGHT OF NOVEMBER 4, Beyond any doubt, the DNA discovered on Frederike’s clothing is that of Ismet H. 1981, BEFORE STABBING HER 11 TIMES WITH A But that knowledge is the only satisfaction Möhlmann is able to obtain. Germany, like the United States, does KNIFE AND CUTTING HER THROAT. Nevertheless, not permit double jeopardy: A person cannot be tried the killer is still at large—and likely to remain so. But twice for the same crime. So the matter is at an impasse. how can it be that a murder was committed so long ago Unless Ismet H. chooses to make a confession—which and the perpetrator has never had to pay for the crime? he is highly unlikely to do. Case 4 THE EVIDENCE IS OVERWHELMING. TU TIPND RIH ND TLIEINTR ITILD HI L T IN . BUT TUTD UNPNP BIND DI ID N TI N TI N IN THE END THE SUSPECT IS FOUND NOT GUILTY IN A CRIMINAL TRIAL, YET HE IS LATER FOUND LIABLE IN A CIVIL LAWSUIT.

Nov 2018 70 ideasanddiscoveries.com O.J. SIMPSON, USA/1994

evidence and make emotional arguments to win over the FAMOUS jury in favor of the accused. They claim the DNA evidence LAWYERS is inconclusive and that the blood samples have been O. J. Simpson had a team of mishandled. Then the defense attorneys pose a question lawyers that that will split the nation along racial lines: Is O. J. Simpson included Kim perhaps not the perpetrator at all? Was he instead the Kardashian’s father, Robert— victim of a racist police force? One of the detectives who who later said testii es at the trial is said to have made racist comments he had doubts about African Americans. Is it possible that he has falsely about O. J.’s innocence. accused a black man of having murdered a white woman? The allegations trigger a nationwide debate on racism. The apparent strategy of Simpson’s defense attorneys: to prejudice the predominantly black jury against the prosecution. After a trial lasting 252 days, the verdict is read out in the courtroom and to a TV audience of more than 150 million viewers: Simpson is declared not guilty. Although the principle of double jeopardy does not permit the prosecution to appeal, the case resurfaces in 1997— as a civil lawsuit. The outcome is once again dramatic: Simpson is found liable and ordered to pay the victims’ families compensation of $33.5 million for the “wrongful deaths.” Consequently, Orenthal James Simpson has been both acquitted of and held accountable for the same crime. JUST AFTER MIDNIGHT ON JUNE, 13, 1994, A PASSERBY FINDS THE BODIES OFTWOVICTIMSINLOSANGELES. BOTH HAVE BEEN STABBED TO DEATH.

POLICE QUICKLY IDENTIFY THE VICTIMS: the waiter Ronald Goldman, and Nicole Brown—the ex-wife of the s; actor and former football great O. J. Simpson. He quickly . becomestheprimesuspect.Thevictims’bloodisfound inSimpson’scar,insideandoutsideofhishome,andon his clothing. He has no alibi. As police move to arrest him, SimpsonleesinhiswhiteFordBronco.Hehas$9,000 in cash on him along with his passport and a fake beard. After a 90-minute chase shown on live television to some 95 million viewers, Simpson surrenders. The murder case istriedbeforeajury.Theprosecutionseemstohaveall theevidencetheyneedforaconviction.ButSimpson’s

PHOTOS: Getty Images (2); privat; Wikipedia; Rex Features; Bulls Pres Verity Jane Smith/Getty Images; Alamy; t_kimura/Getty Images lawyersattempttocreateasenseofdoubtaboutthe

Body & Mind CAN I PROGRAM MY GENES TO GIVE ME BIGGER ? This is the question that has fascinated a certain man with a background in genetics. Not only can he explain how human gene sequences can easily be edited to increase muscle size—he also insists that anybody can do it. And now he is marketing a genetic-hacking starter kit intended for home use…

ideasanddiscoveries.com 73 Nov 2018 HOW CAN I MODIFY GENES?

PETRI DISHES

E. COLI BACTERIA

Many of us are familiar with the scene from the movie The Matrix in which the rebel leader Morpheus offers the protagonist,Neo,achoicebetween TEST TUBE abluepillandaredpill.Ifhetakes thebluepill,hewillwakeupinhis bedandbelievewhateverhelikes, while the red pill will leave him in the wonderland of the Matrix. But unlike Morpheus, Josiah Zayner is for real. The American biohacker also offers people a choice: He says he can free them from the prison he thinks most of them don’t realize exists. And the eccentric (some might say unhinged) genetic researcher is prepared to go to some lengths to do it—even if his NITRILE GLOVES experiments with gene editing might inadvertently result in a new version CENTRIFUGE TUBES of the human species. While working toward his Ph.D. in biophysics Zayner had read about a Spanish microbiologist by the name of Francisco Mojica, who in his 1989 dissertation at Spain’s University of Alicante described repeating DNA sequences in the genome of a salt- MICROPIPETTE loving unicellular organism. He called them Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats: CRISPR. >

Nov 2018 74 ideasanddiscoveries.com It doesn’t take a high-tech laboratory to cut and edit genes with a set of instructions written by Zayner that enables the user to create a the CRISPR/Cas9 process. In fact, the relatively simple starter kit certain mutation (K43T) in a bacterial culture to make the microbes (pictured below) that Josiah Zayner sells in his online shop suffi ces to resistant to a specifi c antibiotic. But be cautious about having it shipped make basic gene modifi cations in a bacterial culture. The price: $159. outside the U.S.: It’s not illegal to have a kit sent to Germany, for example, The kit includes petri dishes, plastic gloves, a micropipette, and LB agar but its use most certainly is. The reason: Germany has a (rather sensible) to feed the nonpathogenic bacterial cultures. The other key component: law prohibiting genetic engineering outside of a licensed facility.

GLASS BOTTLE

LB AGAR

CENTRIFUGE TUBES

INOCULATING PIPETTE TIPS LOOPS

INSTRUCTIONS

PETRI DISHES RACK FOR CENTRIFUGE TUBES But it was not until 2003 that Mojica programmed to i nd. Since essentially found a CRISPR gene sequence in a any gene sequence can be created bacterium that was identical to that in a lab, Charpentier and Doudna say of a virus that attacks the same strain it is possible to cut and modify any of bacteria. To his surprise, Mojica sequence at any point. realized this bacterium was immune When Josiah Zayner read about to the virus—thanks to the CRISPR the work of Charpentier and Doudna, sequence. And with that the scientist he immediately understood that the had made a sensational discovery: CRISPR technology would change the “immune system” of bacteria. everything that had previously been 1 believed about the inevitability of GENETIC DETECTIVES human development as determined Shortly after Mojica’s i nding became by a person’s genes. The reason: The known, the next sensation came to process not only makes it possible light. Microbiologists Philippe Horvath to rewrite the genetic blueprint of the and Rodolphe Barrangou realized the human body; in theory, anyone can CRISPR sequences in the immune use this process to modify genes in system of bacteria act like sketches order to cure a disease, for instance. 2 of wanted criminals. The principle is “For the i rst time in history, we are simple: When a bacterium comes into no longer slaves to our genomes,” contact with a virus, it recognizes the says Zayner. “We have a choice.” And virus’s genetic code that would allow Zayner has a plan: “We are trying to the virus to enter the bacterium and get genetic engineering in the hands reproduce itself. The bacterium then of consumers, to let them do basically produces restriction enzymes (akin whatever they want with it.” And he to molecular “scissors”) that attack is working to implement his plan. the virus’s DNA before it can damage 3 that of the bacterium. If the bacterium PHASE 2: SELF- is later attacked by the same virus, EXPERIMENTATION it recognizes the DNA signature of January 2016: Zayner has taken the the attacker and creates tailor-made leading role in a worldwide network Cas9 gene scissors. These scissors of biohackers who are continuing to will then cut the genome of the virus develop the CRISPR/Cas9 process in the right place to disarm it. outside of the traditional laboratory. In June and September of 2012, And he has also found a way to bring Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer this new form of genetic technology 4 Doudna published renowned studies into the homes of ordinary laypeople: in which the biochemists described He heads up a company that sells a HOW DANGEROUS how the CRISPR/Cas9 process can genetic-modii cation kit starting at IS THE CRISPR be used in life-forms beyond bacteria. around $150—an easy-to-use DNA In order to cut the human genome at chemistry set that allows people to STARTER KIT? a specii c site with Cas9, for example, experiment on the genes of a certain In his online store, Josiah Zayner the modii ed genetic sequence would bacterial strain in the comfort of their sells a CRISPR starter kit that lets be injected into a prepared target cell. own kitchens. And to underscore how laypeople undertake genetic modiﬁ cations at home. But critics are sounding the alarm: This cell will then implement the gene serious he is about “democratizing” Genetic researchers warn that the improper sequence into the CRISPR area of its genetic research, Zayner employs a use of genetically manipulated cultures own DNA—and so it is subsequently radical method: self-experimentation. outside the lab could result in potentially equipped to produce another Cas9 For this purpose, he has consumed dangerous microbes being released into cutter if a gene sequence is spotted large quantities of fecal bacteria from our air or water. Storing bacterial cultures that i ts the right description. If such a “healthy” donor to completely reset at home (e.g., in the fridge next to food) is also hazardous. Then there is the danger a prepared cell comes into contact the communities of bacteria residing of misuse: Since such experiments can also with normal cells, the following takes in his intestines. It does not seem to be performed on lethal bacteria, terrorists place: The Cas9 scissors slice the concern him that he might quickly die could put the technology to nefarious use. genome in the precise place they are if his immune system were to reject >

Nov 2018 76 ideasanddiscoveries.com “WE ARE TRYING TO GET GENETIC ENGINEERING IN THE HANDS OF CONSUMERS, SO THEY CAN DO WHATEVER THEY WANT.” JOSIAH ZAYNER, BIOPHYSICIST

STEP 1: CREATING GENETIC SCISSORS CRISPR/CAS9 1. Fabricate a 1 protein guided by RNA that can 2 cut DNA. 2. The RNA sequence 3 Even before the discovery of the CRISPR/ inexact science because the type of genetic matches the Cas9 process, it was possible to use other change is unpredictable. Cas9 scissors, on segment of DNA means to induce breaks in gene sequences the other hand, are very exact. The influence that the researcher wants to modify. 3. The (i.e., causing genetic changes through the on the genome of plants, for example, is said guide RNA is paired with a protein called Cas9 use of radiation or chemicals)—and thereby to be so precise that some believe modified that acts like a genetic scalpel. deactivate certain genetic functions. The plants need not be treated any different than problem: Creating these mutations is a very those plants that have not been altered at all. STEP 2: TARGETING THE GENOME WITH THE CAS9 PROTEIN WHAT CAN THE CRISPR/CAS9 The Cas9 gene- PROCESS BE USED TO DO? editing complex targets the gene 1 to be changed. With absolute 2 precision, the guide RNA aims the protein at the exact place where the gene is to be cut. 1. Cas9 gene scissors. 2. Target gene within the double helix. CREATE BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS DEFEAT HUNGER In 2016 Canadian researchers managed Some large food and pharmaceutical to resurrect the horsepox virus, which corporations are already fighting over had been wiped out in 1980 and has huge the rights to plants created using the STEP 3: THE CAS9 PROTEIN potential for use as a biological weapon. CRISPR process, which has the potential Scientists are warning of the possibility to yield crops with increased nutritional CUTS THE GENOME AT THE of a new form of bioterrorism as well— content. In general, the new technology PREDETERMINED SITE for example, if someone were to take a is being used to increase the profitability 1. With the help readily available CRISPR starter kit to of crops—for example, by making them of the guiding make the tuberculosis bacillus immune immune to pests so they can be treated RNA, the Cas9 1 to all currently available treatments. with less pesticide and herbicide. protein scissors cut into the DNA sequence at the specified site in the target genome. The alteration is irreversible. The previous gene sequence has been disabled + and loses its function. STEP 4: IMPLEMENTATION OF CURE DISEASE UPGRADE THE HUMAN BODY THE NEW GENE SEQUENCE With the CRISPR process, it has become In many cases the CRISPR process could possible to create therapies for cancer be used instead of cosmetic surgery. The desired DNA that are tailored to the specific form of Rather than using a scalpel, doctors may sequence is then cancer from which a patient is suffering. be able to change a body’s appearance inserted in place 1 Some experts believe such treatments with genetic modification. In the future, of the previous may already be available on the black people may be in a position to determine segment in the market today. Another possibility in this their own appearance, strength, or gap made by the arena is to genetically modify organs stamina. Thus the genetic blueprint each Cas9 protein and from animals (such as pigs) in such a of us is born with may no longer govern ligase enzymes repair each cleaved end. 1. New way that they can be transplanted into the development of our lives but instead DNA: The function of the new DNA has been the human body. only represent one of many possibilities. crafted in advance for a desired characteristic. the foreign material, which, after all, changing the human genome about godlike possibilities of the CRISPR/ could include lethal strains of E coli. as seriously as changing an outit. Cas9 process to change the world, Zayner has survived his experiments But it’s not quite that safe or simple. others are certainly prepared to try. thus far, but for many physicians and At China’s Guangzhou Institutes of scientists, he has crossed a red line. LIBERATING THE GENES Biomedicine and Health, Lai Liangxue Despite the great risks involved, in “I take a highly critical view of these is already making strides. “So far I’ve early 2017 Zayner became a guinea developments,” says Günter Stock, used CRISPR on dogs, pigs, rabbits, pig once more. In order to genetically former president of the Union of the and mice,” says Lai. “We know that reprogram the makeup of his muscle German Academies of Sciences and the idea of playing God makes a lot tissue, he injected himself with a Cas9 Humanities. “These experiments may of people nervous. But as soon as solution that is supposed to destroy well not meet safety standards—and we have successfully completed our the protein myostatin within his cells. they’re extremely dificult to monitor.” animal experiments, we will test our Myostatin is a protein that regulates And that’s a very big problem, agrees knowledge on humans.” muscle growth in the body. Inspired immunologist Rayk Behrendt. He has Zayner for one sees good reasons by a Chinese experiment conducted tested Zayner’s DIY kit in his own lab. to do so. “I have absolutely no doubt on dogs, Zayner sought to eliminative “The problem is, the CRISPR/Cas9 that there are already places where this regulator in his body. The Chinese process can be used on bacteria that individually tailored cancer therapies researchers had succeeded in using are anything but harmless,” he says. are being offered—and it will not be the process to produce two extremely “The technique can also be used to long before we see the irst genetic muscular beagles. Zayner also hopes modify extremely deadly bacteria, cancer clinics,” he says. But there is for bigger muscles—along with proof like those that cause tuberculosis, another side to this coin. The list of his genetic tuning is “safe” (from his typhus, or cholera.” There is also the “Frankenstein projects”—as critics of point of view) and that a genetically danger that bacterial strains that have the uncontrolled use of the CRISPR tailored body is no farther away than been genetically modiied at home technology outside of laboratories an injection of modiied proteins. Only could unintentionally be released into like to call it—is already long. In the the future will reveal whether he will the environment. summer of 2017, Israeli researchers indeed have more muscles when the However in Zayner’s opinion, such claimed genetic tuning could increase experiment is over. And for him, that reservations are simply an attempt average human life expectancy by at is of secondary importance anyway— on the part of the scientiic elite to least 10 years. Other studies suggest what he really cares about is having keep the power of genetics in their that science can turn back the clock a choice. “Will I someday be big and own labs. He’s not overly concerned. on the chronological age determined strong? Would I rather have light or “There are no real boundaries here, by our genetic makeup. And Canadian dark skin?” He poses these questions so no one can stop it,” he says. And researchers caused quite a stir in the before insisting: “We are reaching the he may be right. For he is not the only scientiic community in 2016 when point when all people will soon have one to have recognized the incredible they reported that they used CRISPR a choice about their genetic makeup.” potential of genetic modiication. So technology to resurrect the horsepox Zayner seems to take the prospect of if Zayner does not make use of the virus, long believed to be extinct in nature. Given that accomplishment, it’s not hard to see why researchers “WE HAVE ALREADY worry about a completely new type of bioterrorism that could begin with TESTED CRISPR ON DOGS.” a DIY starter kit from Zayner’s store. Regardless of what you might think

2); Vjeran Pavic/The Verge. LAI LIANGXUE, of Zayner, Pandora’s box is now open, MOLECULAR BIOLOGIST and the moment could soon arrive when each of us must decide whether DOES NATURAL MUSCLE TUNING EXIST? we want to swallow the blue pill—and The images at right show two dogs of the same continue down our present path, or breed (whippets). The dog on the left suffers take the red pill—and break out of from a genetic mutation in its “myostatin gene” that has led to unchecked muscle growth. the matrix of our genes. In the movie Chinese researchers have used the CRISPR scene mentioned at the beginning process to insert this mutation into the genome of the article, Morpheus warns Neo: of dogs. Similarly, Josiah Zayner has tried to modify his own myostatin gene in an experiment “This is your last chance. After this,

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ideasanddiscoveries.com 79 Nov 2018 Nov 2018 ffemaleNeanderthals? of Why domodern humans bear 15 15 compatible only in female offspring. Studies have conﬁ andgenetic people. modern-day connection between Neanderthals the in involved been had mother—no men Neanderthal a primeval from come have genes Neanderthal our of all Thus male. Neanderthal a of tothose identical not are fathers our of Ychromosome the of Each of us has around 30,000 genes. 30,000 around has us of Each human body is actually surprisingly small: length,enormous the number of in genes the this Despite Sun. tothe Earth the from distance the than longer times 1,000 miles—around billion 93 be would length total their cells), 100 trillion its (from arow in up lined were body your in chromosomes the of all If chromosomes. 46 its into packed strands DNA of 6feet about of atotal has cell Each side. mother’s your 80 origin. More recently it has been discovered that the genes a modern person contains sequences that are of Neanderthal of to4% genome the of 2.5 that known long have Scientists from your father’s side and one comes from is genes of set one material: genetic duplicate contain cell human every of chromosomes The ideas and discoveries.com rmed that the genomes of the two primates were were primates two the of genomes the that rmed SMARTER IN IN SMARTER Genes DNA strands How long are all the How longareallthe the DNA 60 SECONDS in our cells? inourcells? ograinsof Do 15 the plant genetically to increase crop yields and the resistance topests. resistance the and yields crop toincrease genetically plant the tooptimize seek now scientists genome, rice the mapped completely Having population. human worldwide the of half about of survival to the essential is rice crop, astaple As reason: The years. many for research genetic of focus the been has rice plants, other most than More 40,000.) 15 one Are all lived between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. years 200,000 and 150,000 between lived to her, and to one another. related are us of all Thus planet. “Mitochondrial this on being human toevery rise Eve” is said to giving for hav responsible is who mother aprimeval once was There means: That “Eve”). call researchers (whom ancestor female asingle from came today alive people all of DNA mitochondrial the that shown have studies New side. female the from entirely

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Address Credit card # Be sure to check out our City Exp. date next issue newsstands, on State Zip Signature NOVEMBER 9 Fill out the coupon and mail to iD magazine, P.O. Box 433174, Palm Coast, FL 32142-3174 for 6 issues at $17.94. Canadian and foreign orders must enclose $23.94 (in U.S. funds) for 6 issues. Please allow 8 to 10 weeks for subscription to begin. *Savings for subscriptions mailed within the United States. Nov 2018 PHOTO: Stephen Wilkes, www.stephenwilkes.com; instagram @stephenwilkes. samsepeeo nature. of masterpiece a is one Each fingerprint. human a as different as is hole each of character the reason, that rhinos. For black by midnight at visited usually are holes other while morning, every found be can leopards where spots some are there example, For another. to hole watering one from vary stops pit visit vital these that species and times exact the But day. the during found mostly are hand, other the on Birds, hours. morning night at holes watering the approach only animals land most Nonetheless, business. for open are Serengeti the of stations fueling the day …per n uigtecoe early cooler the during and 24 HOURS... 82 ideas fearing thatapredator mightdare toattackthem. they canevensleepatawateringholewithout bull elephants.Withanaverageweightof5tons, animals thatneednoalarmsystemare full-grown They reverse roles every20minutes.Theonly half oftheherd iswatchingforpotentialdanger. While halfofthezebrasare drinking,theother many herd animalstakeshiftsat thewateringhole. lions. To keepfrom beingsurprisedbypredators, know: instinctively While theyare drinking, theybecomeeasyprey for They hole. watering a at stay gazelles will and gnus, zebras, time maximum the …is 20 MINUTES... htral onsi h end… the in counts really What and discoveries.com ti hr n ildgutlte idit. find they until dig will and know there they is up, it dried has hole watering a accuracy. if amazing Even with source any locate can UP TO 40MILES... ae a fteSrneii hi ed and heads their in Serengeti the of map water drink can which elephants, That for death. true in especially end is can course deviation proper slightest the the from water, for search Thus scarce. the so in is water fresh where in world region the other any hardly is There Serengeti. in the holes watering the between distance the …is icvrdta lpat ananacomplete a maintain elephants that discovered Researchers memory. orient their to use smell they themselves; of sense do or giants hearing gray their use These day. not per gallons 50 to up 12 INCHES... o a u oeaoain animals evaporation, to due day hot a endof the toward water dropped the has death level When or hole: life watering a of at matter a be …can yns n leopards. and hyenas, lions, rhinos, hole by watering followed hierarchy, the in elephants highest that rank is Serengeti the law unwritten of an fact, In roar. loud with a away them drive elephants the animals, other by occupied already routes are access such If water. the to approaches level more seen for searching be sometimes can elephants Herds of world. the in regions driest ofthe one in drown back land—and dry get to to unable sometimes animals are Younger edges. the especially along danger, mortal in be can THE WONDERS OF THE SAVANNA InAfricawateringholesareoasesoflife—andforthemillionsofinhabitantsoftheSerengetiPlain, they are absolutely indispensable. iD presents a unique view of one of the most fascinating, vibrant, and at the same time dangerous kinds of locales in the natural world…

2,200 PHOTOS IN A SINGLE PICTURE Photographer Stephen Wilkes spent 26 hours at a watering hole in the Serengeti to obtain this image— taking 2,200 photos with his camera. Then he put the photos together to assemble this breathtaking picture.